L'anglais : langue internationale des sciences

Francesca Palma, Alexandra Volanschi, Natalie Kübler

Equipe de recherche CLILLAC-ARP – Université Paris Diderot

Développer un outil d’aide à la rédaction en communication scientifique - Une étude basée sur un corpus anglais pour les biologistes

L'anglais : langue internationale des sciences

700 millions de locuteurs dont < 50 % LM (Brumfit 2001)Science Citation Index:Anglais (95 %), Français, Allemand et Russe (4.9 %),Autres langues (0.7 %)

Lingua franca (Gnutzmann 2000) ou global language (Crystal 1997) mais aussi un «Tyrannosaurus rex » (Swales 1997)

- Perte de genres spécialisés- Certains auteurs bénéficient d'un statut privilégié «Publish in English or perish» (Volanschi 2008)

Questionnaire

UFR Sciences de la Vie - Univ. Paris Diderot (Volanschi 2007)

56 réponses (sur environ 300 questionnaires envoyés)

L'anglais est véritablement une langue de travail :

96 % des documents sont rédigés en anglais95 % des chercheurs rédigent directement en anglais53 % des chercheurs « pensent » en anglais

Questionnaire/2

Difficultés:grammaire (62,5 %), expressions idiomatiques (69,64 %), influence de la langue française (64,28 %), termes spécialisés (14,28 %)

Solutions: collocations en Langue Scientifique Générale

(Pecman 2004) (87 %) et terminologiques (83 %), structures prédicatives (73%) et concordances (55 %)

Outils et méthodes pour l'étude des collocations dans différents domaines scientifiques (Sciences de la Terre, Médecine, Chimie, Biologie, Informatique ...)Dictionnaire combinatoire sous forme de base de données bilingue de la phraséologie en anglais scientifique interdisciplinaireCorpus bilingue de référence pour différents genres scientifiques (article de recherche, communication orale, dissertation, ouvrage de vulgarisation ...)Saisie des données et interface d'interrogation en ligne

Le projet ESIDIS-ARTES (Kübler & Pecman)Étude des Spécificités et Invariants des DIscours Scientifiques – Aide à la Rédaction de TExtes Scientifiques

Le projet ESIDIS-ARTES (Kübler & Pecman)Étude des Spécificités et Invariants des DIscours Scientifiques – Aide à la Rédaction de TExtes ScientifiquesPublics visés : traducteurs, spécialistes de la recherche

d'information, rédacteurs techniques, scientifiques, jeunes chercheurs, étudiants, linguistes, épistémologue, spécialistes de la recherche d’information

Applications pratiques visées : applications pédagogiques, applications

lexicographiques, aide à la rédaction ou à la traduction, recherche d'informations ciblées pour l'information scientifique et technique

Phraséologie dans la langue de spécialité (Volanschi 2009)*

8 années : travaux des étudiants de Master PRO ILTS (bases des données terminologiques dans différents domaines)

- 20.000 termes et 22.000 collocations- Problème d'exploitation des ressources sur longue

période

* http://ytat2.ijm.univ-paris-diderot.fr/LangYeast/

La phraséologie en anglais scientifique

Phraséologie dans la Langue Scientifique Générale (Pecman 2004)

Collocations restrictives : working, reasonable, attractive hypothesis to support / test / suggest a hypothesis

Formules regroupées selon leur fonction rhetorique ex. “anonymous reference”:

il est courant de penser que...il est communément / généralement / unanimement admis / reconnu que...on admet que, on a longtemps pensé / cru que, on a souvent dit que..., etc.

it is commonly / generally / universally / widely accepted that...it is widely / well known that...it [is / has been] (often) asserted / noted / recognised / believed / claimed / argued that...

La phraséologie en anglais scientifique

Le projet ESIDIS-ARTES http://www.eila.univ-paris-diderot.fr/recherche/artes/index

Premières étapes : PLoS *

20 millions de motsOpen Access et XMLIMRaD standard => 4 sous-corpus 6 revues :

GeneticsPathogensBiologyComputational BiologyMedicineNeglected Tropical Diseases

(3 nouvelles revues : Plos One, Plos Current, Plos Clinical Trials)

* Public Library of Science: www.plos.org

Le corpus PLoSJOURNAL Impact

FactorAt least one author from USA, UK, etc.

One author from FR, BE, etc

PLOS BIOLOGY (5.5 million words) 13,5 91,34% 15,65%

PLOS PATHOGENS(3.8 million words) 9,3 98,84 % 21,35%

PLOS GENETICS(4.95 million words) 8,7 97,09% 16,59%

PLOS MEDICINE(2.2 million words) 12,6 76,52% 16,36%

PLOS COMPUT. BIO.(3.5 million words) 6,2 94,42% 15,82%

PLOS NTD(2.2 million words) 4,2 92,56 % 32,51%

Statistiques d'affiliation dans PLoS

USA (54,05 %)UK (10,22 %)France (5,51 %)Germany (4,27 %)Canada (3,4 %)NL (2,29 %)Japan (2,02 %)Switzerland (1,85 %)Australia (1,83%)OTHER (13,21 %)

L'article de recherche dans l’approche théorique de l’analyse des genres

L'introduction de l'article de recherche : le modèle CARS (Swales 1990)Move 1: Establishing a research territory step 1: Claiming centrality, and/or step 2: Placing your research within the filed, and/or step 3: Reviewing items of previous researchMove 2: Establishing a niche step 1a: Counter-claiming, or step 1b: Indicating a gap in current research, or step 1c: Question raising, or step 1d: Continuing a traditionMove 3: Occupying the niche step 1a: Outlining purposes, or step 1b: Announcing present research step 2: Announcing principle findings step 3: Indicating research article structure

L'introduction de l'article de recherche : le modèle CARS (Swales 1990)Move 1: Establishing a research territory step 1: Claiming centrality, and/or step 2: Placing your research within the filed, and/or step 3: Reviewing items of previous researchMove 2: Establishing a niche step 1a: Counter-claiming, or step 1b: Indicating a gap in current research, or step 1c: Question raising, or step 1d: Continuing a traditionMove 3: Occupying the niche step 1a: Outlining purposes, or step 1b: Announcing present research step 2: Announcing principle findings step 3: Indicating research article structure

- However, the previouslymentioned methodssuffer from some limitations...

- The first group...cannottreat... and is limited to...

- The second group...is time consuming, andtherefore expensive,is not sufficiently accurate...

Travaux sur les articles suivant le modèle IMRAD

Introduction: Swales (1981, 1990), Dudley-Evans (1986), Swales & Najjar (1987), Hughes (1989), Gledhill (1995, 2000), Bathia (1997), Samraj (2002)

Abstract: Gledhill (2000), Hyland (2000), Swales & Feak (2009), Bordet (2009)

Methods: Weissberg & Buker (1990), Nwogu (1997)Results: Brett (1994), Thompson (1993), Williams

(1999), Yang & Allison (2003)Discussion: Belanger (1982), McKinlay (1983), Dudley-

Evans (1986, 1994), Hopkins & Dudley-Evans (1988), Holmes (1997, 2001), Peacock (2002)

Projets similairesAMADEUS (Amiable Article Development for User

Support : Aluisio 1994) : seléction de phrases et collocations « standard » fréquents dans les textes scientifiques

SCIENTEXT (Univ. Grenoble 3, Lorient, Chambéry) : corpus textes scientifiques principalement en français

http://scientext.msh-alpes.fr/scientext-site/spip.php?article1

TYOS (Type Your Own Scripts – Univ. Bordeaux) : outil pédagogique ; corpus restreint (30 textes) ; annotation des « moves », formes verbales, connecteurs du discours, etc.http://www.tyos.org

Extraction des formulesManuellement : annotation des moves, des

steps et des marqueurs linguistiques sur un échantillon (Flowerdew 2010 ; Kanoksilapatham 2004, 2007)

As a group, parasites are extraordinarily diverse. Even closely related parasites may behave very differently, infecting different host species, causing different pathologies, or infecting different tissues. For example, Escherichia coli bacteria, a typically harmless inhabitant of the human gut, can, in different forms, cause diarrhea, intestinal bleeding, urinary tract infections, kidney bleeding, meningitis, and other diseases. Underlying this diversity is evolution. It is widely appreciated that parasites are prone to rapid evolution, and because of their often short generation times and large population sizes, parasites may evolve far more rapidly than their hosts. Attempts to understand parasite evolution, and the relevance of that evolution to disease, go back at least half a century to the first observations of drug resistance evolution in bacteria. However, the application of evolutionary theory to parasites remains fertile ground for original research. Indeed, evolutionary biology and parasitology have undergone such rapid advances in recent years that it has been difficult to keep abreast of both. Some recent papers, including the study of Babayan et al. in this issue of PloS Biology, apply results from one branch of evolutionary theory—life history theory—to the characteristics of pathogens of medical interest such as parasitic roundworms (nematodes) and malaria. Babayan et al. propose that the life history of parasitic microfilarial worms shows evidence of adaptive “plasticity.” Specifically, they propose that worm development inside a mammalian host changes in response to the host's immunity, and that the parasite's response matches predictions from life history theory. […] Babayan et al. point out further experiments are needed to distinguish between these hypotheses. The first hypothesis could be tested by determining whether the outcome of the experiments described above differs when the parasite infects its natural host (the cotton rat) rather than laboratory mice. Transmission experiments (ideally using vectors to transmit the parasite between vertebrate hosts) could be used to discriminate between the second and third hypotheses. If there is less transmission from the IL-5–treated mice than the untreated mice (because the Mf in the IL-5–treated mice are less fit), then we would favor the third hypothesis.

Background information; Domain and present situation; Gap in knowledge or remaining problem; Reference to previous research; Occupying the niche

Extraction des formulesManuellement : annotation des moves, des steps et

des marqueurs linguistiques sur un échantillonSemi-automatique: commandes Linux 138 <s> It is important to note that 83 <s> It is interesting to note that 29 <s> It will be interesting to determine 17 <s> It is worth noting that the 16 <s> It will be of interest to 16 <s> It will be interesting to see 16 <s> It is also important to note 55 <s> It should be noted that the 11 <s> It should be noted that our 9 <s> It should be noted that this 21 <s> It should also be noted that 15 <s> It is also worth noting that 13 <s> It is important to point out 9 <s> It is also interesting to note

Extraction des formulesManuellement : annotation des moves, des steps et

des marqueurs linguistiques sur un échantillonSemi-automatique: commandes Linux 138 <s> It is important to note that 83 <s> It is interesting to note that 29 <s> It will be interesting to determine 17 <s> It is worth noting that the 16 <s> It will be of interest to 16 <s> It will be interesting to see 16 <s> It is also important to note 55 <s> It should be noted that the 11 <s> It should be noted that our 9 <s> It should be noted that this 21 <s> It should also be noted that 15 <s> It is also worth noting that 13 <s> It is important to point out 9 <s> It is also interesting to note

It is important / interesting / of interestto note / determine / see / point out that …

It should be noted that …

It is worth noting / mentioning that

Accès aux données

● Par mot● Par fonction rhétorique● Par moves● Par section (pour l'article de recherche)

Quelle est la meilleure façon d'accéder aux données pour un utilisateur n'ayant pas ou ayant peu de formation linguistique ?

Cas de figure 1: accès combinéIntroduction

Mat. & MethodsResults

Discussion



Discussion



Discussion

Research outcome

Consolidating resultsLimitations of the study

Further research

Contextualizing the study

...



Discussion

Research outcome


Further research


...

Limitations about the findings

Limitations about the claims made

Limitations about the methodology



Discussion

Research outcome


Further research


...




As yet, we have not detected...

...we are unable to provide any new insight into...

Many questions still remain as to how...



Discussion

Research outcome


Further research


...




As yet, we have not detected...

...we are unable to provide any new insight into...

Many questions still remain as to how...

Corpus-driven examples

Cas de figure 2 : Accès par fonction rhétorique / communicativeListe : ~30 fonctions => Hiérarchie des fonctions pour un accès plus

simple

Liste : ~30 fonctions => Hiérarchie des fonctions pour un accès plus

simpleexpression de la découverte

Stating resultsReferring to a table/figure

Contextualizing the studyStating limitations of the study

Detailing proceduresConfirming a hypothesisProposing a hypothesis

Cas de figure 2 : Accès par fonction rhétorique / communicative

...

Cas de figure 2 : Accès par fonction rhétorique / communicativeListe : ~30 fonctions => Hiérarchie des fonctions pour un accès plus

simpleexpression de la découverte

Stating resultsReferring to a table/figure

Contextualizing the studyStating limitations of the study

Detailing proceduresConfirming a hypothesisProposing a hypothesis

This hypothesis / interpretation

is supported by theis consistent with the

These / Our data / findings

are consistent with support

the hypothesis that

...

Cas de figure 3: accès par mot

data


data

Our data do not adress the possibility that...

We have insufficient data for...

The limited data available suggest...

A growing body of data shows that...

These data are consistent with...

The data presented here suggest that...


data

Confirming a hypothesisStating limitations

Indicating source of dataIndicating criteria for data

selection


data

Confirming a hypothesisStating limitations

Indicating source of dataIndicating criteria for data

selection

Our data do not enable us to...

Our data do not address the possibility that...

We have insufficient data for...

The limited data available suggest...

Perspectives de recherche

● Déterminer quelle est la méthode la plus adaptée● Évaluation sur une sélection d'article de différentes disciplines● Soumission des différents « cas de figure » à des utilisateurs potentiels● Conception de tutoriels pour un public vaste et pour les cours d'anglais de spécialité● Création de ressources pour les enseignants d’anglais de spécialité● Multilingue

Merci de votre attention

Francesca PalmaCLILLAC-ARP Université Paris 7 – Paris [email protected]

Aluisio, S. and Oliveira, O., A Case-Based Approach for Developing Writing Tools Aimed at Non-native English Users, in Case-based reasoning, Proceedings of ICCBR, Sesimbra, Portugal, 1995.

Ammon, U., The Present Dominance of English in Europe. With an Outlook on Possible Solutions to the European Language Problems, Sociolinguistica, Vol. 8, pp.1-14.

Bathia, V.K., Genre-mixing in academic introductions, English for Specific Purposes, Vol.16, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 181-195 Belanger, M., A preliminary analysis of the structure of the discussion sections in ten neuroscience journal articles, 1982, Mimeo,

LSU, Aston University Reference Coll. Bordet, G. A comparative study of Phd abstracts written in English by native and non native speakers across different disciplines,

2009, Proceedings of Corpus Linguistics Conference, Liverpool Brett, P. A genre analysis of the results section of sociology articles, English for Specific Purposes, Vol.13, Issue 1, 1994, Pages 47-

59 Dudley-Evans, T., Genre-analysis: An investigation of the introduction and discussion sections of M.Sc. Dissertations, 1986, in M.

Coulthard (Ed.), Talking About Text, Birmingham, U.K., ELR, Birmingham University Flowerdew, L. (in press) ESP and Corpus Studies. In D. Belcher, A. Johns & B. Paltridge (eds.) New Directions for ESP Research.

Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Flowerdew, L. (in press) Corpus-based Discourse Analysis. In J.P. Gee & M. Handford (eds.) Routledge Handbook of Discourse

Analysis. London: Routledge. Fontana, N., Caldeira, S., De Oliveira, C., Oliveira Jnr., N., Computer Assisted Writing: Applications to English as a Foreign

Language, in CALL, 1993, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 145-161. Gledhill, C., Collocation and Genre Analysis. The discourse function of collocation in cancer research abstracts and articles, 1995,

Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, , Vol. 1, pp. 1-26. Gledhill, C., The discourse function of collocation in research article introductions, 2000, English for Specific Purposes, Vol. 19, pp. 115-135. Holmes, R., Genre analysis, and the social sciences: An investigation of the structure of research article discussion sections in three

disciplines, English for Specific Purposes, Vol. 16, Issue 4, 1997, pp. 321-337 Hopkins, A. and Dudley-Evans, T., A genre-based investigation of the discussion sections in articles and dissertations, English for

Specific Purposes, 1988, Vol.7, No.2, pp. 113-121 Hughes, G., Article introductions in computer journals. 1989, M.A. Dissertation, University of Birmingham.

Bibliographie / 1

Bibliographie / 2Hyland, K. Disciplinary discourses: writer stance in research articles. 2000, in Texts, Process, and Practices, Longman, London, pp. 99-

121. Kanoksilapatham, B., Rhetorical structure of biochemistry research articles, in English for Specific Purposes, 2005, No. 24, pp.269-292. McKinlay, J., An analysis of discussion sections in medical journal articles., 1983, M.A. Dissertation, University of Birmingham Nwogu, K. N., The Medical Research Paper: Structure and Functions, in English for Specific Purposes, 1997, Vol.16, No. 2, pp. 119-138. Peacock, M., Communicative moves in the discussion section of research articles, in System, 2002, Vol.30, pp.479-497. Pecman, M., Phraseologie contrastive anglais-français : analyse et traitement en vue de l’aide à rédaction scientifique, 2004, PhD.

Dissertation, Université de Nice- Sophia Antipolis Samraj, B., Introductions in research articles: variations across disciplines, English for Specific Purposes, Vol. 21, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 1-

17 Swales, J., Aspects of article introductions, 1981, ESP Research Report, (1), Aston University, Birmingham Swales, J., Genre Analysis: English in academic and research settings, 1990, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Swales, J., English as a Tyrannosaurus rex, World Englishes, 1997, Vol. 16, pp. 373-382. Swales, J., and Feak, C., English in Today’s Research World: Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts, 2009, EAPP, Ann Arbor, MI: The

University of Michigan Press. Swales, J. and Najjar, H., The Writing of Research Article Introductions, 1987, Written Communication 2(4), Sage Publications, pp. : 175-

191. Thompson, D., Arguing for experimental facts in science., 1993, Written Communication, Vol. 10, No.1, pp. 106-128. Volanschi, A. Etude et modélisation des phénomènes collocationnels Implémentation dans un système d'aide à la rédaction en anglais

scientifique, 2008, PhD Dissertation, Université Paris 7 Volanschi, A., Kübler, N., Building an electronic combinatory dictionary as a writing aid tool for researchers in biology . eLexicography in the

21st century, Proceedings of eLex 2009, Louvain-la-Neuve. Weissberg, R., and Buker, S., Writing up research. 1990, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Williams, I. Results section of medical research articles., English for Specific Purposes, Vol. 18, Issue 1, pp. 347-366. Yang, R., & Allison, D., Research articles in applied linguistics: moving from results to conclusions. 2003, English for Specific Purposes,

Vol. 22, pp. 365-385.

Quelques modèlesKanoksilapatham (2004): 15 moves (3 for Introduction, 4 for

Methods, 4 for Results and 4 for Discussion section)

Nwogu (1997): 11 moves (3 for Introduction, 3 for Methods, 2 for Results and 3 for Discussion section)

Peacock (2002): RA discussion sectionsthree-part framework involving a series of move cycles:

Introduction, Evaluation, Conclusioncombining 2 or more of 8 moves: information, finding,

expected or unexpected outcome, reference to previous research, explanation,claim, limitation, reccomandation.

QuestionnaireEst-ce qu'une liste de combinaisons de termes spécifiques au

langage scientifique en général vous serait utile ?

Prenons pour illustration le terme method :

VERBES : develop a method, describe a method, apply a method, employ a method, use a method, test a method, try (out) a method, complement a method, improve a method, perfect a method, follow a method, establish a method, etc.

ADJECTIFS : standard method, genetic method, experimental method, complementary method, obsolete method, out-of-date method, modern method, state-of-the-art method, novel method, cumbersome method, time-consuming method, etc.

Oui : 49 (87,5 %), Non : 4 (7,14 %)

Exemple de fiche terminologique

terme : atrial fibrillationcatégorie : nomdéfinition : irregular heart rhythm in which many impulses begin and spread through the

atria. auteur de la fiche : SA, étudiant(e) MASTER PRO ILTSsujet : Le syndrôme de Marfan, mémoire terminologieterme(s) équivalent(s) : Français : fibrillation auriculaireterme(s) concurrent(s) : AF, concurrent : synonyme parfait

arrhythmia, concurrent : quasi-synonymeauricular fibrillation, concurrent : quasi-synonymeA-fib, concurrent : quasi-synonyme

relation(s) indirecte(s) : arrhythmia, indirect : cause/conséquencenote : arrythmia is caused by a disruption of the normal functioning of the electrical

conduction system of the heart, like AF.Collocation(s) : chronic AF, en

: atrial premature beats, en : symptomatic or asymptomatic AF, en : converting AF to sinus rythm, en : paroxysmal AF, en

Documents

L'anglais : langue internationale des sciences