Language Development Language Development and Literacy – The Symbol and Literacy – The Symbol

DebateDebateThe use of symbols to support The use of symbols to support

struggling readersstruggling readers

Damhnait Ní MhurchúDamhnait Ní MhurchúSenior Speech and Language TherapistSenior Speech and Language Therapist

Central Remedial Clinic, Waterford, IrelandCentral Remedial Clinic, Waterford, Ireland..

dnimhurchu@crc.iednimhurchu@crc.ie

BackgroundBackground

Clinical settingClinical setting

Clinical experience Clinical experience

Learned of a high demand for Learned of a high demand for information on a local level from information on a local level from colleagues working in education, both colleagues working in education, both special and mainstream environments special and mainstream environments arising from a practical study morning arising from a practical study morning focused on this areafocused on this area

IntroductionIntroduction

Access to written language as part of Access to written language as part of everyday lifeeveryday life

Difficulties in successful acquisition → Difficulties in successful acquisition → barrier to learning and full participationbarrier to learning and full participation

Dealing with populations at particular Dealing with populations at particular risk of difficulties with literacy acquisitionrisk of difficulties with literacy acquisition

The language component of The language component of development of proficient readingdevelopment of proficient reading

Can symbols provide support?Can symbols provide support?

Definition of ReadingDefinition of Reading

““Proficient reading is reading silently Proficient reading is reading silently with comprehension”with comprehension”

No consensus view of the reading No consensus view of the reading process…process…

Reading involves a range of complex Reading involves a range of complex intellectual activities alongside languageintellectual activities alongside language

Reading pertains to a broad variety of Reading pertains to a broad variety of materialsmaterials

Models of ReadingModels of Reading

Letter Features

Letters Words Sentences Meaning of

Text

1. Bottom-Up Reading – a series of stages in a hierarchy.

2. Top-Down Reading – reader approaches text with a specific

intention or purpose in mind; expects to find particular things in print;

knowledge of language and knowledge of the world used; reader brings

meaning to print rather than deriving meaning from it.

Visual and Sound Features

of letters in Words

Words and Sentences in

Context

Hypothesis about whatText Means

Reader’s Experience of

Language and theWorld;

Cognitive Strategies

3. Interactive Model of 3. Interactive Model of ReadingReading

Skilled reading = bottom-up and top-down Skilled reading = bottom-up and top-down processes occurring along side each otherprocesses occurring along side each other

Reader has several sources of information; Reader has several sources of information; letters, sounds, words, clauses; and also letters, sounds, words, clauses; and also reader makes predictions.reader makes predictions.

Each level operates independently and Each level operates independently and simultaneously, and influence each other.simultaneously, and influence each other.

Reading is an interactive process betweenReading is an interactive process betweeninformation processed from current sensoryinformation processed from current sensoryinformation (bottom up) and the meaning of information (bottom up) and the meaning of

whatwhathas been read (top down).has been read (top down).

For successful and competent For successful and competent reading acquisition…reading acquisition…

Need to be able to use low-level decoding Need to be able to use low-level decoding skills (eg) phonics, but skills (eg) phonics, but also also draw on draw on higher level skills such as context.higher level skills such as context.The transition into fluent reading with The transition into fluent reading with comprehension depends on developing comprehension depends on developing orthographic automaticity, but orthographic automaticity, but also on also on syntactic competence and semantic syntactic competence and semantic strengthstrength..

Reading ComprehensionReading Comprehension

Word Identification Language Comprehension

MediatedAutomaticKnowledge of

Text StructuresKnowledgeof the World

Print Processing Beyond Word Identification

Eye movements

PredictingProsody

Inner-speech

Print-to-Meaning

Links

Integration

Structure – how is language Structure – how is language built?built?

Grammar/syntaxGrammar/syntax Word order, even within word classesWord order, even within word classes Word classes – nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.Word classes – nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. Morphology – altering the word root; used to Morphology – altering the word root; used to

distinguish and mark. Often an area that distinguish and mark. Often an area that challenges struggling readers, both with challenges struggling readers, both with decoding decoding andand comprehension. comprehension.

Simple vs. complex grammar.Simple vs. complex grammar. Grammar in written language is much more Grammar in written language is much more

complex.complex. Most grammar rules are not overtly taught!Most grammar rules are not overtly taught!

Content – what are the Content – what are the ideas?ideas?

Vocabulary and variety of words (lexical Vocabulary and variety of words (lexical diversity) and word classes used conveys diversity) and word classes used conveys the message.the message.

Closely linked to structure – the more Closely linked to structure – the more complex the structure, the more ideas can complex the structure, the more ideas can be conveyed!be conveyed!

Linking and sequencing ideas.Linking and sequencing ideas. Implied content.Implied content. Interactive reading model – bringing Interactive reading model – bringing

experience to text to extract ideas.experience to text to extract ideas.

More on content……More on content……

As content becomes more syntacticallyAs content becomes more syntacticallycomplex, the child requires a facility withcomplex, the child requires a facility withsyntax to be able to read and understand thesyntax to be able to read and understand thematerial, especially if content is not familiar. material, especially if content is not familiar.

Thus more ambiguous and abstract languageThus more ambiguous and abstract languagepresents obstacles to comprehension.presents obstacles to comprehension.

Also impoverished vocabulary stores seriouslyAlso impoverished vocabulary stores seriouslyimpacts on reading comprehension.impacts on reading comprehension.

The language features The language features required for reading required for reading

comprehension…comprehension…

Lower LevelLower LevelPhonologyPhonology SyntaxSyntax SemanticsSemanticsAwareness + Awareness + discriminationdiscrimination

Word orderWord order Single word Single word understandingunderstanding

concrete + abstractconcrete + abstract

SegmentationSegmentation RulesRules Classification + Classification + categorisationcategorisation

Sound blendingSound blending Irregular – Irregular –

rule breakers!rule breakers!Concepts Concepts

RhymingRhyming MorphologyMorphology Pronouns and Pronouns and referential referential pronounspronouns

Phoneme Phoneme manipulation manipulation

Simple vs. complexSimple vs. complex

Embedded clausesEmbedded clausesVocabulary + Vocabulary +

lexical diversitylexical diversity

Phoneme-Phoneme-GraphemeGrapheme

CorrespondenceCorrespondence

PunctuationPunctuation TextText meaningmeaning

Higher LevelHigher Level

Inferencing – identify information not Inferencing – identify information not explicitly statedexplicitly stated

Metaphors and Metaphors and similessimiles Problem solvingProblem solving ReasoningReasoning Ability to refer outside of the text and Ability to refer outside of the text and

relate to personal/previous experiencerelate to personal/previous experience Extracting humourExtracting humour

What are the signs that someone What are the signs that someone is struggling with is struggling with comprehensioncomprehension

Unable to answer factual questions based on Unable to answer factual questions based on the material readthe material read

Unable to identify the main idea of passageUnable to identify the main idea of passage Unable to follow directions in printUnable to follow directions in print Unable to follow sequence of events in Unable to follow sequence of events in

printed materialprinted material Unable to retell much of what has been readUnable to retell much of what has been read Unable to construct an outline of the contentUnable to construct an outline of the content Unable to answer anything but literal Unable to answer anything but literal

questions in later primary yearsquestions in later primary years Unable to form judgements on what has been Unable to form judgements on what has been

readread

What are the signs that What are the signs that someone is struggling with someone is struggling with

context clues/cuescontext clues/cues Gives a word that does not fit the context and does Gives a word that does not fit the context and does

not see that it is an errornot see that it is an error Unusual difficulty in recognising words Unusual difficulty in recognising words specifically specifically

related to a topicrelated to a topic Weakness in citing words expected in a passage about Weakness in citing words expected in a passage about

a topic (prediction and semantics)a topic (prediction and semantics) Makes as many errors in reading words in context as Makes as many errors in reading words in context as

when reading a list of words (unable to use clues in when reading a list of words (unable to use clues in the text)the text)

Refusal to hazard a guess at a word when it’s meaning Refusal to hazard a guess at a word when it’s meaning is clearly indicated by the rest of the sentenceis clearly indicated by the rest of the sentence

Unsatisfactory comprehension!Unsatisfactory comprehension!

How can symbols work…?How can symbols work…?

The advantage of pictorial symbols over The advantage of pictorial symbols over more abstract symbol systems is that more abstract symbol systems is that they can more easily be understood, they can more easily be understood,

whatever the age, language or reading whatever the age, language or reading ability of the reader.ability of the reader.

Symbols are used to Symbols are used to support..support..

CommunicationCommunication IndependenceIndependence WritingWriting Reading Reading Access to informationAccess to information

No discrete groups ofNo discrete groups ofpeople for whom symbolspeople for whom symbolsmay aid literacy, but may aid literacy, but

ratherrathera continuum of need anda continuum of need andcapabilitycapability

What do we know from What do we know from research?research?

There remains little research in the use of There remains little research in the use of symbols to support literacy.symbols to support literacy.

OlderOlder papers suggest that children learned more papers suggest that children learned more words and faster when not paired with words and faster when not paired with symbols….! symbols….!

However, little or no research beyond However, little or no research beyond singlesingle wordword reading.reading.

Some smaller studies in more recent times Some smaller studies in more recent times indicating improved reading comprehension, and indicating improved reading comprehension, and motivation to read when text is supported by motivation to read when text is supported by symbols.symbols.

Current Current practicepractice suggests that modified picture suggests that modified picture supported reading can be of benefit if the goal is supported reading can be of benefit if the goal is to develop emergent readers and writer’s literacy to develop emergent readers and writer’s literacy attitudes and understanding.attitudes and understanding.

In fact….In fact….

Current practice suggests increasedCurrent practice suggests increased InterestInterest AttentionAttention Time on taskTime on task Comprehension of contextComprehension of context Self-esteem (success!)Self-esteem (success!)AndAnd Improved behaviour and communicationImproved behaviour and communication Better access to information and curriculumBetter access to information and curriculum

Further research is needed to explore the Further research is needed to explore the effect of pictures on the ability to extract effect of pictures on the ability to extract meaning from information in text for meaning from information in text for people with difficultiespeople with difficulties

However, in the absence of empirical However, in the absence of empirical literature, there is adequate anecdotal literature, there is adequate anecdotal evidence to support the use of pictures to evidence to support the use of pictures to facilitate understanding of facilitate understanding of meaningmeaning of of printed material.printed material.

Different kinds of symbolsDifferent kinds of symbols PhotosPhotos LogosLogos SignageSignage Illustrations and Illustrations and

line drawingsline drawings Pictographs (eg) Pictographs (eg)

Widgit - Widgit - More More systematic symbol setsystematic symbol set

May use a May use a combination of combination of these depending these depending on your focus….on your focus….

Group 1 -Group 1 -transparent or transparent or guessable symbolsguessable symbols

These pictorial symbols are usually These pictorial symbols are usually recognisable and need little teaching.recognisable and need little teaching.

househouse

Group 2Group 2 - -translucent or translucent or learnable symbolslearnable symbols

These symbols often fall into groups or These symbols often fall into groups or schema, which can help their learnability.schema, which can help their learnability.

bedroombedroom

Group 3 Group 3 –opaque or symbols –opaque or symbols which need to be learnedwhich need to be learned

As vocabulary and ideasAs vocabulary and ideas

become more complex, sobecome more complex, so

does the representationaldoes the representational

nature of the symbols used tonature of the symbols used to

represent them. Symbolsrepresent them. Symbols

representing abstract conceptsrepresenting abstract concepts

will need explanation, but forwill need explanation, but for

people with learning/languagepeople with learning/language

difficulties, chances of recalldifficulties, chances of recall

are better with the help of theare better with the help of the

graphic image than through angraphic image than through an

unrecognisable text alternative.unrecognisable text alternative.

every

Group 4 – Symbols which Group 4 – Symbols which are purely abstractare purely abstract

These are symbols which cannot be These are symbols which cannot be illustrated, and are the most difficult to illustrated, and are the most difficult to learn, as the user not only has to learn the learn, as the user not only has to learn the meaning, but also their use in sentence meaning, but also their use in sentence construction.construction.

is

Symbol interpretationSymbol interpretation

Can be hindered by Can be hindered by limited life experience limited life experience of different cultural of different cultural background.background.

Clarity helps! More Clarity helps! More complex symbols need complex symbols need to be learned.to be learned.

Concrete images reduce Concrete images reduce the need for numeracy the need for numeracy and literacy.and literacy.

Metaphors can be very Metaphors can be very confusing (eg) it’s confusing (eg) it’s raining cats and raining cats and dogs….!dogs….!

Some general recommendations Some general recommendations around symbol selection and use around symbol selection and use

in textin text Symbols should match their meaningSymbols should match their meaning Language and symbols need to be specific Language and symbols need to be specific Ideally they should be consistent re size, Ideally they should be consistent re size,

position, spacing and especially symbol used position, spacing and especially symbol used (eg) black + cat vs. black cat….(eg) black + cat vs. black cat….

Typically when people are involved, the Typically when people are involved, the whole person is more meaningful, and photos whole person is more meaningful, and photos for specific people where appropriatefor specific people where appropriate

Think of colour, but use withThink of colour, but use with consideration as consideration as the information overload can be excessivethe information overload can be excessive

Symbols to Support TextSymbols to Support Text

Symbols can support some, or all text.Symbols can support some, or all text. The relationship between the symbol and The relationship between the symbol and

the text will depend on the reader’s the text will depend on the reader’s cognitive, literacy and language level, cognitive, literacy and language level, and the reason they are using symbols.and the reason they are using symbols.

2 groups of users2 groups of users The symbols are the MAIN communicative The symbols are the MAIN communicative

item.item. The symbols are being used as a support, or a The symbols are being used as a support, or a

BRIDGE towards traditional orthography BRIDGE towards traditional orthography assisting the reader towards an exact reading assisting the reader towards an exact reading of the written words.of the written words.

Some considerations…Some considerations…

The text is more important than the The text is more important than the pictures. The pictures are only a clue to the pictures. The pictures are only a clue to the print. The ultimate goal is for the student to print. The ultimate goal is for the student to learn the read the learn the read the words, words, and extract and extract meaning,meaning, not merely recognise symbols.not merely recognise symbols.

Focus should shift to Focus should shift to printprint As skills develop, pictures over every word As skills develop, pictures over every word

are not required as the student should be are not required as the student should be able to begin to draw on context and syntax able to begin to draw on context and syntax to support identification of some words.to support identification of some words.

Returning to language!Returning to language!

Supporting StructureSupporting Structure The The symbolssymbols are not seen as part of an integrated are not seen as part of an integrated

linguistic structure in themselves – but they can linguistic structure in themselves – but they can supportsupport comprehension of the linguistic structure comprehension of the linguistic structure of the text.of the text.

Structure skills can be built through identifyingStructure skills can be built through identifying Word order; statements vs. questionsWord order; statements vs. questions Word groups (eg) ‘doing’, ‘describing’, ‘thing’ wordsWord groups (eg) ‘doing’, ‘describing’, ‘thing’ words Focusing on morphology; -ing endings, plurals, Focusing on morphology; -ing endings, plurals,

superlatives, possessives etc.superlatives, possessives etc.

Developing meta-awareness.Developing meta-awareness.

Supporting ContentSupporting Content

Building vocabulary – both text-specific and Building vocabulary – both text-specific and intertextualintertextual

Semantic networksSemantic networks SequenceSequence NarrativeNarrative

story structure/story grammarstory structure/story grammar Beginning-middle-endBeginning-middle-end

Reasoning and Problem SolvingReasoning and Problem Solving InferencingInferencing Questions – are they questioning or always just Questions – are they questioning or always just

responding?responding?

5 Step Comprehension 5 Step Comprehension FrameworkFramework

Example of a strategy with symbol Example of a strategy with symbol supportsupport

Build and activate background Build and activate background knowledgeknowledge

Set a purpose for readingSet a purpose for reading Read or listenRead or listen Complete a taskComplete a task Provide informative feedbackProvide informative feedback

Build and activate background Build and activate background knowledgeknowledge

Ask the student to tell you all of the words they Ask the student to tell you all of the words they can think of related to a topiccan think of related to a topic

Ask the student to categorise words you have Ask the student to categorise words you have provided related to the topic to be readprovided related to the topic to be read

Teach the student the meaning of important Teach the student the meaning of important vocabulary, not just through definitions, but vocabulary, not just through definitions, but through relating new words to other known through relating new words to other known words. Visual supports such as symbols or visual words. Visual supports such as symbols or visual maps (eg) Communicate Ideas can be very maps (eg) Communicate Ideas can be very helpful in this regard.helpful in this regard.

Demonstrate the completion of the type of Demonstrate the completion of the type of comprehension task, like a summary, by relating comprehension task, like a summary, by relating it to something very familiar. This helps build it to something very familiar. This helps build inferencing ability.inferencing ability.

Imposing purpose on Imposing purpose on readingreading

There should be a purpose to what is There should be a purpose to what is being read BEFORE it is read.being read BEFORE it is read.

Otherwise, the student is being asked to Otherwise, the student is being asked to guess what the teacher thinks is important guess what the teacher thinks is important or relevant, or they’re trying to remember or relevant, or they’re trying to remember everything. How stressful!everything. How stressful!

Setting a purpose focuses a reader’s Setting a purpose focuses a reader’s attention, and helps the student attention, and helps the student understand what is important.understand what is important.

Purposes can be set whether the student Purposes can be set whether the student is listening or reading.is listening or reading.

Read and listenRead and listen

Before and after reading activities Before and after reading activities should take up much less time should take up much less time than the actual activity of reading than the actual activity of reading and listening.and listening.

Time spent reading is the best Time spent reading is the best predictor of progress.predictor of progress.

BUTBUT reading reading out loudout loud can can reducereduce comprehension; different neural comprehension; different neural pathways.pathways.

Complete a taskComplete a task

The task to be completed should be The task to be completed should be directly related to the purpose set (eg) to directly related to the purpose set (eg) to find out how to work something.find out how to work something.

Don’t add to the task even if things are Don’t add to the task even if things are going wellgoing well

If there’s potential for more, read the If there’s potential for more, read the same text on another occasion with a same text on another occasion with a different purposedifferent purpose

However, if they can complete the task However, if they can complete the task before rereading, they won’t be motivated before rereading, they won’t be motivated for you!for you!

Provide informative Provide informative feedbackfeedback

The goal here is to get students to tell you The goal here is to get students to tell you what they did to accomplish the task.what they did to accomplish the task.

This is to help them understand exactly This is to help them understand exactly what they did to get the correct answer, or what they did to get the correct answer, or to understand how they got a wrong to understand how they got a wrong answer in order to clarify.answer in order to clarify.

This is not about reinforcement, but about This is not about reinforcement, but about strategy – they know what to do to get it strategy – they know what to do to get it right the next time.right the next time.