LanguageLanguage

Language is a symbolic system of Language is a symbolic system of communication. communication.

Symbolic = arbitrary markersSymbolic = arbitrary markersSystem = organizing principle, orderSystem = organizing principle, order

Constitutive of and constituted by Constitutive of and constituted by GroupGroup

LanguageLanguage

• Standardized, agreed upon Meanings and Standardized, agreed upon Meanings and SymbolsSymbols

• CommunicationCommunication• Writing, verbal, non-verbal Writing, verbal, non-verbal

And weAnd we’’re going to say that language is a re going to say that language is a distinctly HUMAN endeavor…that although distinctly HUMAN endeavor…that although other species communicate, clearly. So, letother species communicate, clearly. So, let’’s s look at some human-animal interactions…look at some human-animal interactions…

human Communication learned human Communication learned by Animalsby Animals

• Teaching Apes to SignTeaching Apes to Sign• Koko the Talking GorillaKoko the Talking Gorilla

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cn79Lgfh1hw&feature=results_video&playnext=1&list=PLEA304862A011F6EE

• Please see notes attached to this slidePlease see notes attached to this slide

Nonhuman CommunicationNonhuman Communication

• Ethological Research on Ape CommunicationEthological Research on Ape Communication• Dian Fossey studies mountain Gorillas and Dian Fossey studies mountain Gorillas and

identified identified 22 calls22 calls• Jane Goodall: 30 Plus Years working with Jane Goodall: 30 Plus Years working with

Chimpanzees identifiedChimpanzees identified• Intraparty callsIntraparty calls• Emotions: fear, anger, sadnessEmotions: fear, anger, sadness• Barks, whimpers, squeaksBarks, whimpers, squeaksWATCH: WATCH:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKyrLFyOi04

What makes Human Language What makes Human Language different from animal different from animal

communication?communication?• Arbitrariness:Arbitrariness: There is no rational relationship between a There is no rational relationship between a

sound or sign and its meaning. (There is nothing "housy" sound or sign and its meaning. (There is nothing "housy" about the word "house".) about the word "house".)

• Cultural transmission:Cultural transmission: Language is passed from one Language is passed from one language user to the next, consciously or unconsciously. language user to the next, consciously or unconsciously.

• Discreteness:Discreteness: Language is composed of discrete units Language is composed of discrete units that are used in combination to create meaning. that are used in combination to create meaning.

Animal Communication vs. Human Animal Communication vs. Human Language (conLanguage (con’’t)t)

• Displacement: Displacement: Languages can be used to Languages can be used to communicate ideas about things that are not in the communicate ideas about things that are not in the immediate vicinity either spatially or temporally. immediate vicinity either spatially or temporally.

• Duality:Duality: Language works on two levels at once, a Language works on two levels at once, a surface level and a semantic (meaningful) level.surface level and a semantic (meaningful) level.Metalinguistics:Metalinguistics: Ability to discuss language itself. Ability to discuss language itself. Productivity:Productivity: A finite number of units can be used A finite number of units can be used to create a very large number of utterances.to create a very large number of utterances.

The Anatomy of LanguageThe Anatomy of Language• The human brain and speech – multi-centered, The human brain and speech – multi-centered,

overlapping, complexoverlapping, complexBroca’s Area -- involved in language processing, speech production, and comprehension. Damage to Broca’s area results in inability to make coherent sentences although comprehension is not impaired.

Wernicke’s Area: Damage here results in theAbility to produce “normal”Sounding sentences, while Having no comprehension.

But, Language can be relearned in undamaged areas!!!!

The Anatomy of SpeechThe Anatomy of Speech

These are all the different anatomicalPoints along which sounds can be Articulated. Differences in sounds that Result in differences of meaning.

The study of those different sounds isCalled PHONETICS.

This unique sound production, the variety Of sounds in any given language thatProduce a difference in meaning, all Of these are studied in the study of LanguageDifferences in sound are produced in thisPassage by the constriction and manipulation of air to produce different sounds

Places of Places of ArticulationArticulation

• 1. Exo-labial, 2. Endo-labial, 1. Exo-labial, 2. Endo-labial, 3. Dental, 4. Alveolar, 5. Post-3. Dental, 4. Alveolar, 5. Post-alveolar, 6. Pre-palatal, 7. alveolar, 6. Pre-palatal, 7. Palatal, 8. Velar, 9. Uvular, 10. Palatal, 8. Velar, 9. Uvular, 10. Pharyngeal, 11. Glottal, 12. Pharyngeal, 11. Glottal, 12. Epiglottal, 13. Radical, 14. Epiglottal, 13. Radical, 14. Postero-dorsal, 15. Antero-Postero-dorsal, 15. Antero-dorsal, 16. Laminal, 17. dorsal, 16. Laminal, 17. Apical, 18. Sub-apical Apical, 18. Sub-apical

• EXAMPLES:EXAMPLES:Bi-labial = mBi-labial = mLabio-dental = f Labio-dental = f Alveolar = d (voiced) and t Alveolar = d (voiced) and t

(unvoiced)(unvoiced)

Phonetics: The study of (the production) of sounds

PhonemesPhonemes

• a a phonemephoneme is the smallest structural unit that is the smallest structural unit that produced a difference in meaning. So, “cot” to “coat” produced a difference in meaning. So, “cot” to “coat” is a phonological change….that change in sound is a phonological change….that change in sound produces a change in meaningproduces a change in meaning

• There are a lot more sounds than letters. For example, There are a lot more sounds than letters. For example, in English there are 26 letters, but those letters are in English there are 26 letters, but those letters are used to represent a lot more sounds.used to represent a lot more sounds.

• Also, all sounds are not used nor are they even Also, all sounds are not used nor are they even available in all languages. available in all languages.

Differences in Sound ProductionDifferences in Sound Production• Pronunciation is learned, but it is also Pronunciation is learned, but it is also

internalized….some processes we do internalized….some processes we do unconsciously and yet are fairly complicatedunconsciously and yet are fairly complicated

• Ex: /t/ is a phoneme in English, and yet, it is Ex: /t/ is a phoneme in English, and yet, it is pronounced differently in these words:pronounced differently in these words:

Say the following words out loud -- Say the following words out loud -- ttip, sip, sttand, and,

wawatterer,, and and cacatt.. Notice how you pronounced what is Notice how you pronounced what is represented by /t/….HOW did you know how to represented by /t/….HOW did you know how to do that????? Notice that you also made these do that????? Notice that you also made these changes unconsciously.changes unconsciously.

Phonology: The study of language Phonology: The study of language specific soundsspecific sounds

Different languages have different sounds. Different languages have different sounds. Some sounds are so different that if we are not native Some sounds are so different that if we are not native

speakers we cannot speakers we cannot ““hearhear”” those sounds, i.e., we those sounds, i.e., we cannot identify them as significant for determining cannot identify them as significant for determining meaning.meaning.

Also, we may not be able to reproduce these sounds.Also, we may not be able to reproduce these sounds.

But, these differences in sounds, however slight, may But, these differences in sounds, however slight, may be critical in communicating meaning.be critical in communicating meaning.

PhonologyPhonology

Only some sounds differentiate meaning in any Only some sounds differentiate meaning in any given language. In some languages, tonal given language. In some languages, tonal variations express different meanings, and in variations express different meanings, and in other, clicks and sounds convey meaning:other, clicks and sounds convey meaning:

• Tonal languages: Thai, ChineseTonal languages: Thai, Chinese• Clicking languages: !Kung San peopleClicking languages: !Kung San people

• Example: Khowkhoegowab, a language spoken in NamibiaExample: Khowkhoegowab, a language spoken in Namibia

• http://http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nz44WiTVJww• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1U-bk48u6fU

Phonology and Orthography:Phonology and Orthography:

• There are many fewer writing systems than languages There are many fewer writing systems than languages (alphabet, character, symbolic, phonetic, etc). (alphabet, character, symbolic, phonetic, etc).

• This means that writing systems are adapted to This means that writing systems are adapted to accommodate various languages. FOR example, accommodate various languages. FOR example, Mongolian uses Cyrillic …..this is used in Russian Mongolian uses Cyrillic …..this is used in Russian and some Slavic languages. But in other Slavic and some Slavic languages. But in other Slavic language, like Polish, a Latin alphabet base is used.language, like Polish, a Latin alphabet base is used.

• Sometimes the choice of writing system is political!!! Sometimes the choice of writing system is political!!!

World LanguagesWorld Languages

• There are There are 6,800 known languages spoken in spoken in the 200 countries of the world. 2,261 have the 200 countries of the world. 2,261 have writing systems – that is to say that a majority writing systems – that is to say that a majority of languages have no writing system…of languages have no writing system…

• How does this shake up your preconceptions How does this shake up your preconceptions of the nature of language? As we are so of the nature of language? As we are so heavily literate heavily literate

Global Writing Systems: Global Writing Systems: mapping a history of linguistic mapping a history of linguistic

colonialismcolonialism

Types of WritingTypes of Writing

• PictographicPictographicEx:Ex:AztecAztec or or Nahuatl writingNahuatl writing

a a pictographic pre-Columbian

writing system used in central writing system used in central

Mexico until 16Mexico until 16thth century century

• LogographicLogographic• Glyphs represent morphemes, but have phonetic Glyphs represent morphemes, but have phonetic

components as wellcomponents as well

AlphabetsAlphabets

Cyrillic

Arabic

The Structure of LanguageThe Structure of Language

• MorphologyMorphology• Morphemes:Morphemes: the smallest unit that conveys the smallest unit that conveys

semantic meaningsemantic meaning• Different from Different from ““wordswords”” because not all morphemes because not all morphemes

can stand alone can stand alone • EX: Un-break-able is one word but THREE morphemesEX: Un-break-able is one word but THREE morphemes

• Bound morphemesBound morphemes• -ed, pre-, -s-ed, pre-, -s

• Free morphemesFree morphemes• Boy, girl, happy, closeBoy, girl, happy, close

The Structure of LanguageThe Structure of Language• SyntaxSyntax

• Word order (Ex. English: I gave him the book.) Word order (Ex. English: I gave him the book.) – we know what is the object and what is the – we know what is the object and what is the subject by word order…I (S) gave (V) him (O).subject by word order…I (S) gave (V) him (O).

• Grammar (agglutinative – EX. Turkish [ben onGrammar (agglutinative – EX. Turkish [ben onaa kitapkitapii ver verdimdim) we know the subject and the ) we know the subject and the object from the word endings.object from the word endings.

• Variations of syntaxVariations of syntax• English SVOEnglish SVO• Arabic VSOArabic VSO• Quechua SOVQuechua SOV

Historical LinguisticsHistorical Linguistics

• Historical Linguistics, or Philology, began Historical Linguistics, or Philology, began in the 19in the 19thth century with the comparison of century with the comparison of languages, noting many similarities. This languages, noting many similarities. This was a time in which there was a strong was a time in which there was a strong desire to know desire to know ““originsorigins”” and from these and from these comparisons of languages arose the notion comparisons of languages arose the notion of The Family Tree Model of languages of The Family Tree Model of languages and the idea of DIFFUSIONand the idea of DIFFUSION

Search for OriginsSearch for Origins• In keeping with the Evolutionist premise of the In keeping with the Evolutionist premise of the

1818thth century, most philologists believed that the century, most philologists believed that the origins of modern European languages were to be origins of modern European languages were to be found in Ancient Greek.found in Ancient Greek.

• UNTIL the “discovery” of Sanskrit during the UNTIL the “discovery” of Sanskrit during the British colonial period in IndiaBritish colonial period in India

Watch from min 25 to 35 of “The Story of Watch from min 25 to 35 of “The Story of India”India”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZVVFSiSl1s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZVVFSiSl1s In which M. In which M. Wood illustrates the discovery of a link between Wood illustrates the discovery of a link between Sanskrit and European LanguagesSanskrit and European Languages

The Indo-European Language The Indo-European Language TheoryTheory

• From these connections, it was postulated (and From these connections, it was postulated (and now well accepted) that many Eurasian now well accepted) that many Eurasian languages were Historically related and had a languages were Historically related and had a common “ancestral language” that originated common “ancestral language” that originated somewhere in the north of what is India or somewhere in the north of what is India or Pakistan. Pakistan.

• This proto language, a historical This proto language, a historical reconstruction, is named “Proto Indo-reconstruction, is named “Proto Indo-European”European”

IndoEuropean Language TreeIndoEuropean Language Tree

The Indo-European ModelThe Indo-European Model

• This notion of language families that diffused This notion of language families that diffused over time and space worked fairly well in the over time and space worked fairly well in the case of Eurasia (with some notable exceptions)case of Eurasia (with some notable exceptions)…but it was then used as a generalized model to …but it was then used as a generalized model to apply to all sorts of languages – Native apply to all sorts of languages – Native American, African, etc. This is the imposition of American, African, etc. This is the imposition of an outside frame of reference – i.e., ethnocentric.an outside frame of reference – i.e., ethnocentric.

• Additionally, this does not include the Additionally, this does not include the DISPLACEMENT of languages by force.DISPLACEMENT of languages by force.

SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics

• the study of the effect of any and all aspects of the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is usedcontext on the way language is used

• The study of how languages differ between groups The study of how languages differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, etc., and religion, status, gender, level of education, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social class or socio-categorize individuals in social class or socio-economic classes economic classes

• For an example, see “Language as a Window…” For an example, see “Language as a Window…”