Language and Culture. Language and Thought Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: the theory that the structure of a language influences how its speakers perceive the

Language and Culture

Language and Thought

• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: the theory that the structure of a language influences how its speakers perceive the world around them

• Linguistic determinism: the strongest form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis which claims that the language we speak determines how we perceive the world

– Whorf claimed that the Hopi people do not perceive time in the same way as speakers of European languages because the Hopi language does make grammatical distinctions in tense


• Linguistic relativism: a weaker form of the hypothesis which claims that different languages encode different categories which an influence a speaker’s perceptions of the world

– Navaho: green and blue expressed as one word

– Russian: siniy (dark blue) and goluboy (light blue)

– Zuni: yellow and orange are expressed as one word


• The strong form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is clearly false

– We can translate between languages

– We can learn additional languages

– If we don’t have a particular word for a concept, we can express the concept with a string of words


• Hopi does have a system for expressing time. Hopi uses words for days of the week, parts of the day, etc. to express tense rather than using word endings like English

• Although languages differ in their color terms, speakers can perceive differences even if their language does not have a word to express the difference


• Some psychologists have suggested that speakers of gender-marking languages think about objects as being gendered

– In Spanish the word “bridge” is masculine (el puente), and Spanish speakers described a bridge with masculine adjectives such as big, dangerous, long, strong, and sturdy

– In German, the word “bridge” is feminine (die Brücke) and German speakers described a bridge with feminine adjectives such as beautiful, elegant, fragile, pretty, and slender

• This evidence seems to support a weak version of linguistic relativism

What We Know About Language

• 1. Wherever humans exist, language exists

• 2. There are no “primitive” languages—all languages are equally complex and expressive

• 3. All languages change over time

• 4. The relationships between signs (sounds or gestures) and meanings are arbitrary


• 5. All human languages combine a finite set of discrete signs to make words, which can then be combined to make an infinite set of sentences

• 6. All grammars contain rules for word and sentence formation

• 7. Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments and a class of vowels and consonants


• 8. Similar grammatical categories are found across languages

• 9. There are universal semantic properties across languages

• 10. Every language can negate, form questions, issue commands, refer to past or future time, etc.

• 11. All languages allow abstractions


• 12. All languages have slang, epithets, taboos, and euphemisms

• 13. All languages have hypothetical, counterfactual, conditional, unreal, and fictional utterances

• 14. All languages exhibit freedom from stimulus


• 15. Speakers of all languages can create and understand an infinite number of sentences

• 16. The ability for humans to acquire, know, and use language is a biologically based ability rooted in the structure of the human brain

• 17. Any normal child is capable of learning any language to which he or she is exposed

Language as Grammar

The object of a science of linguistics (Saussure).

•Syntactic Structures

•Review of Skinner: ‘Verbal Behavior’ (1959)

Universal Grammar

difference between surface structure and deep structure in language

Noam Chomsky (1928-)

Three Views of Language

o Language as Grammar:o Language as communication: o Language as thing:

Grammar

• Three sub-systems• Representational• Phonology (sounds), graphic, gestural• Lexical• morphology; words and morphemes• (Syn)tactic = syntax

Language as communication

• Language as Text.• The Interaction of People• The Interpretation of Texts• What do you communicate? Ideas? Emotions?

Intentions?• How do you communicate?• Messages:• The interpretation of messages• The construction of messages

Language as thing

• Language as an element in social constructs.• Language planning, code switching, dialect

debates.

Note: to distinguish between and language and communication, look at the following questions: 1. Is language as Dawkins suggests part of the

DNA of homosapiens? 2. Is there a “creative” component (the horrible

honeybee story)

Competence v. Performance

Langue v parole Structure v event Structural v communicative universal v dialect

Approaches to language and culture

Wardhaugh, quite sensibly, argues that sociolinguistics is both macrolinguistic and microlinguistic:

• Microlinguistic-- language emphasis• Macrolinguistics – social emphasis• Whorf, Politeness; French Structuralism (Lévi-Strauss).Communicative approaches: p. 14 Language and power (Fairclough), Social construction of

reality (Berger and Luckmann); Language and Symbolic Power (Bourdieu); Pragramatics (Austin)

Use Approaches: Language Planning, Multilingualism

Relations between language and culture Wardhaugh pp. 9-11

1. Social structure may influence or determine linguistic structure and/or behaviour

2. Linguistic structure/behaviour influences or determines social structure (Whorfian hypothesis)

3. Language and society affect each other

4. No relationship at all between language and culture

Sociolinguists “whatever it is, is about asking important questions concerning the relationship of language to society” (Wardhaugh 11)

Expansion of World View: FantiniSpeakers

(cultural context)

World View B

Meaning(Semantics)

Language(symbolic systems)

Speakers

World View A

MeaningLanguage

Multidimensional Model:Gonzalez et al.Language Cognition

Culture

Linguistic Structures

Nonverbal Concepts

Cultural Concepts

X

The Inseparable Relationship

• Olshtain & Cohen (1991):

“If we wish to master another language we need to become communicatively competent in that language. Linguistic accuracy is important for this communicative competence but is not sufficient. In acquiring the new language one needs to assimilate…a set of sociocultural rules that will guide the learner in the choice of appropriate forms.” (p. 154)

Fundamental Question

a. What is the relationship between language and culture?b. Humans are the only animal to have culture.

c. Humans are the only animal to have language.d. How do the two connect?e. What is language? “what members of a particular

society speak” (Wardhaugh 1).

Symbols

• A SYMBOL is something which is used to represent something else, usually a much more complex concept.

We can make symbols mean anything: they are arbitrary and their complexity is essentially unlimited.

Human beings have the ability to think in symbols, and language is both an outgrowth of that ability and probably a necessary part of it:

Thought, Language and Society

• Sapir-Whorf– language determines

how we see the world and behavior

– reality is filtered through language categories

• Sociolinguistics– social position

determines the content and form of language

Dialects

• “A language without an army”

• A way of speaking in a particular place

• e.g. Cockney

• Speakers are sometimes considered less intelligent

• Ebonics - dialect or language?

Language and Culture

Different ways of speaking depending on age, gender, occupation and class

Argument style is culturally learned

“Fat talk”

Mother-Infant talk

Bilingualism

“Fat Talk”• Euro-American adolescent girl’s talk a lot about their body weight and image

• “I’m so fat.” “No you’re not.”

• Functions as positive reinforcement from friends

• Functions to absolve girl from guilty feelings about eating

- Nichter and Vuckovic 1994

Mass Media

In Japan TV, 90% of staff are men, reflected in program output

Media anthropologists promote a more holistic approach to news reporting

Critical media anthropologists ask to what degree access to media messages are mind-opening or controlling

Language and Change

• Colonialism was a major force of change

• Pidgins– usually limited to trade

• National policies of assimilation– Soviet Union– English-only movement in the US

© 2006 Prentice Hall 4-37

Cultural Variables

• Attitudes – ethnocentric and stereotypical attitudes are a particular source of noise in cross-cultural communication

• Social Organization – nations, tribes, religious sects, or professions can influence our priorities and values

• Though Patterns – the logical progression of reasoning varies by culture


Cultural Variables

• Roles – the perception of the manager’s role differs considerable around the world, consider the conversation between the American and Greek

• Nonverbal Communication – behavior communicated without words; even minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality can cause mistrust


Cultural Variables

• Language – an inability to speak the local language, and a poor or too literal translation are often causes for mistrust– Pepsi’s slogan “Come Alive with Pepsi”

translated into German as “Come out of the grave.”

– Rendezvous lounges on 747’s were not used on airlines because in Portuguese ‘rendezvous’ refers to prostitution


Cultural Variables - Language

Britain and America are two nations separated by a common

language.- George Bernard Shaw


Cultural Variables -Time

• Mono-chronic Cultures – Time is experienced in a linear manner; generally mono-chronic people concentrate on one thing at a time and adhere to time commitments

• Poly-chronic Cultures – Many things occur simultaneously and emphasize involvement with people


Context

• Context in which the communication takes place affects the meaning and interpretation of the interaction

• Cultures are either high- or low- context


Context


Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs• Arabs are warm, emotional, and quick to explode• The language aptly communicates the Arabic

culture – one of emotional extremes– Contains means for over expression

– Words that allow for exaggeration

– Metaphors that emphasize a position

– Many adjectives

– What is said is not as important as how it is said


Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs

• The core of the culture is friendship, honor, religion, and traditional hospitality

• Family and friends take precedence over business transactions

• Hospitality is a way of life and is highly symbolic

• Women play little or no role n business or entertainment – it is a male-dominated society



• Society values honor – which is brought about when conformity is achieved

• Shame results not just from doing something wrong but from having others find out about it

• High contact and High context





• Be patient. Recognize the Arab attitude toward time and hospitality—take time to develop friendship and trust, for these are prerequisites for any social or business transactions.

• Recognize that people and relationships matter more to Arabs than the job, company, or contract—conduct business personally, not by correspondence or telephone.


Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs• Avoid expressing doubts or criticism when

others are present—recognize the importance of honor and dignity to Arabs.

• Adapt to the norms of body language, flowery speech, and circuitous verbal patterns in the Middle East, and don’t be impatient to “get to the point.”

• Expect many interruptions in meetings, delays in schedules, and changes in plans.


Information Systems

• Communication varies according to– Where and how it originates

– The channels and the speed which it flows

– Whether it is formal or informal

• The nature of the organization’s information system are affected by– Organizational structure

– Staffing policies

– Leadership style


Information Technology

• The Internet as a global medium for communication allows companies to develop a presence in markets globally

• Companies must adapt their web communication to deal with local cultural variables


Managing Cross-Cultural Communication

• Cultural Sensitivity

• Careful Encoding

• Selective Transmission

• Careful Decoding

• Appropriate Follow-up Actions


Appropriate Follow-Up Actions

• Respect (eye contact, posture, tone, etc)• Interaction posture – ability to respond in a

descriptive, non-evaluative, and non-judgmental way

• Orientation to knowledge – understand that your beliefs and perceptions are only valid for you and not everyone else

• Empathy


Appropriate Follow-Up Actions

• Interaction management

• Tolerance for ambiguity

• Other-oriented role behavior – capacity to be flexible and to adopt different roles for the sake of the greater group cohesion/communication


Looking Ahead

• Cross-cultural Negotiation and Decision making– Negotiation– The negotiation process– Understanding negotiation styles– Managing negotiation– Decision making


High Context

• Feelings and thoughts are not explicitly expressed

• Meaning is found in the general understanding of the other person and their surroundings

• Most communication takes place within a context of extensive information networks resulting from close personal relationships

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Low Context

• Feelings and thoughts are expressed n words, and information is more readily available

• Normally these cultures compartmentalize their business and personal relationships

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Nonverbal Communication

• Kinesic Behavior refers to communication through body movements like posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact

Paralanguage

• Silence

• Dress

• Looks



• Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than the content– Rate of speech, tone, inflection, other noises,

laughing, yawning, etc.– Silence is a powerful communicator

• Object language refers to communication through material artifacts– Office design, furniture, clothing ,cars, etc.

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• Proxemics deals with how space influences the communication process– High contact – preferring to stand close, touch, and experience a

close sensory involvement

– Low-contact – prefer much less sensory involvement, standing farther apart and touching less



Cultural Sensitivity

• When sending a message make it a point to know the recipient

• Encode the message in a form that will most likely be understood as it is intended

• This means the manager must– Be aware of their own culture– The recipient’s culture– The expectations surrounding the situation

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Careful Encoding

• The sender must consider the receiver’s frame of reference to make the best choice regarding– Words

– Pictures

– Gestures

• Remember that language translation is only part of the process, consider the nonverbal language as well

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Selective Transmission

• The channel medium should be chosen after considering:– The nature of the message– Level of importance– Context and expectations of the receiver– Timing involved– Personal interactions

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Careful Decoding of Feedback

• Best means for obtaining accurate feedback is face-to-face interactions

• Best means for avoiding miscommunication is to improve your own listening and observation skills

• Three types of miscommunications– Receiver misinterpreted the message– Receiver encoded response incorrectly– Sender misinterprets the feedback

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Cultural Universals

Researchers have identified more than 70 traits in all cultures•Economy Clothing, Food, Shelter, Communications, Transportation, Business, Jobs, Services, Goods, Technology, Tools, Trade•Institutions Economy, Religion, Education, Government, Family•Arts Folk Tales, Crafts, Music, Theater, Dance, Literature, Art•Language Words, Expressions, Pronunciations, Alphabet, Symbols•Environment Communities, Geography, Geology, Habitat, Wildlife,

Climates, Resources•Recreation Games, Toys, Arts, Media, Holidays, Festivals•Beliefs Values, Traditions, Ethnicity, Customs, Religions, Morals

Culture and Society

• Culture: knowledge, values, customs and physical objects that are shared by members of a society

Material side

Nonmaterial side

• Society: a specific territory inhabited by people who share a common culture

Symbols, Language and Culture

• What are symbols?

Symbols: a thing that stands for or represents something else

• How are language and culture related?

Norms: The Rules We Live By

•Norms: rules defining appropriate and inappropriate behavior

•William Graham Sumner stated that anything can be considered appropriate when norms approve of it.

Cultural Etiquette

Country Custom•England/Scotland& Wales Appointments are essential. You may be ten

minutes late but not ten minutes early!•Greece Be careful not to praise a specific object too

enthusiastically or the host may insist on giving it to you.

•Libya If you are invited to a Libyan home for dinner, only men will be present. Take a gift for the

host but not for his wife.•Senegal Never eat food with the left hand, as this is

considered offensive•Zambia Avoid direct eye contact with members of

the opposite sex—it may suggest romantic overtures

•Saudi Arabia It is an insult to sit in such as way as to face your host with the soles of your shoes showing.

•China A visit to a Chinese home is rare—unless the government has given prior approval

Enforcing the Rules•Sanctions: rewards and punishment used to encourage people to follow normsWhat are formal sanctions?•Formal sanctions: sanctions imposed by persons given special authorityWhat are informal sanctions?•Informal sanctions: rewards or punishments that can be applied by most members of a group

Values–Basis for Norms

What are values?

•Values-broad ideas about what is good or desirable shared by people in a society

Why are values important?

Sociologist Robin Williams (1970) identified important US values:1.Achievement & success2.Activity & work3.Efficiency & practicality4.Equality5.Democracy6.Group superiority

Beliefs and Physical Objects•Nonmaterial culture -ideas, knowledge, and beliefs that influence people’s behaviorWhy do beliefs matter?•Beliefs-ideas about the nature of realityWhat is material culture?•Material culture -the concrete, tangible objects of a culture•How is material culture related to nonmaterial culture?

• Ideal and Real Culture

• Ideal Culture cultural guidelines that group members claim to accept

• Real Culture actual behavior of members of a group

Cultural Change

•Why does culture change?

1.Discovery

2.Invention

3.Diffusion

Cultural Diversity•Social categories: groupings of persons who share social characteristics•What are subcultures and countercultures?•Subculture: a group that is part of the dominant culture but that differs from it in some important respects•Counterculture: a subculture deliberately and consciously opposed to certain central beliefs or attitudes of the dominant culture

Ethnocentrism

•Ethnocentrism -judging others in terms of one’s own cultural standards

•What are some examples of ethnocentrism?

•Does ethnocentrism help or hurt society?

Cultural Universals

•Cultural Universals - general cultural traits that exist in all cultures

•How are cultural universals expressed?

•Cultural particulars- the ways in which a culture expresses universal traits

•Why do cultural universals exist?

Documents

Language and Culture. Language and Thought Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: the theory that the structure of a language influences how its speakers perceive the