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Language History and Changes. Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Language. UK. Cambridge University Press Mariana Alarcón González September 9th, 2008. LANGUAGE HISTORY AND CHANGE. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Language History Language History and Changesand Changes
Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Language.Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Language.
UK. Cambridge University PressUK. Cambridge University Press
Mariana Alarcón GonzálezMariana Alarcón González
September 9th, 2008September 9th, 2008
LANGUAGE HISTORY LANGUAGE HISTORY AND CHANGEAND CHANGE
Sanskrit is the ancient Language of Indian law, the Sanskrit is the ancient Language of Indian law, the classical Language of India and may be the oldest one, classical Language of India and may be the oldest one, which had been studied by a British government which had been studied by a British government official called Sir William Jones, who was working as a official called Sir William Jones, who was working as a judge of the high court in India. judge of the high court in India.
During 1786, Sir William suggested that a number of During 1786, Sir William suggested that a number of languages from very different geographical areas must languages from very different geographical areas must have some common ancestor, however this common have some common ancestor, however this common ancestor could ancestor could
not be described from any existing records, but had to not be described from any existing records, but had to be hypothesized on the basis of similar features be hypothesized on the basis of similar features existing in records of languages which were believed existing in records of languages which were believed to be descendants.to be descendants.
► Established as the “great-grand mother” of Established as the “great-grand mother” of many many
modern languages in the Indian sub-continent modern languages in the Indian sub-continent
(Indo), and in Europe (European). “Proto” is a (Indo), and in Europe (European). “Proto” is a term term
that came into use to describe that common that came into use to describe that common ancestor ancestor
““Proto-Indo-European”. This term was Proto-Indo-European”. This term was established established
during the 19th century by linguistics during the 19th century by linguistics dedicated to dedicated to
the historical study of languages (philology).the historical study of languages (philology).
Diagram: Diagram: Proto-Indo-EuropeanProto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European
Balto-Slavic
Indo-Iranian
SlavicBaltic
Iranian
Indic Hellenic Italic CelticGermanic
German
English
Dutch
Danish
Swedish
Norwegian
Etc.
Gaelic
Irish
Welsh
Etc.
Italian
Spanish
Frenc
Portuguese
Romanian
Etc.
Latin Ancient Greek
Greek Russian
Polish
Czech
Bulgarian
Etc.
Latvian
Lithuanian
SanskritHindi
Bengali
Etc.
Persian
► a)a) The process that we use to establish family The process that we use to establish family connectionsconnections
between different languages is called “Cognates”.between different languages is called “Cognates”.A cognate of a word in one language is a word in another A cognate of a word in one language is a word in another language which has a similar form and is or was, used with language which has a similar form and is or was, used with
a a similar meaning.similar meaning.For example:For example: EnglishEnglish GermanGerman SpanishSpanish ItalianItalian Mother Mutter Madre MadreMother Mutter Madre Madre Father Vater Padre PadreFather Vater Padre Padre Friend Freund Amigo AmicoFriend Freund Amigo AmicoAccording with the explanation above, the common According with the explanation above, the common
ancestorancestorof the Spanish and Italian words is in the Italic Branch, and of the Spanish and Italian words is in the Italic Branch, and
ininthe case of English and German words, the common the case of English and German words, the common ancestor of those words is in the Germanic branch.ancestor of those words is in the Germanic branch.
b) b) There is another process called “ComparativeThere is another process called “Comparative
Reconstruction”, that is a process in which we useReconstruction”, that is a process in which we use
Cognates Cognates to get information about a language.to get information about a language.
The aim of this procedure is to reconstruct whatThe aim of this procedure is to reconstruct what
must have been the original form in the commonmust have been the original form in the common
ancestral language, and this is possible looking forancestral language, and this is possible looking for
common features on the basis of some generalcommon features on the basis of some general
principles. These principles are:principles. These principles are:• The mayority principle.The mayority principle.• The most natural development principle.The most natural development principle.
► a)a) The majority principleThe majority principle, is very straightforward., is very straightforward.
Consist on, if in a cognate set, 3 forms begin with a Consist on, if in a cognate set, 3 forms begin with a
[p] sound and one form begins with a [b] sound, [p] sound and one form begins with a [b] sound,
then we suppose that majority have retained the then we suppose that majority have retained the
original sound [p], and the minority has changed a original sound [p], and the minority has changed a
little through time.little through time.
b) b) The most natural development principleThe most natural development principle, is based , is based
on the fact that certain types of sound-change are on the fact that certain types of sound-change are
very common, whereas others are extremely very common, whereas others are extremely
unlikely.unlikely.
For example:For example:• Final vowels often disappear.Final vowels often disappear.• Voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels.Voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels.• Stops become fricatives (under certain conditions)Stops become fricatives (under certain conditions)• Consonants become voiceless at the end of words.Consonants become voiceless at the end of words.
Concluding, the main difference betweenConcluding, the main difference between
these principles is that majority principle is based on these principles is that majority principle is based on
morphology changes, in the meantime, the most morphology changes, in the meantime, the most
natural development principle is based on the fact natural development principle is based on the fact
that certain types of sound-changes are common.that certain types of sound-changes are common.
The language changesThe language changes► The historical development of English is usually The historical development of English is usually divided into 3 major periods: Old English (7th-11th divided into 3 major periods: Old English (7th-11th century), Middle English (1100-1500) and Modern century), Middle English (1100-1500) and Modern English (1500-to the present).English (1500-to the present).• The Old English:The Old English: probably began with Germanic probably began with Germanic language, spoken by a group of tribes from northern language, spoken by a group of tribes from northern Europe. The tribes were the Angles, the Saxons and Europe. The tribes were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. These tribes were called “Anglo-Saxons”, the Jutes. These tribes were called “Anglo-Saxons”, because of the name of the first two tribes. To because of the name of the first two tribes. To describe these people, and from the Angles, that we describe these people, and from the Angles, that we get the word for their language, Englisc, and for get the word for their language, Englisc, and for
their their new home, Engla-land.new home, Engla-land.
• From the Englisc, we have many of the most basicFrom the Englisc, we have many of the most basic
terms in English: terms in English: mannmann (man), (man), wwīīff (woman), (woman), cildcild
(child), (child), hhūūss (house), (house), metemete (food), (food), etanetan (eat), (eat), drincandrincan
(drink) and (drink) and feohtanfeohtan (fight). (fight).• These settlers were pagan, however from the 6thThese settlers were pagan, however from the 6th
to the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxons were convertedto the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxons were converted
to Christianity where a number of terms from the to Christianity where a number of terms from the
language of religion, Latin, came into English at that language of religion, Latin, came into English at that
time: angel, bishop, candle, church, martyr, priest time: angel, bishop, candle, church, martyr, priest
and school.and school.
• From the 8th to the 10th century, another group From the 8th to the 10th century, another group
arrived in the coastal regions of Britain, they were arrived in the coastal regions of Britain, they were
““The Vikings”, and from their language, Old Norse, The Vikings”, and from their language, Old Norse,
we derived the forms which gave us a number of we derived the forms which gave us a number of
common terms such as: common terms such as: givegive, , lawlaw, , skinskin, , skysky, , taketake
and and theythey..• The Middle English:The Middle English: there is no doubt that the there is no doubt that the
event that marks the end of the Old English and the event that marks the end of the Old English and the
beginning of the Middle English is the invasion of beginning of the Middle English is the invasion of the the
Normans in England under William the conqueror in Normans in England under William the conqueror in
1066.1066.
• The Normans were French speakers and asThe Normans were French speakers and as
invaders, they became the ruling class, asinvaders, they became the ruling class, as
consequence of this, for the following 200 consequence of this, for the following 200 years, theyears, the
French language became the dominant French language became the dominant language oflanguage of
the nobility, the government and the law. the nobility, the government and the law. SomeSome
moderns terms were added during this period: moderns terms were added during this period: armyarmy, ,
courtcourt, , defensedefense, , faithfaith, , prisonprison and and taxtax..
• The most noticeable difference in this period, was The most noticeable difference in this period, was
the division of the society and the language used the division of the society and the language used by by
each one, this means, as the dominant class were each one, this means, as the dominant class were
the Normans, called upper class, they used French the Normans, called upper class, they used French
language, and they talked about: mutton, beef, and language, and they talked about: mutton, beef, and
pork, while the lower class, the peasants, worked pork, while the lower class, the peasants, worked on on
the land and reared: sheep, cows and swine (words the land and reared: sheep, cows and swine (words
from Old English).from Old English).
► One of the most obvious differences One of the most obvious differences
between Modern English and the English spoken inbetween Modern English and the English spoken in
earlier periods is in the quality of the vowel sound.earlier periods is in the quality of the vowel sound.
In some words, their general form has remained In some words, their general form has remained thethe
same, but their vowel sound have changedsame, but their vowel sound have changed
considerably.considerably.
For example:For example:
OldOld EnglishEnglish ModernModern EnglishEnglish
hu:s haws (house)hu:s haws (house)
wi:f wayf (wife)wi:f wayf (wife)
spo:n spu:n (spoon)spo:n spu:n (spoon)
Not always a sound changed, some soundsNot always a sound changed, some soundssimply disappeared. One notable example is a simply disappeared. One notable example is a voiceless velar fricative /x/ which was used in voiceless velar fricative /x/ which was used in Old English pronunciation of Old English pronunciation of “nicht”,“nicht”, as [nixt], as [nixt], but is absent in the present-day form but is absent in the present-day form “night”“night” as as [nayt].[nayt].• There is a phonetic phenomena calledThere is a phonetic phenomena called““metathesis”, that involves a reversal in metathesis”, that involves a reversal in
position position of 2 adjoining sounds.of 2 adjoining sounds.For example:For example: acsian ask bridd birdacsian ask bridd bird frist first hros horsefrist first hros horse
This phenomena may actually occur betweenThis phenomena may actually occur between
non-adjoining sounds.non-adjoining sounds.
For example:For example:
LatinLatin SpanishSpanish
Parabola Palabra (word)Parabola Palabra (word)
Periculum Peligro (danger)Periculum Peligro (danger)
Miraculum Milagro (miracle)Miraculum Milagro (miracle)
In the first word of the example above, the In the first word of the example above, the SpanishSpanish
form “palabra” was created from the Latin form “palabra” was created from the Latin
““parabola”, via the reversal of th [l] and [r] parabola”, via the reversal of th [l] and [r] sounds. sounds.
And that pattern is repeated in the other 2 forms.And that pattern is repeated in the other 2 forms.
• There is another phenomena called “epenthesis”,There is another phenomena called “epenthesis”,
that involves the addition of a sound to the middle ofthat involves the addition of a sound to the middle of
a word.a word.
For example:For example:
aemptig empty spinel spindleaemptig empty spinel spindle
timr timbertimr timber• But, there is a last type of phenomena calledBut, there is a last type of phenomena called
““prothesis” that involves the addition of a sound to prothesis” that involves the addition of a sound to
the beginning of a word. It is very common in the the beginning of a word. It is very common in the
change of pronunciation of some forms from Latin to change of pronunciation of some forms from Latin to
Spanish.Spanish.
For example:For example:
LatinLatin SpanishSpanish
Schola Escuela (school)Schola Escuela (school)
Spiritus Espíritu (spirit)Spiritus Espíritu (spirit)
Native speaker of Spanish who are learning Native speaker of Spanish who are learning EnglishEnglish
as a second language will often add a vowel as a second language will often add a vowel soundsound
to the beginning of some English words.to the beginning of some English words.
For example:For example:
strange estrangestrange estrange
story estorystory estory
► Some noticeable differences between the structureSome noticeable differences between the structure
of sentences in Old and Modern English involve word of sentences in Old and Modern English involve word
order, the changes of the structure of sentences are order, the changes of the structure of sentences are
called “called “Syntactic changesSyntactic changes”.”.
In Old English texts. We find the In Old English texts. We find the subject-verbsubject-verb
object, object, the most common structure of sentences in the most common structure of sentences in
Modern English. However we can also find a number Modern English. However we can also find a number
of different orders which are no longer possible.of different orders which are no longer possible.
For example:For example: • the subject can follow the verb: fthe subject can follow the verb: fēērde he (he rde he (he
traveled).traveled).
• The object can be placed at the before the verb: The object can be placed at the before the verb: hhēē hine geseah (he saw him).hine geseah (he saw him).
• The object can be placed at the beginning of the The object can be placed at the beginning of the sentence: him man ne sealde (no man gave sentence: him man ne sealde (no man gave [any] to him).[any] to him).
As we can see in the last example, the use of theAs we can see in the last example, the use of thenegative form also differs from Modern English. A negative form also differs from Modern English. A ““double-negative” construction was also possible, double-negative” construction was also possible,
as as in the following example, using “in the following example, using “notnot” and “” and “nevernever”.”.For example:For example:
And ne sealdest And ne sealdest þū þū m mēē næfre næfre āān ticcenn ticcen(and) (not) (gave) (you) (me) (never) (a) (kid)(and) (not) (gave) (you) (me) (never) (a) (kid) “ “and you never gave me a kid”and you never gave me a kid”
Perhaps the most sweeping change in the form ofPerhaps the most sweeping change in the form ofEnglish sentences was the loss of a large number of English sentences was the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes from many parts of speech.inflectional affixes from many parts of speech.For example:For example: the verb form “the verb form “sealdesealde” (he gave) and” (he gave) and““sealdestsealdest” (you gave) are differentiated by ” (you gave) are differentiated by inflectional suffixes which are no longer found in inflectional suffixes which are no longer found in Modern English.Modern English.
Nouns, adjectives, articles and pronouns all tookNouns, adjectives, articles and pronouns all tookdifferent inflectional forms according to theirdifferent inflectional forms according to theirgrammatical function in the sentence.grammatical function in the sentence.
► The most obvious way in which ModernThe most obvious way in which Modern
English differs lexically from Old English is in English differs lexically from Old English is in
the number of borrowed words, particularly the number of borrowed words, particularly
words of Latin and Greek.words of Latin and Greek.
A common Old English term for “A common Old English term for “manman” was ” was ““were”.were”.
This is no longer in general use, but within the This is no longer in general use, but within the
domain of horror films, it has survived in the domain of horror films, it has survived in the
compound form, compound form, werewolfwerewolf..
It exists 2 processes of broadening and It exists 2 processes of broadening and narrowing ofnarrowing of
Meaning.Meaning.
For example:For example:• Broadening: the change from Broadening: the change from holy dayholy day as a as a
religious feast to the general break from workreligious feast to the general break from work
called a called a holydayholyday. . • Narrowing: is the reverse process. Example: Narrowing: is the reverse process. Example:
metemete, once used for nay kind of food, which , once used for nay kind of food, which has in its form, has in its form, meatmeat, become restricted to , become restricted to only some specific types. A different kind of only some specific types. A different kind of narrowing can lead to a negative meaning narrowing can lead to a negative meaning for words that previously were simply for words that previously were simply “ordinary” (= vulgar) or “worth nothing” (= “ordinary” (= vulgar) or “worth nothing” (= naughty).naughty).
► None of the changes described here happenedNone of the changes described here happened
overnight. They were gradual and probably difficultovernight. They were gradual and probably difficult
to discern while they were in progress.to discern while they were in progress.
The most pervasive source of change in languageThe most pervasive source of change in language
seems to be in the continual process of cultural seems to be in the continual process of cultural
transmission. Each new generation has to find a way transmission. Each new generation has to find a way
of using the language of the previous generation.of using the language of the previous generation.
Given this tenuous transmission process, it shouldGiven this tenuous transmission process, it should
be expected that languages will not remain stable,be expected that languages will not remain stable,
but that change and variation are inevitable.but that change and variation are inevitable.
The variations mentioned are:The variations mentioned are:• Language viewed diachronically: the Language viewed diachronically: the
historical perspective of change through historical perspective of change through time.time.
• Language viewed synchronically: Language viewed synchronically: differences within one language in different differences within one language in different places and among different groups at the places and among different groups at the same time.same time.