52 Language, Culture, and Gender Ascription Kimberly D. Heeren (金貝利) Department of English National Pingtung University of Education ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to determine whether Native English speakers and Taiwanese English speakers illustrate a tendency to empower men and debase women according to occupational roles through the language they use. Specifically, it sought to determine whether the participants could perceive a woman as a doctor when told a forty-year-old riddle. In this respect, unconscious speech was verbally elicited in order to collect natural data. In a separate investigation, participants were also asked to ascribe pronouns to the roles of ‘doctor’ and ‘secretary.’ In this respect, the answers were elicited in the written form and categorized as conscious language. It was found that a greater majority of Taiwanese English speakers tended to empower men through their unconscious language. In this respect, they failed to perceive a woman as a doctor and therefore, could not solve the riddle. In addition, through their conscious language, the Taiwanese participants associated ‘he’ with doctor and ‘she’ with secretary. Overall, we could conclude that although gender is generally not distinguished in the Chinese language, Taiwanese English speakers tend to ascribe gender that empowers males in their second language. INTRODUCTION The investigation of sexism in language is a prominent topic in the sociolinguistic field. Throughout the past several decades, researchers have been searching for a connection between thought and the gender roles that are ascribed to men and women through language. It may be said that speakers demonstrate gender perceptions through the language that they use. It may also be said that language reinforces perceptions that are embedded in a particular culture. People tend to use particular words to show a hierarchical importance of something in a culture. This paper aims to investigate how certain cultures ascribe gender roles through language. It will analyze how speakers associate an occupational role with a specific gender. A study of language, culture, and gender roles must first take into account: linguistic determinism (Humboldt), and linguistic relativism, (Boas). According to
Microsoft Word - 2013new.docxKimberly D. Heeren ()
Department of English National Pingtung University of
Education
ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to determine whether Native
English speakers and Taiwanese English speakers illustrate a
tendency to empower men and debase women according to occupational
roles through the language they use. Specifically, it sought to
determine whether the participants could perceive a woman as a
doctor when told a forty-year-old riddle. In this respect,
unconscious speech was verbally elicited in order to collect
natural data. In a separate investigation, participants were also
asked to ascribe pronouns to the roles of ‘doctor’ and ‘secretary.’
In this respect, the answers were elicited in the written form and
categorized as conscious language. It was found that a greater
majority of Taiwanese English speakers tended to empower men
through their unconscious language. In this respect, they failed to
perceive a woman as a doctor and therefore, could not solve the
riddle. In addition, through their conscious language, the
Taiwanese participants associated ‘he’ with doctor and ‘she’ with
secretary. Overall, we could conclude that although gender is
generally not distinguished in the Chinese language, Taiwanese
English speakers tend to ascribe gender that empowers males in
their second language.
INTRODUCTION
The investigation of sexism in language is a prominent topic in
the
sociolinguistic field. Throughout the past several decades,
researchers have been searching for a connection between thought
and the gender roles that are ascribed to men and women through
language. It may be said that speakers demonstrate gender
perceptions through the language that they use. It may also be said
that language reinforces perceptions that are embedded in a
particular culture. People tend to use particular words to show a
hierarchical importance of something in a culture. This paper aims
to investigate how certain cultures ascribe gender roles through
language. It will analyze how speakers associate an occupational
role with a specific gender.
A study of language, culture, and gender roles must first take into
account: linguistic determinism (Humboldt), and linguistic
relativism, (Boas). According to
53
Saeed (2000), linguistic determinism claims that, “people’s
thoughts are determined by the categories available to them in
their language (p. 41). There are two forms of linguistic
determinism, strong and weak. The strong form states that thoughts
are determined by language. This is the theory associated with
Humboldt. The weak form, also termed linguistic relativism, claims
that thoughts are affected by language. This form is associated
with Boas. It may be said that Humboldt and Boas laid the
foundation upon which Sapir and Whorf built their theories. It is
important to explore these theories in order to understand how the
Sapir-Whorf theory evolved.
Linguistic determinism is generally associated with Wilhelm von
Humboldt. In the early 1800s, he combined the knowledge of various
languages with a philosophical background. According to Humboldt,
“Language is the formative organ of thought. Intellectual activity,
entirely mental, entirely internal, and to some extent passing
without trace, becomes through sound, externalized in sense, and
perceptible to the senses. Humboldt (1988) noted that, “thought and
language are therefore one, and inseparable from each other (p.
54). In other words, thoughts are language. Without language,
Humboldt concurred that thought was impossible.
An example of Humboldt’s notion is illustrated in George Orwell’s
work, “Nineteen Eighty-Four.” In this fictional account, Orwell
created the language ‘Newspeak.’ The language itself omits words
that describe crime, rebellion, and freedom in order to support a
totalitarian regime. The underlying theory claims, if something
cannot be said, it cannot be thought. Orwell (2000) stated, “There
would be many crimes and errors which it would be beyond his power
to commit, simply because they were nameless and therefore
unimaginable” (p. 383). ‘Newspeak’ as a language would dictate the
inner feelings of its speakers. By omitting specific words, there
could be thought or feelings about them because they would never be
uttered. Therefore, Orwell’s ‘Newspeak’ would be a prime example of
linguistic determinism.
Humboldt also equated language and thought in a hypothesis known
as, the ‘Weltanschauung’ (world-view) hypothesis. Humboldt (2000)
stated, “Language is by no means a mere means of communication, but
the mirror of the mind and of the world view of the speaker (p.
19). The idea of a ‘world view’ indicates that a speaker of one
language may view the world differently than a speaker of a
different language. Hence, each culture has a unique view of the
world.
Along with Humboldt, anthropologist Franz Boas influenced the
theories put forth by Sapir and Whorf. In the early 1900s, Boas
expanded a scientific investigation of the indigenous languages of
native North America. Initially, Boas (1911) stressed, “there is no
necessary connection between language and culture” (p. 52). He
believed that each language was equal, and competent in
accomplishing the goals of its culture. Boas argued that each
language represents implicit classification
54
of experience, and that these classifications vary across
languages. However, later in his life, “Boas gave a very cautious
endorsement of ideas similar to those adopted later by Whorf (Lucy
1985, p. 81). Boas began to question whether language could be used
as a tool to understand the differences between cultures. Franz
Boas was Edward Sapir’s mentor, and probably the impetus for
Sapir’s studies concerning language and culture. In 1907, Sapir
began his investigation of the indigenous languages of the
Americas. From these studies, Sapir came to feel that language
could represent an analysis of speakers’ conceptual viewpoints and
interpretations. Sapir was not concerned with linguistic form or
linguistic content. He was concerned with the formal organization
of meaning that is characteristic of a language. This would include
grammatical categories and patterns of semantic composition. Sapir
felt that “we see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as
we do because the language habits of our community predispose
certain choices of interpretation” (Sapir 1958 [1929], p. 69).
Sapir disagreed with Humboldt because he felt that language did not
mirror ideals and beliefs. Sapir believed that language had a
deeper interaction with speakers’ perceptions. B. J. Whorf extended
this position in the 1930s by stating, “We cut nature up, organize
it into concepts and ascribe significances as we do, largely
because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way,
an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is
codified in the patterns of our language” (Carroll 1956, pp.
212-14). Whorf analyzed specific linguistic structures, proposed
mechanisms of influence, and provided demonstrations of these
influences on belief and behavior. Whorf theorized that languages
vary considerably in basic distinctions and in the assemblage of
categories into a system of reference. Therefore, each system of
categories within any language provides its speakers with a unique
perspective. In turn, each language is unique to its speakers. The
largest problem with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis lies in the
difficulty in testing the validity of the idea. It is impossible to
conduct objective research without the use of language. Therefore,
the results would be interpreted according to the ‘world view’ of
the researcher. The hypothesis also has a number of opponents. One
argument debates the basic assumption that one culture is
attributed to one language. J.J. Gumperz points out, “The
correlations between language, culture, and society do not support
this assumption” (Gumperz-Levinson 1999, p. 6). The fact remains
that culture can vary dramatically even within speakers of the same
language. Therefore, it is difficult to prove the influence of
language when differences appear between speakers of the same
language. Nevertheless, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis does have it
proponents. Gumperz and Levinson also state, “It turns out that in
non-linguistic tasks, speakers of languages
55
that use, ‘North’/’South’/’East’/’West’ systems instead of
‘front’/’back’/’left’/’right’ systems do indeed remember spatial
arrays differently, in ways that can be demonstrated experimentally
and observationally” (Gumperz-Levinson 1999, p. 27). Gumperz and
Levinson show how different category systems affect language.
Therefore, this stands as some proof to support Whorf’s idea
concerning codified patterns and speech communities.
The main idea of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is that linguistic
categories are used as guides in habitual thought. When speakers
attempt to interpret an experience in terms of a category available
in their language, they automatically involve other meanings
implicit in that particular category. Speakers tend to regard these
meanings as being intrinsic to the original experience rather than
being a product of linguistic analogy. Therefore, language tends
not to blind speakers to some obvious reality. Instead, it suggests
associations that are not necessarily entailed by experience. In
this instance, linguistic shaping forces affect everyday habitual
thought. The absence of another language with which to talk about
experience, speakers will be unlikely to recognize the nature of
their linguistically based understandings.
The hypothesis states that linguistic patterns guide our thoughts.
These patterns may be verbalized with or without the actual
experience. These patterns may also include unconscious ascription
of gender roles to specific professions. It may have been logical
to describe a doctor as a male in the early nineteenth century. The
experience of visiting a male doctor was very common. Most doctors
were males and it would have been a rare occurrence to see a female
doctor. However, visiting a female doctor in the twenty-first
century is no longer a rare occurrence. Nevertheless, people tend
to unconsciously choose specific pronouns and relate them to
specific professions out of habit. The word, ‘doctor’ tends to be
associated with the pronoun, ‘he’ for some unconscious reason. This
could be a grammar pattern that has become habitual since many
people have had the experience of visiting a female doctor. In this
instance, a language pattern dictates thought even when the
experience is no longer consistent.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is twofold. First, according to Sapir
(1929), “the real world is unconsciously built upon the language
habits of a group” (p. 207). If this is true, do speakers of a
language unconsciously ascribe gender roles due to habitual
language? Second, according to Whorf, “The world is presented in a
kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our
minds. This means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds”
(Carroll, 1956, pp. 212-214). When gender roles are ascribed by two
different cultures, does this mean that certain
56
cultures associate men with powerful roles and women with less
powerful roles according to patterned linguistic systems? In other
words, does language dictate cultures to empower men but debase
women?
It may be said that the use of language devalues members of one
sex, and thus fosters gender inequality. It may also be said that
language reflects culture. When people choose certain words and
associate them with certain roles in society, are they essentially
expressing the cultural meanings and values of a society? The
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis will be applied to the results that were
obtained in the gender related studies of this paper. The results
will be interpreted to present how language, as a representation of
culture, reveals certain attitudes concerning gender roles.
Significance of the Study
The significance of this study is twofold. First, verbal
investigations are conducted where the participants are asked to
solve a forty-year-old riddle. This method is chosen to observe the
responses that are given as the participants problem solve. It is
also used to observe any spontaneous speech data that may be
collected. Separate investigations are conducted where the
participants are asked to ascribe the pronouns, ‘he or she,’ to
specific professions. Both investigations inquire about how
speakers of English view professional roles and the genders
associated with these roles.
Second, both native English speakers and Taiwanese English speakers
are interviewed. The study makes use of two different cultures to
assess whether or not one culture is more gender specific or
‘sexist’ than the other culture.
Motivation for the Study
The inspiration for this paper comes from a variety of
observations. It has been noticed that people continue to associate
certain roles for men and certain roles for women through the
language that they use. For example, on several Thanksgiving
holidays, both a male and female made the dinner. After the dinner
was finished, the guests thanked the woman for a delicious meal. On
a separate occasion, both a male and female reconstructed a wall in
their home. When guests viewed the new shelving unit in its place,
they complimented the male for a job well done. The interlocutors
in both situations assumed that a female did the cooking, and a
male reconstructed the wall. Even in casual conversations, a male
was deemed as the powerful builder, while the female was the less
powerful homemaker.
When deciding on the types of instruments to use for research, the
gender related riddle was piloted. Due to the fact that the riddle
was forty years old, it was assumed that a major portion of the
native English speakers would have previously
57
heard it. However, there were enough native English-speaking
participants who had never heard the riddle. While observing the
conversations that the riddle instigated, its value became
apparent. Therefore, personal observations and the pilot study
provided a majority of the motivation for this study.
Key Terms Culture Culture is something that is learned, it is not
biological. We do not inherit culture in our genes. Much of
learning culture is unconscious and occurs through observation and
imitation. We learn culture from our families, peers, institutions,
and media. Gender Gender is the cultural meanings assigned to the
biological differences between men and women. Sex, as in male or
female, is biological while gender is cultural. Linguistic
Determinism Linguistic Determinism refers to the idea that the
language we use determines the way in which we view and think about
the world around us. According to some researchers, linguistic
determinism is also termed as a strong approach of linguistic
relativity. Linguistic Relativity Linguistic Relativity is the idea
that language shapes thought and experience but differences in
language lead to differences in the way people understand the world
around them. This is the main idea of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
Native English Speakers Native English speakers are referred to as
those who originate from a country where the official language is
English. In this paper, these people were born and raised in the
United States and England. Sexist One who expresses discrimination
on the basis of sex. This would specifically apply to empowering
men and debasing women according to specific professional roles.
Taiwanese English Speakers Taiwanese English speakers are referred
to as those who were born in Taiwan but are proficient in English.
World View A worldview may incorporate both perception and
thinking. For the purpose of this paper, it may be defined as a
view that may be implicated from the words that people utter.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter will review the major published works that are applied
to this paper.
58
It will review the works and respective authors in chronological
order. The theories associated with each author, along with the
relevant work in which it was published, will be explained. This
order has been chosen to show how the theories evolved. Language
and Thought Wilhelm Humboldt’s “On Language,” was published
posthumously in 1836. It is in this work where Humboldt clarified
that the character and structure of a language expresses the inner
life and knowledge of its speakers. He emphasized that sounds
become words when meanings are ascribed to them. Thereafter, that
meaning conveys the thoughts of the people who utter those words.
Humboldt declared that a community denotes relationships between
parts of sentences, and that arrangement reflects the worldview of
those speakers. In essence, language structures have a determining
influence on the thought processes of their users. It is from these
initial theories of Humboldt that Boas would be indirectly
influenced. Some of the visions that Humboldt recorded tend to be
unclear. Roger Brown published, “Wilhelm von Humboldt’s Conception
of Linguist Relativity” in 1967. This work serves as a guide to
explain some of Humboldt’s ideas that were unclear or
contradictory. Brown expresses Humboldt’s three main claims as:
language structures have a determining influence on the thoughts of
their users, the structures of different languages can differ in
important ways, and the structures of languages are stable and may
not be manipulated or changed by the users. This book was essential
in understanding the meaning behind some of Humboldt’s complex
notions. Humboldt was the Prussian Minister of Public Worship and
Education. Although his connection to Boas has never been proven,
Humboldt’s ideologies permeated through the system in which Boas
was educated. Boas was a key figure because he educated Sapir in
the perspective of language and culture. Boas published,
“Introduction to Handbook of American Indian Languages.” It is in
this published work where Boas distinguishes the inner form of
language. When Boas introduced new theories concerning language, he
opened new areas in the study of language and thought. It is in
this book where Boas questions whether language could be used as a
tool to understand culture.
Sapir embraced the ideas concerning a relationship between language
and culture put forth by Boas, and expanded upon them in his book,
“The Status of Linguistics as a Science, Language” in 1929. In this
work, Sapir maintains that in order to truly understand a language;
one must also understand the culture. In this instance, language
and culture walk hand in hand. Sapir emphasizes that language is
not an inherited biological function. Language is a cultural
function that is taught and learned. Ultimately, his book is not
only a study of language and culture, but also a study on how
language influences thought. If language is taught, than
inner
59
thought must also be taught. Therefore, language is a reflection of
the culture of which it is taught. J.B. Carroll published,
“Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee
Whorf.” This published work is a collection of handwritten
manuscripts published posthumously by Carroll. It illustrates how
Whorf believed that a study of linguistics was a way to observe
thinking. The book also provides the notes by Whorf when he studied
the Hopi. At that time, Whorf maintained that cultures could be
understood by observing their linguistic structures of which they
were unaware. Language and Gender A prominent topic in
Sociolinguistics revolves around the structures, vocabulary, and
usage of languages and how they relate to the social roles of the
men and women who use these languages. If men and women use
language in distinct ways, it could lend to the validation of the
Whorfian hypothesis. As Wodak (1997) noted, “Gender is not a pool
of attributes possessed by a person, but something a person does”
(p. 13). In this respect, gender may be directly related to an
occupation. Wodak later adds, “What it means to be a woman or to be
a man changes from one generation to the next and varies between
different racialized, ethnic, and religious groups, as well as for
members of different social classes” (p. 4). In relation to the
study at hand, being a doctor was traditionally a male’s
profession. Therefore, in the past, it would be acceptable to refer
to a doctor as ‘he or him.’ However, there are more women doctors
than fifty years ago; therefore, we can no longer solely ascribe
the male gender to the word, ‘doctor.’ It would seem logical that
most people would be able to consider a woman or a man in this
role. In an alternate respect, gender roles are evident in every
society. There tends to be some aspect of ordering where certain
roles are ascribed to particular genders. As Eckert and
McConnell-Ginet (2003), “The force of gender categories in every
society makes it impossible for us to move through our lives in a
nongendered way and impossible not to behave in a way that brings
out gendered behavior in others” (p. 50). In this respect, it is
expected that certain roles in society be attached to specific
genders. Therefore, gender is a central role in identity. When we
consider occupational roles, some are considered to be more male
orientated while others more suitable for a female. The speech
associated with these roles then also transforms into male and
female speech. One of the most notable examples comes from England
when Margaret Thatcher was advised to “speak more like a man in
order to fill a position previously filled only by men” (Wardhaugh,
2010, p. 337). Specifically, Margaret’s voice failed to match the
position of a British Prime Minister; therefore, she was advised to
“lower her pitch, diminish her range, speak
60
more slowly, and adopt a more authoritative delivery to make
herself heard” (Wardhaugh, 2010, p. 337). When we considering
vocabulary usage, Lakoff has asserted that equivalent words
referring to men and women have different associations.
Specifically, Lakoff (1973) noted the underlying meaning of, “He’s
a professional” and “She’s a professional.” In the occupational
sense, a man is a professional in the realm of business or
athletics. In contrast, a professional woman would imply that she
is a prostitute. However, this difference has diminished over time
as more women have entered the business industry and become
professional athletes. Meanwhile, men have also been known to be
male prostitutes. With the changes in occupational roles, there is
now a greater effort to use neutral language when talking about
occupations. For example, firefighter, police officer, flight
attendant, mailman, and actor are encouraged over fireman,
policeman, stewardess, mail carrier, and actress. The significance
of these changes lies in the idea that language does reflect the
changes in social structure. In this case, doctors or nurses can be
men or women. However, it can be debated whether or not changes in
vocabulary usage can change sexist attitudes. As Romaine (1999)
concluded, “Attitudes toward gender equality did not match language
usage. Those who had adopted more gender-inclusive language did not
necessarily have a more liberal view of gender inequalities in
language” (pp. 312-313). It is this conclusion that this study
aimed to prove. Although the participants were under the age of
forty-five and had visited male and females doctors; however, a
greater percentage still ascribed the term doctor to the male
gender. When considering pronoun assignment, we could compare
languages that use the natural gender system such as English to
Chinese where these same distinctions are not made. In English,
pronouns are used to indicate connections. For example, ‘Mary took
her phone to be fixed.’ In Chinese, this type of gender specific
possessive pronoun does not typically exist in the spoken language.
If the Chinese language does not make gender distinctions through
the use of pronouns, it cannot be said that Chinese speakers are
less sexist than English speakers. This study will show that
Chinese speakers, when using English, were less able to solve a
gender based riddle than English speakers. In result, we may
question whether or not the English language or the cultural
beliefs about women influenced the Chinese participants ability to
problem-solve in their second language.
METHODOLOGY
This chapter will begin by describing the participants who were
involved in the
61
study. Next, it will describe the instruments used to conduct the
study. Finally, it will explain the procedure used to collect the
data and how the data was analyzed. Participants Research
participants were divided into two categories. Twenty-five native
English speakers from America, England, and Canada were in one
focus group. This group consisted of twelve females and thirteen
males. The second focus group consisted of twenty-five Taiwanese
English speakers. This group consisted of eleven females and
fourteen males. All participants were between the ages of nineteen
and forty-five. All participants were university graduates or
currently studying in a university. Instruments
The study took place over the course of two months. It was divided
into two parts, verbal and written. Participants were randomly
selected and had no knowledge that a study was being conducted.
First, a riddle (see Appendix 1) was told to the participants in a
casual conversation setting. The riddle was a problem solving
exercise where the participants had to determine an answer that
related to ascribing gender to a specific profession. This half of
the study was completely verbal.
The second half of the study took place a month later. The same
participants were given a pronoun worksheet with two questions
regarding pronoun placement (see Appendix 2). This half of the
study was written. The participants were told that the worksheet
was an idea to help students with pronoun placement. They were
asked to ascribe the pronouns, ‘he or she,’ to specific
professions. Procedure
During the first month of data collection, participants from both
groups were randomly asked to solve a riddle. All participants were
given no more than five minutes to solve the riddle. As the
participants tried to come up with an answer, the answers that they
verbally submitted were noted. The answers were calculated as mean
averages for those who were either: able to solve the riddle, or
unable to solve the riddle. When the participants were not able to
solve the riddle, it was told in reverse (see Appendix 1).
Specifically, the gender roles from the original riddle were
reversed. This was done to observe the response time in solving the
riddle when the gender roles were reassigned.
A month later, the same participants were given a pronoun worksheet
with four sentences. They were asked to ascribe pronouns to the
professions mentioned on the papers. The participants were given no
more than five minutes to fill in the missing pronouns. The papers
were collected, and the results were calculated as mean averages
according to the number of, ‘he’ pronouns ascribed and the number
of, ‘she’ pronouns ascribed to the specific professions.
62
RESULTS
This chapter presents the results obtained from the gender related
riddle and
the pronoun worksheet. First, the results from the riddle are
displayed. Thereafter, the main differences between native English
speakers’ responses and Taiwanese English speakers’ responses are
discussed. Second, the results from the pronoun worksheet are
displayed. The main differences between the native English
speakers’ and the Taiwanese English speakers’ responses are then
discussed. Finally, the studies are summarized.
Results from the Gender Related Riddle Table 3.1 Mean Percentages
of Native English Speakers Answers to the Riddle Gender Able to
solve the riddle Unable to solve the riddle Female 32% (8 out of
25) 4% (1 out of 25) Male 28% (7 out of 25) 36% (9 out of 25) Total
60% (15 out of 25) 40% (10 out of 25)
Table 3.2 Mean Percentages of Taiwanese English Speaker’s Answers
to the Riddle Gender Able to solve the riddle Unable to solve the
riddle Female 8% (2 out of 25) 44% (11 out of 25) Male 0% (0 out of
25) 48% (12 out of 25) Total 8% (2 out of 25) 92% (23 out of 25)
From the data presented above, it can be seen sixty percent of the
native English speakers were able to solve the riddle. However,
only eight percent of the Taiwanese English speakers were able to
solve the riddle. Therefore, more native English speakers were able
to solve the gender related riddle than Taiwanese English speakers.
It can also be noted that more female native English speakers were
able to determine the correct answer than the male native English
speakers. Similarly, more female Taiwanese English speakers were
able to solve the riddle than male Taiwanese English speakers. None
of the male Taiwanese speakers were able to solve the riddle at
all. When the riddle was told in reverse, participants from both
groups were able to solve the riddle in less than ten seconds. As
the participants were deducing the answer to the riddle, the
incorrect answers were also noted (see Appendix 3). The native
English speakers’ responses were all
63
masculine; however, the Taiwanese English speakers did add a
feminine response. This response stated that the mother had an
affair. It is interesting to note that when the Taiwanese
participants did respond with a feminine term, they associated it
with a negative connotation. They determined that the mother had an
affair and conceived the child out of wedlock. Therefore, the male
was situated in a powerful position as the doctor, but the female
was mentioned as a negative factor. In addition to these results,
the researcher had the opportunity to collect some spontaneous
speech data (see Appendix 4). On one occasion, a native English
speaker voiced his view of what he believed to be the proper roles
for men and women. The native speaker in this conversation was
unable to solve the riddle. When the riddle was discussed at
length, the native speaker voiced his opinion further. In this
instance, he clearly stated his view on gender roles. He indicated
that women should stay home to care for the children and that
taking care of children was a meaningless task. Although this
participant was the only one to concisely detail his view of gender
roles, it is interesting to observe the conviction that some people
feel about abiding by these roles. Table 3.3 Mean Percentage of
Native English Speakers who ascribed the pronoun, ‘he’ or ‘she’ to
the profession, doctor. Gender ‘He’ pronoun ‘She’ pronoun Indicated
‘he’ or ‘she’ Female 4% (1 out of 25) 4% (1 out of 25) 40% (10 out
of 25) Male 4% (1 out of 25) 8% (2 out of 25) 40% (10 out of 25)
Total 8% (2 out of 25) 12% (3 out of 25) 80% (20 out of 25) *the
‘he’ or ‘she’ was written in by the participants Table 3.4 Mean
Percentage of Taiwanese English Speakers who ascribed the pronoun,
‘he’ or ‘she’ to the profession, doctor. Gender
‘He’ pronoun ‘She’ pronoun Indicated ‘he’ or ‘she’
Female
32% (8 out of 25) 12% (3 out of 25) 0% (0 out of 25)
Male
44% (11 out of 25) 12% (3 out of 25) 0% (0 out of 25)
Total
76% (19 out of 25) 24% (6 out of 25) 0% (0 out of 25)
64
From the data presented above, we can see that a greater number of
Taiwanese English speakers ascribed the pronoun, ‘he’ to the
profession of doctor. Seventy-six percent of the Taiwanese English
speakers identified a male as a doctor. Alternatively, only eight
percent of the native English speakers ascribed the pronoun, ‘he’
to the profession, doctor. It is also interesting to note that more
male native English speakers ascribed the pronoun, ‘she’ to the
profession, doctor, than the females that participated.
Additionally, eighty percent of the native English speakers wrote
in the answer, ‘he’ or ‘she’ as an alternative. They specified that
the pronoun could be either a woman or man. None of the Taiwanese
English speakers added this option. Table 3.5 Mean Percentage of
Native English Speakers who ascribed the pronoun, ‘he’ or ‘she’ to
the profession, secretary. Gender ‘He’ pronoun ‘She’ pronoun
Indicated ‘he’ or ‘she’ Female 4% (1 out of 25) 4% (1 out of 25)
40% (10 out of 25) Male 4% (1 out of 25) 8% (2 out of 25) 40% (10
out of 25) Total 8% (2 out of 25) 12% (3 out of 25) 80% (20 out of
25) *the ‘he’ or ‘she’ was written in by the participants Table 3.6
Mean Percentage of Taiwanese English Speakers who ascribed the
pronoun, ‘he’ or ‘she’ to the profession, secretary. Gender ‘He’
pronoun ‘She’ pronoun Indicated ‘he’ or ‘she’ Female 0% (0 out of
25) 44% (11 out of 25) 0% (0 out of 25) Male 4% (1 out of 25) 52%
(13out of 25) 0% (10 out of 25) Total 4% (1 out of 25) 96% (24 out
of 25) 0% (0 out of 25)
From the data presented above, we can see that a greater number of
Taiwanese English speakers ascribed the pronoun, ‘she’ to the
profession, secretary, than native English speakers. Ninety-six
percent of the Taiwanese English speakers identified that a
secretary was a female. As in the previous table, the native
English speakers again added in the option, ‘he’ or ‘she’ as an
alternative. It is also interesting to note that none of the female
Taiwanese English speakers associated the ‘he’ pronoun with
secretary, but four percent of the Taiwanese males did.
Summary of the Results
The results presented above are significant in a variety of ways.
First, they
65
tend to show that native English speakers are more flexible in
their views of gender roles. Although not all of them could solve
the gender related riddle, sixty percent of them were able to
deduce that the doctor was a woman. In contrast, only eight percent
of the Taiwanese English speakers were able to make that same
deduction. Therefore, they were unable to correlate a woman as
being a doctor. Additionally, none of the male Taiwanese English
speakers were able to solve the riddle.
As in the first observation, more Taiwanese English speakers
designated males as doctors and females as secretaries than native
English speakers. Although they also had time to read and think
about the answers, they continued to specify gender roles according
to power, males as more powerful and females as less powerful. The
implications of these results will be discussed in the following
chapter. DISCUSSION
Summary of the Study
As mentioned previously, this study was twofold. It utilized verbal
and written investigations to observe the language of native
English speakers and Taiwanese English speakers. The verbal study
was an attempt to observe unconscious language habits. The written
study was an investigation of how speakers organize thoughts in
their minds. Overall, the studies were conducted to determine
whether one group empowers men and debases women.
The gender related riddle was a study that aimed to observe the
verbal speech habits of the participants. Although the ability to
solve the riddle was the main point of interest, the incorrect
answers were also significant. The results showed that sixty
percent of the native English speakers were able to solve the
riddle, while only eight percent of the Taiwanese English speakers
were able to do the same. When the answers were submitted verbally,
it shows that a greater portion of the native English speakers were
able to correlate women as doctors while a greater portion of the
Taiwanese English speakers were not able to make that
connection.
In addition to the riddle, spontaneous speech data was also
collected. First, the incorrect answers submitted by all the
participants were also recorded. If spontaneous speech data
illustrates a more natural behavior of the speakers, then a greater
knowledge of the inner cultural feelings may be understood from
these answers. As stated previously, the incorrect answers were all
masculine, except for one submitted by the Taiwanese English
speaking participants. When the Taiwanese participants included the
female answer choice, they added her as a negative factor. They
continued to make the doctor a male, but stated that the female had
previously been involved in an affair, thereby conceiving a son
outside of wedlock. This
66
hierarchical order presents a male in a powerful position, while a
woman is perceived as unfaithful.
Second, the conversation recorded with the native English speaker
(Appendix 4) and the investigator has some strong implications.
Although the native English speakers empowered men less than the
Taiwanese English speakers, male dominance remains in the psyche of
some native English speakers. The conversation that was recorded
after the native English speaker was unable to solve the riddle
illustrates a strong conviction. He was unable to explain his
rationale even when he was asked to state why he felt that women
should stay home with the children. He was also unable to state why
staying home was equated to laziness. The statements made by the
native speaker carried no weight, and he was unable to provide
evidence for his opinions. The inspiration for the comments that he
made could be connected to unconscious language habits.
The second study observed how native English speakers and Taiwanese
English speakers assigned gender roles to the professions of,
doctor and secretary. The most significant aspect of the pronoun
worksheet was the, ‘he or she’ answer that was added by the native
English speakers. In a written investigation, the participants are
given more time to think about their answers. As Wolfson states,
“the method of eliciting written responses has inherent underlying
limitations which make it impossible to collect the kind of
elaborated behavior which we typically find in naturally occurring
interactions” (Wolfson 1989 p. 70). In this instance, the native
English speakers had more time to read the sentences and realize
that gender was not stated in the first sentence. Therefore, a
gender related pronoun could not be exactly specified.
Eighty percent of the native English speakers consciously wrote in
the answer, ‘he or she’, indicating that they were conscious of
designating gender to the role of doctor. Seventy-six percent of
the Taiwanese English speakers ascribed the male gender to doctor,
while only twenty-four percent ascribed the female role. It may be
said that the native English speakers were hesitant to ascribe the
role while a greater portion of the Taiwanese participants
connected men to a powerful role. The same may be said for the
question concerning the secretary. Eighty percent of the native
English speakers indicated that the gender could not be specified
but ninety-six percent of the Taiwanese participants determined
that the secretary was a female. Again, the Taiwanese English
speakers connected a female to a less powerful role.
When comparing the two studies, the significance lies in the
different methods used to collect results. When the riddle was told
verbally, forty percent of the native speakers were unable to
connect a woman to a powerful role. However, when the native
speakers had time to think about the gender roles, eighty percent
of them
67
determined that a gender role could not be specified. If it is true
that spontaneous data provides an insight into the natural
behaviors of the participants, then what is the significance of the
written responses? This might indicate that a greater percentage of
the native speakers might assign the powerful roles to males if
they were asked to assign the pronouns in a verbal setting instead
of a written setting.
Alternatively, the Taiwanese English speakers remained fairly
consistent in their gender assignments. Ninety-two percent were
unable to solve the riddle, and ninety-six percent determined that
a secretary was female. However, only seventy-six percent
determined that a doctor would be a male in the pronoun placement
worksheet. Twenty-four percent indicated that the doctor could be a
female. This could be due to the fact that this study allowed the
participants to think about their answers; therefore, they had time
to consider whether or not the doctor could be a female. When the
participants were asked if they had ever been to a female doctor,
most of them affirmed that they had seen female doctors in the
past. Therefore, they may have had the time to reflect on this
experience and answer accordingly. Generally, a greater percentage
of the Taiwanese English speakers ascribed the male gender to
powerful roles and the female gender to less powerful roles.
Implications and Pedagogical Applications
The results of these studies consist of implications that may be
related to the theories of Sapir, and Whorf. First, the riddle
produced verbal results that may have produced more of the
unconscious language that a group utters due to language habits.
Second, the pronoun worksheet indicated that when the participants
were given time to think about their answers, the gender
ascriptions had more variation. These issues will be applied to
Sapir and Whorf’s theories in order to show their
significance.
According to Sapir, “Language is the medium of expression for a
society” (Sapir 1929, p. 207). If we apply this idea to the results
of the verbal study, we may conclude that the Taiwanese
participants expressed an aspect of male dominance in their
language usage. This would be backed by another thought by Sapir.
“The fact of the matter is that the ‘real world’ is to a large
extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group.
We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do
because the language habits of our community predispose certain
choices of interpretation” (Sapir 1929, p. 207). If language habits
predispose interpretation, then again, the habit of ascribing the
male gender to a powerful role would indicate that the Taiwanese
participants tend to believe that men are generally more powerful
than women. Habitually, Taiwanese speakers connected men with
doctors even when they confirmed seeing a female doctor in the
past. Therefore, it seems that there is an unconscious linguistic
habit that equates doctor with the male gender.
68
In addition, Wolfson states that natural speech behavior emerges
when the spontaneous speech is observed (Wolfson 1989, 70). This
was significant in both of the study groups. The native English
speakers submitted answers that were all male. For those who could
not determine the answer, they continued to produce incorrect male
answers. None of their incorrect answers were ever female. The
Taiwanese English speakers also submitted male incorrect answers
except for one. When a female was considered, she was added
negatively. In this case, again, the Taiwanese English speakers
illustrated that their belief system tends to empower men and to a
certain extent, degrade women.
As for the second study, Whorf states, “The world is presented in a
kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our
minds. This means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds
(Carroll, 1956, pp. 212-214). The pronoun worksheet allowed the
participants some time to organize thoughts. The native English
speakers utilized the time to deduce that the doctor and the
secretary could be either male or female. However, a greater
percentage of the Taiwanese English speakers continued to ascribe
the powerful role with a male and the less powerful role with a
female. In this case, even though the Taiwanese participants were
allowed time to organize their thoughts in a written form; they
continued to answer according to a habitual linguistic
pattern.
In conclusion, Wolfson states, “Sexism in language is not truly
systemic in English, but is rather a reflection of the social
attitudes of speakers, both male and female” (Wolfson 1989 p. 165).
These words may summarize both studies. If gender is not inherent
in the English language, than the way it is used would indicate the
social attitudes of those who speak it. Overall we could conclude
that Taiwanese English speakers tend to empower men through
language more than Native English speakers.
Limitations
In retrospect, there are a few limitations to this study. First,
the studies themselves were verbal and written. The verbal study
produced results that were more habitual while the written study
allowed the participants more time to contemplate their answers.
While completing the pronoun worksheet, some of the native English
speakers questioned whether or not they were taking a gender quiz.
Although the written portion illustrated that some people are
conscious of their gender assignments, this may have produced
results that were not as natural as the verbal results. As stated
by Wolfson earlier, the written investigation allowed the
participants more time to think about their answers. The extra time
may have created an ‘observer’s paradox.’
69
Second, the native English speakers were all grouped together. In
order to obtain more culture specific results, the native English
speakers should be grouped according to country of origin. This
would provide the study with more insight into each culture of
native English speakers. Finally, the study needs more gender
related questions to evaluate. A future study should include more
than two investigations. Suggestions for further study
According to Ronald Wardhaugh in “An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics,” “A language like English makes use of ‘natural
gender’; German and French employ ‘grammatical gender’; and Chinese
does without either” (Wardhaugh 1998 p. 223). According to the
results in this paper, the Taiwanese English language speakers
tended to associate powerful roles with men more than the native
English speakers. Although gender may not be specified in their
spoken native language, Chinese, a greater percentage of Taiwanese
English speakers assumed that the doctor had to be a male.
Accordingly, their worldview was illustrated through their use of a
second language, English. Why did the Taiwanese English speakers
ascribe gender in English when, as Wardhaugh states, they normally
do not make use of gender in spoken Chinese?
In addition to the study just mentioned, one might also examine the
“he/man” problem in English. It is extremely important to teach
language learners about the use of the generic singular pronoun,
‘he.’ Dr. S.I. Hayakawa was born in Japan but later immigrated to
the United States. He was a senator in California, and is known for
his efforts to establish English as the official language in the
United States. Hayakawa spoke English as a second language, and
pushed for legislation that would mandate English the official
language in all fifty states. When Hayakawa was asked about his
stance on abortion, he replied, “I believe it’s strictly a matter
between the patient and his doctor” (Wolfson 1989, p. 166).
Although the statement is grammatically correct, biologically it
has some problems. It would seem that a proponent of “English only”
for all fifty states might choose words more carefully. In any
case, a study could focus on whether the uses of the generic ‘he’
interferes with gender association. This could specifically focus
on those who speak English as a foreign language.
According to Wardhaugh, “Japanese, Persian, and Turkish do not make
the kinds of sex distinctions English makes through its system of
pronouns, but it would be difficult to maintain that males who
speak these languages are less sexist than males who speak English”
(Wardhaugh 1998, p. 313). The results of this study show that the
Taiwanese males tended to be more sexist than the native
English-speaking males. More Taiwanese males connected women to the
less powerful role, secretary. In addition, none of the Taiwanese
males were able to solve the gender related riddle.
70
A further study could be conducted where only male speakers are
observed to see whether male speakers from different cultures
empower men but debase women.
REFERENCES Boas, Franz. (1966). Introduction to handbook of
American Indian Languages. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Brown, Roger Langharn. (1967). Wilhelm von Humboldt’s conception of
linguist relativity. The Hague: Mouton, 1967. Carroll, J.B.(Ed.),
(1956). Language, thought, and reality; selected writings of
Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge: MIT Press. Eckert, P. &
McConnell-Ginet (2003). Language and gender. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Gumperz, John & Levinson, Stephen
(Eds.), (1999). Rethinking linguistic relativity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Humboldt, Wilhelm von. (1928). Uber den
dualis. In Putz, Martin & Verspoor,
Marjolign (Eds.), (2000). Explorations in linguistic relativity.
London: Academic Press.
Humboldt, Wilhelm von. (1988). On language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Lakoff, R. (1973). Language and a Woman’s Place.
Language in society, 2, 45-80. Lucy, John A. (1985). Whorf’s view
of the linguistic mediation of thought. Mertz, E.,
& Parmentier, R.J. (Eds.). London: Academic Press. Orwell,
George. (2003). Animal farm and 1984. Florida: Hartcourt, Inc.
Romaine, S. (1999). Communicating gender. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum. Sapir, E. (1929). The status of linguistics as a science,
language. In Sapir, E. (1958), Culture, language, and personality.
Mandelbaum, D.G. (Ed.). Berkeley:
University of California Press. Saeed, John, I. (2000). Semantics.
(p. 41). Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Wardhaugh, R. (1998).
An introduction to sociolinguistics. West Sussex: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd. Wardhaugh, R. (2010). An introduction to
sociolinguistics. West Sussex: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Whorf,
B.L. (1956). Language, thought and reality. Carroll, J.B. (Ed.).
Cambridge:
MIT Press. Wodak, R. (1997). Gender and discourse. London: Sage.
Wolfson, N. (1989). Perspectives: sociolinguistics and tesol.
Boston: Heinle &
Heinle Publishers.
APPENDIX 1 Gender Related Riddle-Verbal
A father and his son were driving down the road. The car veers off
the road
and crashes. The father is killed instantly. An ambulance arrives
and takes the son to the hospital. The doctor walks into the
emergency room and says, “My son!” How can this be true?
Riddle Told in Reverse
A mother and her daughter were driving down the road. The car veers
off the road and crashes. The mother is killed instantly. An
ambulance arrives and takes the daughter to the hospital. The
doctor walks into the emergency room and say, “My son!” How can
this be true? APPENDIX 2 Pronoun Worksheet-Written
Dr. Smith works at University Hospital. ________________ is very
knowledgeable. The secretary is answering the phone. ____________
is busy.
APPENDIX 3 Top Ten Incorrect Answers Incorrect Answers by native
English Speakers Incorrect Answer Number of Times Reported
Priest 10 Father-in-law 7 Grandfather 7
The boy had two fathers 6 Step-father 6
Father-in-law 5 God Father 4
Uncle 4 The man driving was not the real father 3
Impossible 1
72
Incorrect Answers by Taiwanese English Speakers Incorrect Answer
Number of Times Reported
Father-in-law 23 Step-father 20
Grandfather 10 Uncle 8
The boy had two fathers 4 The doctor adopted the boy 4
Ghost 3 Impossible 1
APPENDIX 4 Conversation with Native English Speaker Native Speaker:
“Women are supposed to procreate and stay home with the children.”
“Men are supposed to go out and work.” Interviewer: “So, you
believe that men don’t stay home to raise the children?” Native
Speaker: “No, I’m saying that men don’t want to stay home.” At this
point, the native speaker asks another male native speaker a
question. Native Speaker: “Andy, would you want to stay home all
day and do nothing?” Andy: No response. Interviewer: “Are you
saying that when women stay home to raise the children, they do
nothing all day long?” Native Speaker: Okay, I’ll rephrase my
question. Andy, would you want to stay home and be lazy all day?’
Andy: No response.
73