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LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE

A Field Guide to the Geomorphology and Paleoenvironmental Record of

Southwestern Saskatchewan

Originally produced for: Canadian Association of Geographers 1996 Annual Meeting,Saskatoon, Saskatchewan1

date of this pdf publication: 1999

edited by Donald S. LemmenTerrain Sciences Division, Geological Survey of Canada(Palliser Triangle Global Change Contribution No. 31)

Guidebook Contributors (* field stop leader):

I. A. Campbell – University of Alberta

J. Cosford – University of Regina

P. P. David – University de Montrèal

*W. M. Last – University of Manitoba

*D. A. Leckie – Geological Survey of Canada

*D. S. Lemmen – Geological Survey of Canada

*R. W. Klassen – Geological Survey of Canada

D. J. Pennock – University of Saskatchewan

*D. J. Sauchyn – University of Regina

*Y. Shang – University of Manitoba

*R. E. Vance – Natural Resources Canada

*W. J. Vreeken – Queen’s University

*S. A. Wolfe – Geological Survey of Canada

*C. H. Yansa – University of Wisconsin, Madison

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Contents Stops Tables/Figures Navigation hints

5 Abstract/Resumè

5 Introduction

5 Overview

5 Acknowledgements

5 The Palliser Triangle Global Change Project

7 Geologic Setting

7 Bedrock Geology

7 Physiography

7 Surficial Materials

8 Climate

8 Historic

9 Holocene Climate Change

9 Vegetation

10 Soils

10 Geomorphic Systems

10 Eolian Environments

11 Fluvial System

12 Mass Wasting Processes

12 Soil Redistribution

13 Salt Lakes

STOP LOG

14 Day 1–Road Guide

14 Day 2–Road Guide

15 Day 3–Road Guide

15 Day 4–Road Guide

STOP DESCRIPTIONS

16 Stop 1: Dirt and Cactus Hills from Avonlea Creek

16 Stop 2: Deformed bedrock near Claybank

16 Stop 3: Skyeta Lake Spillway

16 Stop 4: Oro Lake

17 Stop 5: Willow Bunch Lake

17 Stop 6: St. Victor Petroglyphs

17 Stop 7: Table Butte, Wood Mountain Upland

18 Stop 8: Killdeer Badlands / Grasslands National Park

18 Stop 9: Wood Mountain Upland

18 Stop 10: Seward Sand Hills

19 Stop 11: Antelope Lake Esker

19 Stop 12: Antelope Lake

20 Stop 13: Soil Erosion - Gull Lake Rural Municipality

20 Stop 14 Swift Current Plateau and Bidaux drumlin

20 Stop 15: Frenchman River Valley, Eastend

21 Stop 16: Jones Peak

21 Stop 17: Cypress Hills Formation

21 Stop 18: Belanger Canal, Cypress Hills

22 Stop 19: Bald Butte, Cypress Hills Provincial Park

22 Stop 20: Fort Walsh and Battle Creek Valley

23 Stop 21: Benson Creek Landslide

23 Stop 22: Police Point Landslide

24 Stop 23: Gap Creek - Friday Site

24 Stop 24: Blowout dunes, Bigstick Sand Hills

24 Stop 25: Active parabolic dune, Bigstick Sand Hills

24 Stop 26: Ingebright Lake

25 Stop 26B: Freefight Lake

26 Stop 27: NW Great Sand Hills

26 Stop 28: Lancer ice-thrust moraine

26 Stop 29: Lancer paleosol

26 Stop 30: Lower Swift Current Creek

26 Stop 31: Clearwater Lake

27 Stop 32: Missouri Coteau

28 References

34 Field Guide Contributors

TABLES

36 1. Willow Bunch Lake vital statistics

37 2. Willow Bunch Lake hydrochemistry

38 3. Antelope Lake hydrochemistry

39 4. Subaerial and buried geomorphic surfaces in the

Belanger area

40 5 Freefight Lake vital statistics

41 6 Freefight Lake hydrochemistry

42 7 Clearwater Lake hydrochemistry

FIGURES

43 1. The Palliser Triangle and Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone

44 2. Regional stratigraphic nomenclature

45 3. Physiographic subdivisions

46 4. Ratio of average annual precipitation to potential

evapotranspiration

47 5. Major soil units

48 6. Sand dune occurrences

49 7. Types of landslide movement

50 8. Model of soil redistribution

51 9. Salt lakes of south-central Saskatchewan

52 10. Salt lake morphology versus sediment type

53 11. Surficial materials and field stop locations

54 12. Geomorphology and structure of the Dirt and Cactus

hills

55 13. Ice-pushed ridges of the southern Dirt Hills

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Contents Stops Tables/Figures Navigation hints

CONTENTS

56 14. Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy, Oro

Lake

57 15. Endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake short core

58 16. Chronology and endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake core

OR1

59 17. Stratigraphic record of Willow Bunch Lake

60 18. Petroglyphs from St. Victor Park

61 19. Surficial materials of the Table Butte area

62 20. Surficial materials of the Killdeer Badland area

63 21. Killdeer Badlands, Grasslands National Park

64 22. Surficial materials of the Wood Mountain Upland

escarpment

65 23. Active and stabilized parabolic dunes, Seward Sand Hills

66 24. Airphoto of area NE of Antelope Lake

67 25. Vertical air photographs of Antelope Lake contrasting

1961 and 1991 water levels

68 26. Sediment characteristics, Antelope Lake gravity core

69 27. Redistribution of 137Cs by soil erosion

70 28. Soil loss by parent material, Gull Lake and Webb rural

municipalities

71 29. Drumlins, crescentic troughs and transverse ridges in

the Dollard area

72 30. Fractured clasts, Bidaux Drumlin

73 31. Surficial materials, Frenchman Valley near Eastend

74 32. Cross-section of fill in Frenchman Valley

75 33. View across Frenchman Valley from Jones Peak

76 34. Origin and provenance of the Cypress Hills Formation

77 35. Depositional environment of the Cypress Hills Formation

78 36. Surficial materials of the East Block of the Cypress Hills

79 37. Geomorphic surfaces of the East and Centre blocks,

Cypress Hills

80 38. Meltwater channels on the East Block upland

81 39. View from Bald Butte

82 40. Topographic profile of Battle Creek Valley near Fort Walsh

83 41. Fort Walsh National Historic Site

84 42. Topographic and bedrock cross-sections of Benson

Creek Landslide

85 43. Battle Creek Valley between Police Point and Benson

Creek landslides

86 44. Airphoto of Police Point Landslide

87 45. Ground photos of Police Point Landslide

88 46. Geomorphic surfaces in the Gap Creek basin

89 47. Buried soils in postglacial loess, Friday site

90 48. Morphometry and sediment redistribution for GSC

monitored blowout dunes

91 49. Morphological features of an active parabolic dune

92 50. Airphoto of Ingebright Lake

93 51. Modern sediment facies, North Ingebright Lake

94 52. Interpreted relative humidity, North Ingebright Lake

region

95 53. Freefight Lake; water levels, sedimentary facies and

x-radiography

96 54. Active and stabilized parabolic dunes of the NW Great

Sand Hills

97 55. Aerial photograph of Lancer ice–thrust moraine

98 56. Proximal slope of Lancer ice–thrust moraine from paleosol

site

99 57. Rotational landsliding along lower Swift Current Creek

Valley

100 58. Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy of

Clearwater Lake

101 59. Sediment characteristics of gravity core, Clearwater Lake

102 60. Endogenic mineralogy and stable isotope analysis,

Clearwater Lake core CW2

103 61. Stratigraphy of the Andrews site, Missouri Coteau

104 62. Plant macrofossil diagram for the Andrews site

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Contents Stops Tables/Figures Navigation hints

Abstract

The Palliser Triangle, extending from southwestern Manitoba to southern Alberta, includes some of the oldest geo-morphic surfaces in Canada (the unglaciated parts of Wood Mountain Upland and the Cypress Hills) as well as someof the most dynamic modern environments (e.g. the Great Sand Hills and Dinosaur Badlands). Paleoenvironmentalrecords from a number of sites document the sensitivity of this subhumid to semiarid landscape to climatic variabil-ity, and provide valuable information about the possible impacts of future climate changes.

This guide describes thirty-two sites in southwestern Saskatchewan and one in southeastern Alberta. Placed incontext by a general introduction to the geologic, climatic and geomorphic setting, these sites reflect the landscapediversity of the region and its sensitivity to past environmental change. Building upon existing work, sixteen of thestops describe recent research associated with the Palliser Triangle IRMA (Integrated Research and Monitoring Area),a multidisciplinary project studying the record of past environmental change to better prepare for the possibleimpacts of future climate change. Road directions are provided to each site, and stops are organized as a 3–day tripbeginning in Regina and finishing near Beechy on the north side of Lake Diefenbaker.

Introduction

This field guide was originally compiled to assist participants of the‘Landscapes’ and ‘Eolian Environments of the Palliser Triangle’ fieldtrips, sponsored by the Canadian Geomorphology Research Group(CGRG) and held in conjunction with the Canadian Association ofGeographers (CAG) 1996 Annual Meeting in Saskatoon,Saskatchewan. This 31⁄2 day journey across southwesternSaskatchewan focussed on Tertiary and Pleistocene geomorphology,Holocene climate change and associated landscape response. Thetwo field trips followed the same route, with participants in the‘Eolian Environments’ trip spending extra time at stops of interest toeolian researchers while skipping some of the stops on the main‘Landscapes’ trip.

These field trips and associated special sessions at the CAG meet-ing showcased, in part, research conducted over the past 4 years aspart of the Palliser Triangle Global Change Project. Coordinated bythe Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), this multidisciplinary projectinvolves more than 30 affiliated researchers, many of whom havecontributed to this guide.

The first part of this guide contains information on the regionalgeologic and geomorphic settings as background for the stopdescriptions. Much of this material has been abstracted from an “inpress” GSC Bulletin: ‘An Evaluation of the Potential Impacts ofClimate Change on Landscapes of the Palliser Triangle’, edited byD.S. Lemmen and R.E. Vance.A companion volume to this guide is the book “Quaternary and LateTertiary Landscapes of Southwestern Saskatchewan and AdjacentAreas”, edited by D.J. Sauchyn (1993, Great Plains Research Centre,University of Regina). That volume contains five papers describingdifferent aspects of the regional landscape, and an excursion guidecompiled for the INQUA Commission on Formation and Properties ofGlacial Deposits Field Conference. Several stops are common to boththe present guide and the 1993 field trip.

Given the theme of the trips, this guide is largely restricted todescriptions of the physical environment. Excellent sources are avail-able for information concerning the flora and fauna of grasslandecosystems, as well as the archeological and historic record of humanactivities in the region.

Overview

Most of the stops on this trip are reached by all-season roads (pavedor gravel), from which short hikes (<1 km) may be necessary toobtain a better perspective on the setting. However, there are sever-al sites (particularly in the Cypress Hills and Great Sand Hills) that areinaccessible when the roads are wet. There are always hazardsinvolved when visiting field sites, and care should be taken. The fol-lowing precautions are recommended:

- Always have suitable clothing, with intense rain, wind and sun allcommon;

- Check the ground before you sit down. Cow patties and cactus will be encountered at many stops (people never have to be

reminded of this twice).- Be careful crossing roads. There may be few vehicles on the

roads, but they often travel quickly and are not expecting pedestrians.

- Respect private property. Do not bother cattle.- It is ILLEGAL to remove an specimens from Grasslands National

Park, Cypress Hills Provincial Park, or any National Historic Site.

FOR THOSE WHO WISH TO FOLLOW THIS GUIDE BOOK AT A LATERDATE:

- UTM coordinates are provided for each site as well as road directions. Do not head out without good topographic maps.

- Believe the signs that say “Impassable When Wet”- DO NOT enter private property without first obtaining permission

of the land owner.- DO NOT drive off of established trails in the Cypress Hills and

Great Sand Hills. Even these trails are restricted to vehicles with high ground clearance, four wheel drive is recommended.

Citations / Acknowledgements

Each stop description has been prepared by the individual stop lead-ers and should be referenced accordingly. Likewise, reference to thebackground information presented in this guide should cite theauthors of individual sections. Affiliations and contact addresses foreach contributor are provided on the last page of this guide. DaveSauchyn (University of Regina) was co-organizer of the trip, with AlecAitken (University of Saskatchewan) and his students providinginvaluable assistance in the actual running of the trip.

The Palliser Triangle Global Change Project

The Palliser Triangle IRMA (Integrated Research and Monitoring Area)is aimed at improving our understanding of how global changeaffects water resources and landscape processes in the southernreaches of the Prairie Provinces (Fig. 1; Lemmen et al., 1993). Theregion accounts for over half of Canada's agricultural production,despite severe periodic droughts that exert significant economic andsocial impacts. The future of sustainable agricultural activity may bethreatened in some areas by future climate change, given general cir-culation model (GCM) predictions that much of the region willbecome warmer and drier as atmospheric greenhouse gas concen-trations increase. Preparation for global change requires an improvedunderstanding of landscape and vegetation responses to past climat-ic changes that were similar to GCM predictions of 21st century con-ditions.

Paleoenvironmental research brings two vital insights to the devel-opment of a sustainable activity management plan. First, it is the onlymeans of outlining the range of variability inherent to the ‘natural’climate system. This provides a realistic context within which the sig-nificance of historic trends may be evaluated. Second, paleoenviron-mental reconstructions outline the nature of landscape responses

5

(including hydrology, geomorphology, and ecology) associated with afull range of possible climatic conditions, including those predictedby GCMs. The importance of this perspective cannot be overempha-sized, because no historic analogues exist for the predicted climaticimpacts of the 'greenhouse effect'.

Purpose

To enhance understanding of regional landscape processes and pastenvironmental change, and to prepare for geologic hazards associat-ed with future global changes.

How it Works

The project is an interdisciplinary, cooperative research initiativeinvolving earth scientists from government institutions and universi-ties across Canada. There are three main research components:

1.Records of past climatic and hydrologic changes. Utilizing thefossil record preserved in the abundant prairie potholes and lakes,researchers are reconstructing changes in climate, hydrology and

water quality that have occurred over the past 10,000 years.

2 Relationships between climate and landscape processes. Bystudying deposits related to wind, water and slope erosion, earthscientists are correlating periods of past landscape instability withchanges in climate. This work is supplemented by detailed moni-toring of modern landscape processes.

3 Analysis of landscape sensitivity. The Palliser Triangle landscape isdiverse, and will not display a homogenous response to climaticchange. Computer (GIS) analysis of a wide variety of data, includ-ing human activity, will identify areas most severely impacted byclimatic change, as well as landscapes that will be minimallyimpacted.

These three components lead to a common goal: mapping land-scape response to climatic variability. Since the geologic record doc-uments landscape response to a wide range of past climatic regimes,this project provides information on the impacts associated with avariety of global change scenarios.

6

GEOLOGIC SETTING

D.S. Lemmen

Bedrock Geology (Fig. 2)

The Palliser Triangle lies within the southern reaches of the WesternCanada Sedimentary Basin, a thick wedge of Phanerozoic strataoverlying Precambrian basement rock. The geological evolution ofthe basin has recently been summarized by Leckie and Smith (1993,see Mossop and Shetsen, 1994). The region encompassed by thisguide is underlain by generally poorly-consolidated clastic sedimen-tary rocks (marine and terrestrial) of upper Cretaceous to Mioceneage. These sediments were deposited during a series of transgres-sive/regressive cycles within the marine basin associated with uplift inthe Rocky Mountains to the west (Laramide Orogeny) as well as withpost-tectonic isostatic adjustments during the Tertiary.

The bedrock unit with the greatest areal extent (subcrop) is theUpper Cretaceous Bearpaw Formation (marine shales, siltstone andlesser sandstone). Minor concretionary ironstones and bentoniticbeds (primarily highly expansive montmorillonite) within this forma-tion have considerable local geomorphic significance, particularly inbadland regions. Upper Cretaceous strata (Whitemud and Battle for-mations) underlying Tertiary sandstone and conglomerates in theCypress Hills and Wood Mountain Upland greatly influence moderngeomorphic processes by promoting deep-seated landsliding.

Regional degradation removed more than 900 m of sediment insome areas of the Interior Plains (Leckie and Smith, 1993) formingmuch of the modern large-scale physiography. The OligoceneCypress Hills Formation was deposited during a period of renewedfluvial aggradation in response to Eocene igneous intrusions thatformed the Sweetgrass Hills, Bearpaw and Highwood mountains ofnorthern Montana (Leckie and Cheel, 1989). Fluvial reworking ofsediments continued throughout the Late Tertiary, depositing the rel-atively minor Wood Mountain Formation (Miocene) as well aspreglacial sand and gravel (Pliocene to Pleistocene EmpressFormation) in valleys that are now commonly buried by glacigenicdeposits.

Physiography

The Palliser Triangle lies within the Alberta Division of the InteriorPlains Region (Bostock 1970), and ranges in elevation from 557 m asl(Lake Diefenbaker) to 1465 m asl (West Block of the Cypress Hills). Itincludes part of the continental drainage divide, with runoff from theextreme southern part of the region flowing to the Gulf of Mexicovia the Milk River and its tributaries (Fig. 3). The remaining through-flowing rivers drain northeast to Hudson Bay, although large parts ofthe region drain internally.

Major physiographic features of the Palliser Triangle are bedrockcontrolled, reflecting Tertiary degradation (Alden, 1932; Klassen,1989). The eastern boundary of the region is delimited in large partby the Missouri Coteau, a bedrock escarpment overlain by extensiveice-thrust features and hummocky moraine that rises 50 to morethan 250 m above the plains to the east, forming the 'second prairiestep' (Klassen, 1989). Another marked topographic step occursalong the margins of the Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain Upland,corresponding to the edge of Tertiary beds overlying weakCretaceous bedrock (Klassen, 1989). Less prominent plateaus anduplands within the plains commonly represent interfluves related toTertiary drainages.

Superimposed upon bedrock-controlled physiographic elementsare smaller scale features related to Pleistocene glaciation. With theexception of the highest parts of the Cypress Hills and WoodMountain Upland, all of the region has been glaciated (Klassen,1989). Drift is generally thin (<30 m), although locally may exceed150 m, with the greatest thicknesses found in buried valleys andbelts of stagnation moraine (Fenton et al., 1994). Numerous relative-ly flat plains, many formerly covered by glacial lakes, are the mostextensive features of the region. One of the major impacts of glacia-

tion was the disruption of pre-existing drainage patterns, as theLaurentide Ice Sheet diverted rivers and filled preglacial valleys(Klassen, 1989). Today large areas of the Palliser Triangle still lackintegrated drainage systems; approximately 45% of the region is notconnected by surface flow to through-flowing rivers (Last, 1984).Most integrated drainages in the region today originated as part ofdeglacial meltwater systems. During deglaciation, the Laurentide IceSheet blocked regional drainage to the northeast, forming a series ofproglacial lakes that often drained catastrophically as continued iceretreat opened new drainage outlets. Rapid shifting of drainagechannels, combined with the enormous volumes of water stored inshort-lived glacial lakes, produced deeply incised (30–100 m), steep-walled meltwater channels that in many cases form the only signifi-cant relief over large areas of the plains (e.g. Kehew and Teller, 1994).

Surficial Materials

The location of each field trip stop is shown on a generalized map ofsurficial materials (Fig. 11). The majority of surficial materials andmuch of the local topography were produced by glaciation.Christiansen (1979) and Klassen (1989) present regional overviews ofice retreat from the last glacial maximum, which are necessary toexplain the distribution of these materials. The following sectionserves as an extended legend for that map, and highlights thenature, rather than the distribution, of these materials.

Bedrock: Extensive areas of bedrock outcrop are restricted tounglaciated portions of the Cypress Hills and Wood MountainUpland, as well as adjacent glaciated slopes that are mantled byreworked bedrock and rare erratic boulders (Klassen, 1992a). All ofthese areas are underlain by Tertiary sand and gravel of theRavenscrag, Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain formations. Surfacefeatures, including well developed pediments, reflect millions ofyears of subaerial erosion under a dry climate (e.g. Klassen, 1992a),and stand in marked contrast to the surrounding, comparativelyyoung, glaciated landscape. Bedrock outcrops are common in incisedvalleys, and where significant areas of weak, Upper Cretaceous rockshave been exposed by postglacial erosion. Holocene fluvial and slopeprocesses commonly produce spectacular badlands (e.g. Dinosaur,Onefour, Big Muddy and Killdeer badlands).

Till: Till mantles more than 55% of the Palliser Triangle. On theaccompanying map, tills have been divided into two classes based onsurface morphology: i) till plains - relatively flat to gently rolling ter-rain that commonly mirrors the underlying bedrock surface; and ii)hummocky moraine -irregular surfaces with greater local relief (ca.5–30 m) that are not bedrock-controlled. Hummocky moraine is gen-erally associated with areas of ice stagnation (stagnation moraine ofShetsen, 1987), although it also includes widespread ice-thrust fea-tures (Aber, 1993).

Data on surface till composition suggests a striking homogeneity,with the matrix composed of roughly equal proportions of clay, siltand sand, andcarbonate content ranging from 5–15% (Klassen,1989, 1993). This uniformity, in turn, reflects the relatively homoge-neous nature of the Bearpaw Formation that underlies most glaciat-ed portions of the study area. Montmorillonite imparts a low perme-ability and high plasticity to the tills, which tend to become extreme-ly sticky when wet (Scott, 1989). Gravel clasts are mainly Shieldlithologies and Paleozoic carbonates, derived far to the northeast, aswell as rounded carbonate and quartzite gravel clasts that wereentrained by the ice sheet as it advanced across uplands andpreglacial valleys (Klassen, 1989). Local till characteristics may relateto different facies of the same depositional event (e.g. Klassen andVreeken, 1987) or the irregular entrainment of locally derived mate-rials (David, 1964; Shetsen, 1984).

Glaciofluvial deposits: Glaciofluvial deposits occur sporadicallyacross most of the Palliser Triangle, but individual occurrences tendto be of limited areal extent and are not well represented at the scale

7

of the accompanying map. Glaciofluvial deposits are typically com-posed of moderately to well sorted, stratified sand and gravel, in theform of outwash plains, fans, deltas and eskers. They are commonlyassociated with extensive meltwater channel systems which are alsounderlain by glaciofluvial sediment. Gravel lithologies tend to bedominantly Shield clasts and quartzites, but also commonly includesignificant quantities of shale. The finer facies of these deposits (par-ticularly deltaic sediments) have commonly been reworked by eolianprocesses.

Lacustrine and glaciolacustrine sediments: During retreat of theLaurentide Ice Sheet, regional drainage to the northwest was blockedcreating a series of ice-dammed glacial lakes (Kehew and Teller,1994). As a result, approximately 25% of the region's surficial mate-rials are lacustrine and glaciolacustrine sediment. Most of these gla-cial lakes were small (relative to other regions of the Interior Plains)and short lived, rapidly decanting into an adjacent basin once iceretreat established a new lake outlet. Some basins retained lakes longafter glacial influences had been removed, and as a result containlacustrine sediments of non-glacial origin (e.g. David, 1964).

Lake deposits may exceed 40 m in thickness (Shetsen, 1987).Although they occur most commonly on relatively featureless plains,lake sediments that were deposited on top of stagnant icenow occurin areas of hummocky terrain with up to 10 m local relief (e.g.Klassen, 1991). A suite of facies, ranging from deep water clays tolittoral sands and deltaic sands and gravels have been described,although they have generally not been the subject of detailed sedi-mentological investigations. Glaciolacustrine deposits are commonlylaminated, although extensive varved records have not been report-ed. Lacustrine sands are fine to medium-grained, well sorted, andgenerally <5 m thick, in contrast to deltaic sand and gravel depositsthat may exceed 30 m in thickness (David, 1964). Outcrops of silt andsand dominated lacustrine facies have typically been reworked byeolian processes, producing loess, sand sheets and dunes.

Eolian deposits: Eolian dunes and loess deposits are extensive in thecentral Palliser Triangle, with the Great Sand Hills comprising thelargest contiguous occurrence of dunes in southern Canada (David,1977). All sand dunes in the Palliser Triangle are part of the parabol-ic dune association (David, 1977) and are oriented with the prevail-ing westerly winds. They are derived mainly from glaciofluvial andglaciolacustrine deposits (David, 1964), and dominantly composed offine sand (David, 1977; Wolfe et al., 1995). Downwind (eastward)fining often produces blankets of very fine sand and loess to the eastof major dune occurrences (David, 1993). Although generally <5 mthick, eolian sands may reach 30 m in thickness not including theheight of individual dunes (that may be up to 15 m high; David,1964).

Loess is widespread across the Palliser Triangle, but tends to be thinand has not commonly been mapped in surficial geological surveys(Vreeken, 1993). The most extensive loess cover occurs on theCypress Hills (Catto, 1983) and Swift Current Creek Plateau(Christiansen, 1959). Deposits in the Cypress Hills span a wide agerange, from Miocene to Holocene, and locally may exceed 6 m inthickness (Vreeken, 1993). Loess on the Swift Current Creek Plateauis very thin, ranging from about 1.4 m adjacent to source sediments(David, 1964) to 0.3 m at the eastern limit of its mapped distribution(Christiansen, 1959). Loess composition is highly variable, reflectingdifferent source materials. Although dominantly silt-sized, sand andclay content as high as 33% and 32%, respectively, have beenreported in loess (David, 1964; Vreeken, 1993). Localized occur-rences of fine-grained eolian deposits also occur as cliff-top loam(e.g. David, 1972) and leeward-slope deposits (Vreeken, 1993).

Colluvium: On the accompanying map colluvium is only shownmantling the glacially oversteepened north flank of the Cypress Hills/ Swift Current Creek Plateau and on heavily dissected pediments ofthe Wood Mountain Upland. These slope deposits, derived from both

Pleistocene sediments (primarily till) and bedrock, may be more than30 m thick. Clast lithologies are dominated local rock types (Klassen,1991). Colluvial deposits are also ubiquitous along steep walls ofmeltwater channels in the Palliser Triangle. Factors that promoteslope failure include over steepening by glacial or meltwater erosion,the poorly consolidated nature of the bedrock, and the occurrence ofswelling clays in bedrock, till, and glaciolacustrine sediments.

Valley complex: This unit is used to denote complex assemblages ofsediment found in most incised river valleys. It is mainly composed ofalluvium, colluvium and glaciofluvial deposits, but may also includebedrock and glaciolacustrine sediments. The majority of incised val-leys in the Palliser Triangle originated as glacial meltwater channels.As a result, modern streams are commonly highly underfit. Recentalluvium (dominantly silt and sand) occurs as floodplain and terracedeposits adjacent to modern stream courses. Thick deposits (locally>50 m) of colluvium, derived from both bedrock and drift, are ubiq-uitous along the walls of steeper valleys. For example, Christiansenand Sauer (1988) documented 80 m of fill in the Frenchman RiverValley (21 m of glaciofluvial deposits, 7 m of landslide debris and 52m of undifferentiated alluvium and colluvium). Although such strati-graphic information is rare in the region, similar sequences of varyingthickness likely occur in most other meltwater channel systems.

CLIMATE

R.E. Vance and S.A. Wolfe

Historic

The continental, subhumid climate of the southern Canadian prairiesis characterized by a low precipitation regime, very cold winters, andshort but warm summers. Convergence of Pacific and Arctic airmasses commonly occurs east of the Rocky Mountains, and shifts indominance of these distinctly different air masses produces greatvariability - one of the defining characteristics of Canadian prairie cli-mate. This dynamism is primarily driven by seasonal variation in theposition of the core of westerly atmospheric circulation, the ‘subarc-tic’ jet stream, and the geographic barrier of the Rocky Mountainwhich impede the eastward movement of moist, mild Pacific air(Gullet and Skinner, 1992). In summer, when the jet stream moves toits most northerly point, Pacific air is usually delivered to theCanadian prairies, although much moisture may be lost duringascent up the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. The southerlyshift in winter jet stream position reduces the vigour with whichPacific air is pushed east. This, combined with the limited relief of theInterior Plains, encourages frequent incursions of cold and dry Arcticair into the Palliser Triangle during winter months. In addition to thisseasonal dynamism, less predictable variations in the strength andposition of the jet stream can produce a great range of conditionswithin any one season. Canadian record highs of 45oC have beenreported in southern Saskatchewan (Gullet and Skinner, 1992), whilewinter temperatures as low as -50oC are not unknown. Such dynam-ics produce the greatest annual temperature range in Canada (Hareand Thomas, 1979).

Most precipitation in the Palliser Triangle falls in spring and earlysummer. June is typically the wettest month and may account formore than 25% of the mean annual precipitation (EnvironmentCanada, 1993). Summer rainfall is highly variable, as it is mainly theproduct of showers, or localized, short duration high intensitystorms. Prairie winter precipitation is typically low, due to the domi-nance of dry Arctic air masses, with snowfall accounting for only30% of total annual precipitation. Orographic influences account forthe approximately 100 mm greater precipitation on the Cypress Hillsthan the adjacent prairies.

Warm summer temperatures, strong winds and extended daylightcreate highly evaporative conditions (Fig. 4). With the exception ofthe Cypress Hills, potential evapotranspiration across the PalliserTriangle (>540 mm) far exceeds mean annual precipitation (300-450

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mm). In drought years, such as 1987 and 1988, evapotranspirationexceeded precipitation by 60% in the central part of the PalliserTriangle. Widespread drought has occurred within the PalliserTriangle nearly every decade this century, with considerable spatialvariation in severity (Chakravarti, 1976). Droughts of the last 50 yearson the southern prairies have been linked to the development of sta-ble high pressure ridges that displace cyclonic tracks, moist air mass-es, and fronts northward (Dey, 1982; Dey and Chakravarti, 1976).This pattern produced little or no runoff in the spring of 1988. Whenthe critical spring rains failed to materialize, the ensuing drought wasone of the worst this century, rivalling 1937-1938 as the driest peri-od on record (Wheaton et al., 1990). June 1988 was the warmest inthe instrument record of the prairies, with mean temperature 4 to7˚C above 30 year means (Wheaton et al., 1990).

Underlying the climatic variability apparent in the historic period isa statistically significant warming of 0.9oC in the southern prairieregion since the late 1800s, culminating with the 1980s, thewarmest decade on record (Gullet and Skinner, 1992). Prairie stationsalso show an increase in the frost free period and in the number ofgrowing degree days over the last century; most noticeably in the last30 years (Bootsma, 1994). Although these trends cannot unequivo-cally be attributed to global warming, they are consistent with manyclimate model simulations (Karl and Heim, 1991; Karl et al., 1991).Unlike temperature, there is no apparent trend in precipitationrecords (Bootsma, 1994). Wet periods in the early 1900s and 1950s,however, do coincide with periods of below normal temperature. Inaddition, during the recent warming from 1959 to 1990, there werefewer years than in any previous 30 year period with above averageprecipitation.

Holocene Climate Change

Developing a Holocene record of climate change in the PalliserTriangle has lagged behind paleoclimatic research in adjacent regionsfor a number of reasons, including difficulties in sampling the fewsuitable wetland study sites and establishing accurate radiocarbonchronologies (Barnosky et al., 1987). However, recent advances inaccelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating, coupledwith the application of new coring techniques and the use of plantmacrofossil and lithostratigraphic sequences to chronicle past envi-ronmental changes, have produced a new understanding of thelong-term dynamics of Holocene climate change in the southernprairies.

A composite paleoclimatic record from Chappice Lake, nearMedicine Hat, and Harris Lake, on the north flank of the CypressHills, indicates that extremely arid conditions prevailed through themid-Holocene (7700-6000 BP), followed by less severe conditions(but still more arid than present) from 6000 to 4500 BP. At HarrisLake, the effects of increasing effective moisture are registered by ca.5000 BP, and are followed by the onset of cool andmoist conditionstypical of recent climate by 3200 BP. Additional details concerninglate Holocene events are recorded in Chappice Lake, since it is situ-ated on the prairie floor below the Cypress Hills, an environment sen-sitive to relatively minor changes in the water balance. Here, declin-ing mid-Holocene aridity (beginning at 4500 BP) was followed by aperiod of peak effective moisture between 2700 and 1000 BP. Ashort-lived return to more arid conditions, at about the time of theMedieval Warm Period (ca. 900-1200 AD; Hughes and Diaz, 1994),was followed by a return to generally cool and moist conditionsthrough the Little Ice Age (ca. 1450-1850 AD; Luckman et al., 1993).The historic period (beginning ca. 1880) has been more arid, in gen-eral reflecting historically recorded drought events of the 1880s,1920s, 1930s and 1980s. These patterns are consistent with otherrecords from the Palliser Triangle IRMA and elsewhere in the north-ern Great Plains. Evidently the mid-Holocene water deficit was severeenough to impact surface waters over a wide area (Vance et al.,1995).

Quantitative estimates of the magnitude of past climate changesfrom fossil assemblages are not yet available for the Palliser Triangle.However, transfer functions have been used to convert two pollen

records from central Alberta (Vance, 1986) and southwesternManitoba (Ritchie, 1983) into estimates of Holocene temperatureand precipitation dynamics. The relative proximity of these sites tothe Palliser Triangle provides a reasonable starting point to assess themagnitude of Holocene climate changes experienced in the southernprairies. Despite limitations with both reconstructions, a reasonableestimate of the increase in growing season temperature would beapproximately 1.5 to 3oC between 9000 and 3000 BP (Vance et al.,1995). An estimated growing season precipitation deficit of 50 mmat Lofty Lake between 8000 and 6000 BP suggests that extreme arid-ity registered at both Chappice and Harris Lake were the result oflongstanding above normal temperatures coupled with a Holocenelow in growing season precipitation. Zoltai and Vitt (1990) producedcomparable estimates based on changes in the distribution of peat-lands in the Canadian western interior, suggesting mean July tem-perature was about 0.5oC warmer than today and mean annual pre-cipitation was 65 mm lower than present prior to 6000 BP.

VEGETATION

R.E.Vance

The Palliser Triangle occupies the northernmost tip of the GreatPlains; the expansive interior grassland region of central NorthAmerica that lies in the rainshadow of the Rocky Mountains. A pauci-ty of available moisture throughout most of the region limits tree andshrub growth to lake and stream margins, north facing slopes ofcoulees, and uplands like the Cypress Hills. As a result, a northernvariant of mixed prairie grassland is the native vegetation on gentlyrolling terrain throughout much of the Chernozemic Brown and DarkBrown soil zones of the Palliser Triangle.

This native vegetation cover, commonly referred to as the 'north-ern mixed-grass prairie' (Risser et al., 1981) or simply 'mixed prairie'(Coupland, 1950; 1961) is bound to the north and west by fescueprairie, the characteristic cover of drier portions of the black soil zone(Coupland, 1961; Moss 1944). Although elements of the mixedprairie may be traced to the Oligocene (Risser et al., 1981), little isknown about the evolutionary history of its major constituents.However, the introduction of cattle and European agricultural prac-tices, coinciding with a sharp reduction in fire frequency and elimi-nation of large buffalo herds in the late 1800s, were likely as signifi-cant as any preceding events in the history of this ecozone. Today,most mixed-grass prairie vegetation has either been supplanted bycereal crops or modified by grazing and introduced species.

Coupland (1950, 1961) conducted extensive vegetation surveys ofthe area in the 1940s. His surveys show that although considerablecompositional variability is inherent to the northern mixed-grassprairie (due mainly to the impacts of relief and aspect on moistureavailability), most associations are dominated by spear grass (Stipacomata), porcupine grass (S. spartea), June grass (Koeleriamarcantha), western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), northernwheatgrass (A. dasystachum), plains muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata)and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis). Although numerous otherspecies form important subdominants or less abundant members ina variety of mixed prairie assemblages, it is the variation of theseseven major species that Coupland chose todefine all northernmixed-grass communities he recognized.

Although moisture variations impact community composition, themixed prairie grassland is well adapted for surviving in a region thatsuffers from chronic, periodic shortages of moisture. In addition toadjustments in community composition mentioned above, the yearlygrowth cycle is interwoven with seasonal moisture variations. Almost95% of the species are perennial, some with life spans greater than20 years, many are cool season forms that begin growth in earlyspring, flower by June, and are dormant by July (Risser et al., 1981).As a result, most growth is completed by the time summer heatplaces great stress on prairie water reserves and prairie fires are mostlikely to occur. A series of drought years will not only promote wide-spread development of xeric northern mixed-grass prairie assem-blages, but also will reduce overall cover, as it did in the 1930s

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(Coupland, 1958, 1959; Tomanek, 1959). In this setting, the effectsof fire and grazing are potentially more serious. Very little is knownabout the impacts more severe and prolonged drought intervals exerton vegetation, such as those that prevailed through the mid-Holocene. This gap in understanding is mainly due to the insensitivi-ty of pollen records in grassland environments, since most of themajor mixed prairie species cannot be distinguished on the basis ofpollen alone (Barnosky et al., 1987; Vance and Mathewes, 1994).

On uplands like the Cypress Hills, orographic influences createconditions more conducive to the establishment of woody vegeta-tion. Here, north facing slopes, seepage areas and stream banks sup-port populations of trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) balsampoplar (P. balsamifera), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and whitespruce (Picea glauca), which extend downslope in protected areasonto the prairie floor, whereas fescue prairie dominates drier sites onthe upland (Looman and Best, 1979). Other uplands in southernSaskatchewan also support forest cover, with Moose Mountain dis-tinguished by its extensive paper birch (Betula papyrifera) population.Woody vegetation is also found in the Palliser Triangle in coulees(Coxson and Looney, 1986), interdune areas and in deeply incisedriver valleys, where groves of cottonwood (Populus acuminata, P.angustifolia, and P. deltoides) colonize alluvial flats.

SOILS

D.J. Pennock

The major soils of the Palliser Triangle strongly reflect the subhumidclimate and grassland vegetation which dominate the area(Anderson, 1987). The soil orders result from differences in the typeand intensity of soil forming processes; these differences are, in turn,largely due to differences in surficial sediments and the stability ofthe surfaces during the Holocene.

The region is dominated by soils of the Chernozemic Order (Fig. 5).The Chernozemic A horizon has high levels of organic matter in theupper 10- to 50-cm of the soils due to above-ground and rootingzone inputs of biomass from the original grassland communities.High organic matter inputs are accompanied by minimal weatheringof the B horizon to form a Bm horizon, and the deposition of calci-um carbonate at the base of the B horizon to form a Cca horizon.The different variants of the Chernozemic Order present within theregion, which are represented as Great Groups in the CanadianSystem of Soil Classification (Agriculture Canada Expert Committeeon Soil Survey, 1987), differ in terms of the amount of organic mat-ter present, as reflected in the colour of the A horizon. ChernozemicBrown soils cover the largest area of the Palliser Triangle. These soilshave organic matter contents of about 3% in loamy to clay loam par-ent materials and as little as 1 to 2% in sandy variants (Rostad et al.,1993). The higher elevations of the Cypress Hills Plateau and theSwift Current Plateau are occupied by Chernozemic Dark Brown soilswith organic matter contents of 4%; the highest portions of theCypress Hills have Chernozemic Black soils with organic matter con-tents of 4 to 5% (Rostad et al., 1993).

Several large areas of Solonetzic soils also occur in the PalliserTriangle (Fig. 5). The diagnostic horizon of soils of the Solonetzicorder is the Bnt horizon (or hardpan layer) which is characterized byhigh sodium contents relative to other exchangeable bases. Highsodium contents initially facilitate the translocation of clay from theA horizon to the B horizon, leading to the formation of the clay-richBnt horizon. The Bnt horizon commonly overlies a salt-rich C horizon(Csa or Cksa horizon). Solonetzic soils reflect a local or regional con-centration of sodium in the soil profile. The concentration of sodiumcan occur due to either high initial levels in the source glacial sedi-ments (the lithogenic model of Pawluk, 1982) or from past or currentdischarge of sodium-rich groundwater (paleohydrological and hydro-logical models of Pawluk, 1982). Solonetzic soils which arise from thelatter two sources are closely related to areas of saline soils.

The final soil order of regional significance is the Regosolic Order(Fig. 5). Regosolic soils reflect the lack of sufficient surface stability

for pedogenesis and horizonation to occur. Regosolic soils are char-acterized by the lack of a B horizon, and, in extreme cases, the lackof an A horizon as well. They are associated with three distinct envi-ronments: unstable sandy soils on the sand hills of Alberta andSaskatchewan; valley slopes of the major river systems in the area;and with the areas of exposed Tertiary bedrock in the FrenchmanRiver valley and the Wood Mountain area of Saskatchewan.

GEOMORPHIC SYSTEMS

Eolian Environments

P.P. David

The eolian landscape is a palimpsest of forms and features that canbe interpreted through detailed study of modern morphological andstructural elements. Eolian deposits and associated features are wide-spread in the Palliser Triangle, where sand dunes alone cover over3400 km2 (Fig. 6; David, 1977). Wind-blown sediments of varyinggrain-sizes produce characteristic landforms including sand dunes,silty to fine-grained sand sheets and loess, and loamy sedimentsforming cliff-top deposits (David, 1970, 1972; Vreeken, 1993)

Wind erosion: Wind erosion is widespread within the PalliserTriangle, as there are few natural obstructions to wind flow.Although vegetation forms an efficient barrier to wind abrasion,most slopes and elevated surfaces were periodically exposed to winderosion as a result of prairie fires, a common occurrence prior toEuropean settlement.

Loess: Loess is formed by suspension settling of fine-grained, wind-transported particles. Although dominantly silt, coarser particles mayoccur as individual layers within proximal loess deposits (e.g. David,1964). In the Palliser Triangle, sources are dominantly glacial, fluvialand, to a lesser degree, lacustrine deposits, with the extent of theloess cover generally much greater than is shown on the mostdetailed soil maps. The age of these loess deposits ranges fromMiocene (Vreeken, 1993) to Holocene, with most extensive deposi-tion during Late Pleistocene deglaciation.

Eolian cliff-top loam: These wind-blown sediments overlying steepslopes have a poorly sorted loamy composition containing pebblesthat could not have been transported in suspension (David, 1972).The sediments were presumably transported by storm winds almostvertically up steep slopes (David,1995).

Paleosols: Paleosols, former soil horizons that developed on the landsurface and were subsequently buried by renewed sedimentation,are common in many eolian deposits. In addition to their importanceas stratigraphic markers, pedomorphological attributes provideimportant paleoenvironmental information (e.g. Vreeken, 1993).

Sand dunes: All sand dunes in the Palliser Triangle are of the para-bolic type, an assemblage that includes a variety of associated fea-tures besides the basic parabola form (David, 1977). The fact thatparabolic dunes are absent or rare in deserts, but widespread in moretemperate regions does not imply a causal relationship between veg-etation and dune morphology, but rather draws attention to the sig-nificance of moisture content. David (1979) separates dunes into twodistinct categories: "dry-sand" and "wet-sand". All parabolic dunesare "wet-sand" dunes, with miosture contents typically between 4and 8%.

Today most dune areas in the Palliser Triangle are stable, contain-ing only a few active dunes (<0.5% by area). Aerial photographsshow that eolian activity declined from the 1940s to the 1980s as aresult of relatively humid climatic conditions. In some areas, activesand surfaces expanded markedly in rapid response to the droughtyears of the 1980s (cf. Wolfe et al, 1995). The rate and style of dunestabilization depends on prevailing climate and the ability of the

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dune sand and underlying sediments to absorb and retain moisture.Once vegetation is established over parts of a dune through a sub-surface system of rhizomes (Psoralea lanceolata and Rumex venosus),and through seed germination (various grasses), it hinders sandmovement by increasing surface roughness. Deeply buried rootsremain protected for a long time and, unless exposed and destroyedby deflation, can rapidly regenerate the vegetation cover if dunemoisture is adequate. The three conditions necessary for eolian activ-ity; sediment supply, sufficiently strong winds and a locally sparse toabsent vegetation cover, existed on a regional scale in the PalliserTriangle during Late Wisconsinan deglaciation. At this time, the firstdunes may have been formed by dry adiabatic winds emanating fromthe retreating Laurentide Ice Sheet (David, 1981, 1988). These form-ative winds strongly contrasted the modern westerly prevailingwinds, and as a result, dunes formed at this time would have had dif-ferent orientations from those of today (David, 1981).

Following deglaciation, dunes were active and sheet sand andloess began forming as soon as source deposits were exposed. Thisactivity may have been briefly interrupted by a humid period justbefore 10 ka (David, 1972), promoting development of soil horizonson most eolian deposits (though many of the larger dunes may haveremained active). In the early Holocene climate became quite dry andeolian activity was extensive. This period of activity may have contin-ued unabated until only a few thousand years ago (cf. David, 1971).Late Holocene dune stabilization was a gradual event, beginningwith smaller dunes and culminating with larger ones that remainedactive for a considerably longer time (cf. David, 1971). Under presentclimatic conditions, relatively minor changes in yearly weather condi-tions can affect dune activity in the region (Wolfe et al., 1995).Changes in the extent of activity, and in dune morphology, may occurwithin a few years in response to short-term climatic fluctuations(David, 1981).

Fluvial System

I.A. Campbell

The pattern, nature, and products of fluvial erosion in the PalliserTriangle reflect the interaction of four major controls: the organiza-tion of the drainage network; climate; geology and topography; and,to an increasing degree, the effects of human activities. These con-trols and their associated landscape components have producedgreat variability in the regional landscape which reflects, in part, therelative efficacy of fluvial processes. Some of Canada's most dramat-ically water-eroded landforms (Campbell, 1987) and highest sedi-ment-carrying drainage basins (Stichling, 1973), are adjacent to vastareas where there is little or no evidence of contemporary fluvialactivity and in which the threat of water erosion on agricultural landis regarded as moderate (Coote et al., 1981) to negligible (Tajek etal., 1985).

Drainage Systems: The South Saskatchewan River and its threemain tributaries, the Red Deer, Bow and Oldman rivers, form thelargest through-flowing drainage system in the Palliser. These riversderive about 70% of their mean annual discharge from snowmelt inthe Rocky Mountains. The Milk River, a tributary to the Missouri, isthe only other through-flowing river system and drains only extremesouthern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. Most major trib-utaries of the Milk River outside Alberta head in the Cypress Hillswhile numerous smaller tributaries tend to be intermittent. No majorrivers have their source areas within the Palliser Triangle. SwiftCurrent Creek, which heads in the eastern Cypress Hills, is the onlymajor stream that joins the South Saskatchewan system outsideAlberta. More than 45% the Palliser Triangle is internally drained(Last, 1984), and contributes neither water nor sediment to thethrough-flowing drainage system.

The main drainage system of the Palliser Triangle has developedfrom a network of Late Pleistocene meltwater channels that crossed

topographic divides, excavated and reoccupied preglacial valleys andcut entirely new channels (e.g. Klassen, 1994). The postglacial evolu-tion of the Palliser Triangle drainage system has been affected byboth climatic change and changes in base level caused by glacioiso-static adjustments.

Climate: Climate is the main forcing function for most fluvialprocesses. The severe annual moisture deficit of the Palliser Triangleresults in little runoff generation except where sporadic, high inten-sity summer rainstorms occur in areas where topography and geolo-gy favour low infiltration losses. Over much of the Palliser Trianglemean annual surface runoff is less than 100 mm, and large areas mayproduce less than 10 mm of runoff per annum (Ashmore, 1986).Snowfall generates about 80% of prairie stream runoff (Gray, 1970)and is often the only major runoff source for small streams (Day,1989).

Climatic variations have major affects on runoff generation. Theboundaries of areas contributing runoff in prairie drainage basins dis-play great interannual variability in response to precipitation andantecedent moisture conditions. Stichling and Blackwell’s (1958)analysis of a small tributary basin determined that the actual runoffcontributing area between 1916 and 1955 ranged from 18 to 69%of the total basin (gross area), with runoff volumes varying by almost800%.

Human influences: Large scale European agricultural settlement inthe Palliser Triangle, beginning in the late nineteenth century, hasmarkedly impacted the region's landscape and drainage system. Allmain drainage systems in the Palliser Triangle, and most minor chan-nels, have been dammed or flow-regulated to some extent and largestorage areas have been built. There are more than 440 000 ha ofirrigated land in the Palliser Triangle, over 90% of which lies inAlberta (Statistics Canada, 1981). Thousands of kilometres of canals,ditches, and diversions have created a complex, wholly synthetic pat-tern of water flow and sediment transport about which little isknown (Carson and Hudson, 1992). Many of these channels inte-grate extensive areas of what were once internally drained networksinto the through-flowing fluvial system. Intra- and interbasin transferof water is practised on a wide scale.

Fluvial processes, sediment yields and erosion rates: The disas-sociation of runoff and sediment source areas (mountains / foothillsand plains, respectively) has a profound influence on how fluvialprocesses are expressed in the Palliser Triangle.

Suspended sediment data for the region generally show a down-stream increase in sediment load. The largest increase in sedimentload (1.43 x 106 t -1) occurs along the Red Deer River betweenDrumheller and Bindloss, with a very large increase (0.256 x106 ta -1)also occurring along the Milk River, downstream of the town of MilkRiver. Both of these pronounced increases in sediment load relate toextremely high sediment yields from localized badlands areas.Campbell (1992) shows that potential yields in the Red Deer bad-lands (ca. 800 km2) averaged 2500 t km-2a-1 . These badland areasexemplify of the role of partial area sediment contributions(Campbell, 1985), in which highly localized source areas exert a dis-proportionately large influence on the river's sediment load charac-teristics. Recent analysis indicates the vast majority of sediment inPalliser Triangle rivers is derived from the riparian and valley sideareas, in immediate proximity to river channels, and that the majori-ty of the land surface contributes essentially no sediment to thethrough-flowing rivers (Campbell, in press).

Adjustments to Holocene climatic change: The potential effectsof climatic change on river systems is a widely debated and con-tentious issue (Bull, 1991), with little agreement about how streamsrespond to variations in discharge and accompanying sediment load.This complex system response is further exacerbated in the Palliser

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Triangle where the subhumid to semiarid regional climate producesnarrow threshold conditions between aggradation and degradation(Graf, 1988).

Establishing correlations between past variations in fluvial process-es and paleoclimatic regimes in the Palliser Triangle are restricted bythe scattered locations of dated fluvial deposits (O'Hara andCampbell, 1993; Rains et al., 1994) and the lack of high resolutionproxy climate records. Interpretation of sediment sequences and ter-races as records of fluvial responses to climatic variations may beboth highly plausible and grossly misleading. Rains et al. (1994) con-clude that terrace sequences in this region show overlapping aggra-dational and degradational phases, with few indications that terraceformation in different stream systems are synchronous. Considerableadditional research is required in the Palliser Triangle to demonstrateif there has been a coherent, synchronous regional response of flu-vial systems to past climatic variability.

Mass Wasting Processes

D.J. Sauchyn

Mass wasting generally is not associated with landscapes of low reliefand gentle slopes. Thus the perception of the prairie landscape asgeomorphologically inert contrasts with the significance of masswasting as a process of Holocene landscape modification. Landslidesare "ubiquitous" in the major river valleys (Thomson andMorgenstern, 1978: 516), along deeply incised tributaries and on theflanks of plateau uplands, notably the Cypress Hills. De Lugt andCampbell (1992) concluded that landslides are of major formativeimportance in the evolution of southern Alberta’s landscape.

The geology and geomorphic history of the Palliser Triangle strong-ly favours mass wasting. Most slopes have developed since regionaldeglaciation in poorly-consolidated surficial materials. Incision ofmeltwater channels commonly exposed up to 100 m of Quaternaryand Cretaceous sediments (Kehew and Lord, 1986). In general, thisis a young landscape which continues to adjust to late Pleistocenegeologic events.

Low-magnitude quasi-continuous processes (e.g. soil creep) havelittle impact on human activities and thus are scarcely documented.Landslides, on the other hand, seriously constrain the constructionand maintenance of dams and valley crossings, and have been thesubject of considerable geotechnical study.

Landsliding processes and morphology: Failure of Cretaceousclay shales in this region has been described as massive retrogressivegravity creep (Terzaghi, 1955). Slow progressive slip occurs alongplanes of weakness at various elevations, causing bedrock and driftto move towards the valley floor at rates ranging from centimeters tometers (in exceptional cases) per year. Many apparently inactive land-slides are easily reactivated by any process or event that increases theprevailing stress or decreases the frictional resistance to shear.

Strongly-differentiated horizontal strata and prior deformation ofweak beds favour translational failure (Fig. 7A). With large gradientsin hydraulic conductivity and variations in shear strength, sliding isconfined to distinct horizontal beds and slide mass morphology isdominated by graben structures (Mollard, 1977; Thomson andMorgenstern, 1978). Commonly, landslides in the Cretaceous shalesarecomplex mass movements. Individual landslides typically extendfor several kilometers along valley sides and can cover tens of squarekilometers, commonly recording several periods of activity.

A second major class of landslides (the first being those in marineshales) are those associated with plateaus. With Pleistocene depositsthin or absent, meltwater and rain seeps through loess and coarseTertiary sediments, eventually saturating the underlying Cretaceousclays and promoting deep-seated rotational landsliding (Fig. 7B;Sauchyn, 1993).

Causes: Most landslides in the Palliser Triangle are caused by a fewcommon factors. The overriding cause is the inherently low shearstrength of the Upper Cretaceous shales (Scott and Brooker, 1968).

Specific geologic and geomorphic factors contributing to slope fail-ure are: i) over-consolidation of the Cretaceousclay; ii) local deforma-tion from ice thrusting and rebound of strata under incising valleys;iii) rapid downcutting of deep channels by glacial meltwater andpost-glacial streams; iv) regional fracturing of bedrock andQuaternary sediments; v) distribution of groundwater; and vi) lateralshifting of stream channels (Mollard, 1977; Thomson andMorgenstern, 1977, 1978). Lithologically, the unstable units aremarine, argillaceous and bentonitic. The factors that actually triggerlandslides are active geomorphic and hydroclimatic conditions. Slopeinstability is associated with high or perched water tables, nonho-mogeneous groundwater pressure, and increased pressure gradientsfrom rapid drawdown of groundwater during recession of floodwater or rapid valley incision.

Post-glacial landsliding: Even though landslides are ubiquitous inthe Palliser Triangle, ages are known for only a few. A major episodeof immediate post-glacial landsliding is assumed from the depth andrapidity of valley incision by glacial meltwater. Evidence of lateHolocene landsliding is available, particularly from the Cypress Hills(Goulden and Sauchyn, 1986; Sauchyn, 1993; Sauchyn andLemmen, 1996). Absolute and/or relative ages have been determinedfor 21 landslides in this region and all are less than ca. 5100 BP. Sincelandslide movement is progressive, with multiple phases of activity,these ages simply document the most recent period of slope move-ment. Nonetheless, the data demonstrate most landslides in thewestern Cypress Hills have been active during the late Holocene.

Analysis of relative age data suggests clustering of landslidingevents, rather than random occurrences (Goulden and Sauchyn,1986). Climate, as a control of the regional groundwater table, hasbeen suggested as one factor that influences landslide activity in theCypress Hills region (Goulden and Sauchyn, 1986; Sauchyn, 1993;Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996). A change from the generally warmand dry mid-Holocene (Vance et al., 1995) to wetter and cooler cli-mate after ca. 4 ka BP raised regional water tables, prompting a peri-od of slope readjustment (Sauchyn, 1990). With rising water tables,clay-rich strata at progressively higher elevations are subject to excessporewater and lowered resistance to shear. This increases the poten-tial for sliding at multiple depths, with the most probable triggeringevents being stream channel shifts and extreme hydroclimatic events.

Soil Redistribution

D.J. Pennock

Human activity has resulted in an accelerated rates of erosionthroughout the agricultural region of the Canadian Prairies.Modeling of wind and water erosion processes has been a majorfocus of researchers both in geomorphology and in the agriculturalsciences. In water erosion the principal agents of detachment areraindrop splash and flowing water, either singly or in interaction. Inwind erosion the initial detachment occurs due to the shear stressimposed by the wind itself, but subsequent detachment is caused bythe bombardment of the surface by soil particles in transport. In addi-tion to wind and water, a third source of soil erosion (or more appro-priately, redistribution) in agricultural landscapes is tillage (Lobb et al.,1995; Govers et al., 1994).

The use of the radioactive tracer Cesium-137 over the last decadein sediment redistribution studies has greatly expanded our under-standing of the patterns of soil redeposition. Applications of thistechnique in Saskatchewan indicates that the great majority of sedi-ment is normally redeposited within the confines of the study land-scape itself, rather than being exported. Hence researchers nowcommonly focus on soil redistribution within a landscape, rather thanon soil erosion alone.

Controls: Both wind and water erosion processes are closely relatedto extreme climatic events. Drought conditions are the necessary pre-cursor to wide-spread wind erosion. Analysis of drought incidenceand severity is complicated by the high spatial and temporal variabil-

12

ity associated with climatic events on the Prairies (Jones, 1991).Water erosion events are closely associated with two types of hydro-logical events: snowmelt in the spring and high intensity rainfallevents throughout the snow-free period. In both cases the infiltrationcapacity of the soil is exceeded and sufficient runoff to detach andtransport soil is generated.

The impact of climatic events on soil erosion cannot be separatedfrom the role of vegetation. Fully vegetated surfaces are not suscep-tible to wind or interill water erosion processes; only the mostextreme forms of rill and gully erosion can operate under these con-ditions. Estimates of wind and water erosion rates from fully vege-tated pasture or native grassland areasare between .001 to 1% ofthe rates from bare soil (e.g. Evans, 1980; Coote, 1983).

Soil cultivation disrupts the natural protection afforded by vegeta-tion. Exposure of the soil surface is greatly exacerbated in the PalliserTriangle by use of tillage summerfallow techniques; a two-year rota-tion whereby crops are grown in year one and then in the secondyear the soil is not seeded to allow recharge of soil moisture stores,as well as mineralization and nutrient release from crop residues. Inthe second year weeds are suppressed by successive tillage opera-tions which leaves the soil surface in a finely-divided, dry state – theoptimum conditions for wind and, to a lesser degree, water erosion.Protection of the soil is greatly increased if the crop residue (stubble)from the previous crop is left standing on the field, and recentlydeveloped approaches involving minimal tillage or herbicide suppres-sion of weeds in the fallow year have greatly increased the residuecover on fields.

The major wind erosion events in the Palliser Triangle are associat-ed with prolonged dry conditions which reduce the amount of veg-etation on the soil surface from both growing crops and cropresidues from previous years. Moss (1935) noted that severe winderosion was possible in all soil and landform types in the Brown soilzone wherever a succession of crop failures had decreased theresidue cover on the soil surface. Crop failures caused by bothdrought conditions and an assortment of disease and pest problemsresulted in massive amounts of wind erosion in the driest years of the1930's (Hopkins et al., 1946). A major snowmelt or precipitationevent following a dry year also has high potential to cause largeamounts of soil redistribution.

Current Rates of Soil Redistribution Measured with Cesium-137:A Saskatchewan-wide study by Pennock and de Jong (1991) indicat-ed that a consistent landscape pattern existed in both the Dark Brownand Brown soil zones. Even on level sites, the majority of samplingpoints were losing soil, with loss at 100% of the sampling stations inextreme cases (Sutherland et al., 1991). In hummocky landscapes theproportion of the landscape experiencing soil loss is even higher andmore consistent, with mean soil losses in steeper landscapes general-ly exceed 20 t ha-1 yr-1 (i.e. >1.50 mm yr-1). Net soil redistribution wasclose to zero even in catchments occupied by small, ephemeralstream systems, with significant deposition being concentrated at avery few sites (Martz and de Jong, 1987, 1991).Several major insights have emerged from the 137Cs studies inSaskatchewan. Most importantly, the on-site impact of soil redistrib-ution greatly exceeds the off-site impact, insofar as the net soil exportfrom the study sites is, for the most part, quite low. Although themajority of stations at each site experience mean soil losses in excessof 10 t ha-1 yr-1, most of this sediment is deposited within the con-fines of the study sites and net export from the sites is low (Fig. 8).This suggests that landscape-scale models of soil redistribution musttake into account deposition within the field if a realistic sedimentbudget for a given landscape is to be developed.

Salt Lakes

W.M. Last

North America’s northern Great Plains form a unique setting for mil-lions of lakes. Because of the relatively high evaporation / precipita-tion ratios in this region and the presence of extensive areas of closed

drainage, saline waters dominate these lakes (Fig. 9). Indeed,throughout much of the Palliser Triangle, saline and hypersalinebrines are the only surface waters present.

As a group, the lakes of this region are unique: no other area in theworld can match the concentration and diversity of saline lake envi-ronments exhibited in the western interior region of Canada.Estimates vary from about 1.5 million to greater than 10 million indi-vidual salt lakes and saline wetlands in this region of North America,with densities in some areas being as high as 120 lakes km-2. Whilethe vast majority of these lakes are small, shallow, and ephemeral (i.e.playas), the region also contains several of North America’s largestinland saltwater bodies.

Only in the last two decades have researchers begun to appreciatethe wide spectrum of basin types, water chemistries, and geolimno-logical processes that are operating in the modern settings.Hydrochemical data are available for about 500 lake brines in theregion. Mineralogical, textural, and geochemical information on themodern bottom sediments have been collected for just over 100 ofthese lakes. The Holocene stratigraphic records of only about 20 ofthe basins in the entire northern Great Plains of both Canada andUSA have been examined in detail.

The lake waters show a great range in salinity and ionic composi-tion. Early investigators, concentrating on the most saline brines,emphasized a strong predominance of Na+ and SO4

-2 in the lakes(Cole, 1926; Sahinen, 1948; Govett, 1958). It is now realized, how-ever, that not only is there a complete spectrum of salinities from <1ppt to >400 ppt, but also virtually every water chemistry type is rep-resented. Lake brines with the highest proportions of Na+ and SO4

-2

ions generally occur in east central Alberta and west centralSaskatchewan, whereas Ca+2 and HCO3--rich brines dominate in thenorth and east part of the region. Brines with relatively high Cl-andMg+2 contents occur in western and central Manitoba. Significantshort-term temporal variations in brine composition, which can haveimportant effects on modern sediment composition, have been welldocumented in several individual playa basins.

From a sedimentological perspective, the wide range of waterchemistries results in an unusually large diversity of modern sedimentcompositions. Over 40 species of endogenic precipitates and authi-genic minerals have been identified in the lacustrine sediments (Lastand Slezak, 1987; Last, 1989a). The most common non-detrital com-ponents include: calcium and calcium-magnesium carbonates (mag-nesian calcite,aragonite, dolomite), and sodium, magnesium, andsodium-magnesium sulfates (mirabilite, thenardite, bloedite,epsomite). Many of the basins whose brines have very high Mg/Caratios also have hydromagnesite, magnesite, and nesquehonite.Unlike salt lakes in many other areas of the world, halite, gypsum,and calcite are relatively rare endogenic precipitates in Great Plainslakes today.

Sediment accumulation in these salt lakes is controlled and modi-fied by a wide variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes(Fig. 10). Although the details of the many modern sedimentaryprocesses can be exceedingly complex and difficult to discuss in iso-lation, in broad terms, the processes operating in the salt lakes of theGreat Plains are ultimately controlled by 3 factors: (a) basin morphol-ogy; (b) basin hydrology; and (c) water salinity and composition.Combinations of these parameters give rise to four 'end member'types of modern saline lacustrine settings in the region: (i) shallowlakes (playas) dominated by clastic sediment; (ii) shallow lakes (playas)dominated by chemically precipitated sediment; (iii) deep water(perennial) lakes dominated by clastic sediment; and (iv) deep water(perennial) lakes dominated by chemically precipitated sediment.

13

STOP LOG

DAY ONE - ROAD GUIDE

Stop 1: Depart Regina from the interchange of highways 1 & 6.Drive 39 km south on highway 6 to intersection with secondary high-way 334. Turn right and follow 334 west (with a 3 km jog to thesouth) for 30 km. Stop before bridge over Avonlea Creek for bestexposures of bedrock, rise out of valley for view of Dirt and CactusHills.

Stop 2: Continue west on highway 334 for 4.5 km to the 5-waystop sign on the NE edge of Avonlea. Continue straight west onhighway 339. After 8 km road jogs north for 3.3 km, and then con-tinues west for another 3 km. Turn south on gravel road followingsigns to the Claybank Brick Yard (1.8 km south of highway), whichhas been converted into an outstanding museum (small admissioncharge). Clay pits lie to south behind the brick yard.

Stop 3: Return to highway 339 and proceed west past the town ofClaybank. After about 3 km highway 339 turns north, but you con-tinue due west on gravel grid road for 1.8 km. Follow the main gridroad as it swings south past the former town of Bayard Station, andfollow signs to Spring Valley (7.8 km west and 8 km south of BayardStation). Drive 1.1 km west of Spring Valley and turn left (south) onthe grid road. Driving south for about 8.7 km, stop along road inupper spillway.

Stop 4: Continue southeast and south down the spillway to anintersection about 3.5 km past stop 3. Continue straight souththrough the intersection for another 6.4 km. Turn left (east ) anddrive for 2.9 km to Oro Lake Regional Park. Follow road to the northto parking area at beach and concession area.

Stop 5: Retrace route to grid road 3 km east of Oro Lake. Turnsouth and drive for 9.5 km (past the town of Ormiston) and thenwest for 10 km to highway 36. Head south for 19.5 km to a ‘T’ inter-section, then west for 10 km on highways 13/36, and finally southfor 6.5 km, stopping where convenient.

Stop 6: Continue south on highway 36 for about 7.5 km and makevery sharp turn to the right, heading NW up a meltwater channel.Travel about 18 km to the town of St. Victor. Look for signs to thePetroglyphs and Regional Park near the western edge of the town.Historic site lies 2.7 km south of St. Victor on the east side of road,park in parking lot and follow walking trail.

Stop 7: From Historic Site parking lot proceed 3.8 km south, 2.5 kmwest, 3.2 km south and 6.5 km west along gravel roads to intersec-tion with highway 2. Turn south on highway and travel approxi-mately 21 km to the town of Rockglen. Continue south and thenwest from Rockglen for about 35 km. Park on south side of highwaynear gate. Table Butte lies on private land and is accessed by walkingup the steep trail.

Stop 8: Continue southwest along highway 2 for 5.7 km, passingthe settlement of Killdeer, before turning west onto a gravel road(look for signs to Grasslands National Park). Travel west for 8.5 kmand then south for 3.3 km. For public access to Grasslands NationalPark, turn at park sign and travel about 3.8 km W and NW to a park-ing area and information display. Access via private land only withpermission.

Stop 9: Backtrack 3.8 km to turnoff into Grasslands National Park.Then drive 13 km north on gravel road, turning west just past theformer village of Macworth. Proceed 15 km west and then 13 kmnorth. Park at entrance to gravel pit on east side of the road.

End of Day 1. Day 2 starts from Swift Current.

DAY TWO - ROAD GUIDE

Stop 10:Head west from Swift Current on highway 1, and continue23 km past the interchange of highways 1 & 32. At turn off to thetown of Webb (which lies south of the highway), turn north ontogravel road. Drive north for 3.25 km and turn left onto smaller road.Follow this road, which turns to a sand base, for 3.9 km past sever-al stabilized and one active dune. Stop just prior to second activedune (monitored site on airphoto of stop); a dugout should be pres-ent on the east side of the road.

Stop 11:Continue north and west along sand road for about 2.5km, and then turn north and drive 6.5 km on gravel road. Then turnwest on grid road and drive 4.1 km, stopping at the crest of theesker.

Stop 12:Continue west along grid road for 7.4 km. Turn south anddrive 3.25 km to intersection with paved road (in rather poor shape).Turn east for 1.4 km to gate to Antelope Regional Park. Follow roadsin Park (keeping to the right) down to picnic area and boat launch.

Stop 13: From entrance gate to Antelope Regional Park, drive westfor 4.2 km to intersection with highway 37. Drive south for 3.25 kmand turn west on grid road. Drive 6.2 km, site lies on north side ofroad.

Stop 14: Turn around and return the 6.2 km to highway 37. Turnsouth and drive about 72 km through the town of Gull Lake toShaunavon. At Shaunavon turn right onto highway 13 and travelsouthwest about 28 km. Gravel pit in drumlin lies on the right sideof the highway.

Stop 15:Continue southwest down highway 13 for another 3.7 km,park as you begin descent into valley.

Stop 16:Continue 3 km further down highway 13 to the town ofEastend. At the west end of the town turn right and take smallbridge across Frenchman River. Follow this road about 4.3 km to thenorth rim of the Frenchman River Valley. Turn left (west) and proceed5.5 km, then turn south (small sign marking Jones Peak) on a roadthat climbs for about 3 km to a communications tower.

Stop 17: Return the 3 km to previous turnoff. Turn left and continuedriving west for about 11.5 km. Just prior to reaching the town ofRavenscrag, turn north on better quality gravel road and drive for 5.9km. Gravel pit is on west side of the road, obtain permission from RMbefore entering.

Stop 18:Continue north for about 0.5 km and turn west (road noton 1:50 000 topographic map published in 1976). Follow this roadmainly west for 20 km, crossing Fairwell Creek after about 7 km. Parkjust before bridge over Belanger Canal. Walk north along canal forabout 250 m, good exposures along the east bank extend for about1 km.

End of Day 2. Day 3 starts at from Cypress Hills Provincial Park.

14

DAY THREE - ROAD GUIDE

Stop 19: Start from miniature golf course on main road throughCypress Hills Provincial Park (at turnoff to Four Seasons Resort).Continue SW along main road for 0.8 km, then turn right on scenicroad. Follow this road approximately 5 km to Bald Butte (marked byProvincial Park sign).

Stop 20:Continue west and then south along scenic road for about4.5 km to ‘T’ junction with the Gap Road. If dry (IMPASSABLE WHENWET), travel west about 20 km to the intersection with highway 271and turn south. After 1.6 km turnoff to Fort Walsh. About 5.5 kmalong turn south to visitor centre at Fort Walsh National Historic Park.

Stop 21: Retrace route to turnoff about 4.5 km north of the visitorcentre, then turn west (ROAD IMPASSABLE WHEN WET). After about3.2 km the road turns SW and descends into the Battle Creek Valley.A further 3.5 km down the road crosses Battle Creek for the first timeand turns NW up the valley. After another 5.5 km the road climbsonto Benson Creek landslide. Stop just before the road descendsonto a wide flat section of the valley floor.

Stop 22:Continue NW along Battle Creek Road. About 2.5 km pastthe provincial border turn left (south) onto Graburn Road. Aftercrossing Battle Creek take the right fork up a very steep (and oftenvery poor) road to plateau surface. Continue across the plateau forabout 2 km; scarp of Police Point landslide lies about 200 m north ofthe road (alternative access from highway 48).

Stop 23: Retrace route back to Battle Creek Road. Turn left and headnorthwest for about 1 km. Where the road forks, keep right and fol-low main road north for about 15 km to junction with secondaryhighway 515. Turn right (east) and follow gravel road (724 inSaskatchewan) to ‘T’ junction with highway 271. Turn south anddrive 5.8 km, turning right into private drive (OBTAIN PERMISSION).Exposure lies about 1 km north of drive along east bank of valley.

Stop 24: Return to highway 271 and drive north and east to thejunction with highway 21 at the town of Maple Creek. Turn northand follow highway through town to junction with highway 1. Turneast and drive along highway 1 for 17 km, turning north on firstgravel road after passing the microwave tower. Drive north for 5.2km, east for 1.5 km and north for 9.8 km, at which point the roadswings NE and eventually becomes a private drive. After aboutanother 2 km (before entering ranch yard), turn north onto trailcrossing cattle guard. TOPOGRAPHIC MAP AND AIR PHOTOS HIGH-LY RECOMMENDED IN SAND HILLS. With permission from Bowieranch, proceed generally north for about 4.5 km. The two monitoredblowout dunes lie about 200 m west of the trail.

Stop 25:Continue along same trail. At first junction veer left, at allothers keep to the right (heading NW). Travel approximately 3.5 km,with the large active parabolic dune visible to the northwest much ofthe time. Stop at dune, which in 1995 was just beginning to advanceover the trail.

Stop 26:Continue north about 0.5 km and then east about 3.3 kmon trail, keeping to the right at forks. Turn left at ‘T’ junction just pastlarge sign (facing opposite direction, dog kennels are to your right).Follow trail north and east for 4 km, and again turn left (north) atnext ‘T’ intersection before cattle guard. Remember to close gates ifthey have to be opened. Drive north for about 1.5 km to junctionwith grid road. Continue north and then generally west on grid road

for about 26 km to junction with highway 21. Travel north on pavedhighway for 10 km, and then turn east on SaskMinerals Road. Driveabout 10 km to Ingebright Lake.

Stop 26B: Continue east on SaskMinerals Road. After crossing rail-way tracks, turn north for 3 km and then east for about 14 km.Freefight Lake is visible to just north of the road and accessed by ashort walk.

Stop 27: Retrace route from Freefight Lake to Ingebright Lake andcontinue west back to highway 21. From junction of highway 21 andSaskMinerals Road, travel north past the town of Fox Valley for 35km to the town of Leibenthal. Turn east and follow grid road for 18km, then north (straight leads into a ranch) for about 4.5 km on aroad that turns to sand and leads through the dunes. Two largedunes (Picnic and Big dunes of David, 1993) lie to west of road.

End of Day 3. Day 4 starts in Leader.

DAY FOUR - ROAD GUIDE

From Leader, travel 20 km east on highway 32 to the town ofSceptre. If time permits, visit the Great Sand Hills Museum on thenorth side of the highway, and enjoy the murals that adorn many ofthe buildings in Sceptre.

Stop 28:Continue east and SE on highway 32 for about 41 km tothe town of Abbey. At Abbey, make a very sharp left turn and headdue north on a gravel road for 4.6 km and turn east. Stop aboutanother 2.5 km as you begin to descend the Lancer ice thrustmoraine.

Stop 29:Continue down road through the moraine for about 1.5km. Exposure lies near the base of moraine on the south side of theroad, beside pulloff lot.

Stop 30: From paleosol site continue 5.8 km east and then 9.5 kmsouth to junction with highway 32 at the town of Shackleton. Turnleft and travel 15.3 km SE to town of Cabri. At Cabri turn left ontosecondary highway 738 (gravel) and head generally east for 39 kmto junction with highway 4. Continue due east on highway 4 for 7km, and then continue east on gravel road that skirts the north edgeof Stewart Valley (highway swings south). Continue along this roadfor 5.5 km where road begins descent into Swift Current Creek val-ley.

Stop 31: Retrace route back to highway 4 north of Stewart Valley.Turn right and follow the highway for about 40 km, crossing theSouth Saskatchewan River at Saskatchewan Landing Provincial Park.Turn east onto highway 342 (paved) just north of the town of Kyle.Continue east for 7.8 km to Clearwater Lake Regional Park immedi-ately north of the highway.

Stop 32: Return to highway 342 and drive generally east across theMissouri Coteau for about 36 km heading toward town of Beechy.As this stop describes three sites on the Missouri Coteau, none ofwhich are accessible by road, there is no specific place to stop andview.

End of Day 4. End of formal field trip. For additional information,including other sites, look for future GSC publications of the PalliserTriangle Global Change Project, including a multimedia CD-Rompresently in preparation.

15

STOP DESCRIPTIONS

STOP 1: DIRT AND CACTUS HILLS FROMAVONLEA CREEK

D. J. Sauchyn and D. S. Lemmen

NTS 72I/2 UTM 007404

This stop, just east of the town of Avonlea (Fig. 12), lies near thewestern margin of the glacial Lake Regina basin, an almost feature-less plain of glaciolacustrine sediments (Avonlea is <25 m higher ele-vation than Regina). At this site, a thin veneer of Quaternary sedi-ment overlies bedrock. Small sections and badland topography alongAvonlea Creek expose horizontally bedded Upper Cretaceous sedi-ments (primarily Eastend Formation). To the west of Avonlea lies theMissouri Coteau and the Dirt and Cactus Hills; outstanding examplesof glaciotectonic landforms (Fig. 3; see Aber, 1993). The northernDirt Hills rise about 280 m above the lake plain to an elevation of 880m. The hills were produced by a readvance of three tongues of theWeyburn ice lobe during late Wisconsinan deglaciation (ca. 13 kaBP). Blocks of poorly consolidated, and largely unfrozen, UpperCretaceous bedrock (Eastend, Whitemud and lower Ravenscrag for-mations) were upthrust as much as 250 m at the margin, or imme-diately in front, of the ice tongues. Deformed glacial sediments indi-cate that the Cactus Hills and much of the Dirt Hills were subse-quently overridden by ice. The highest southern part of the Dirt Hillsstood as a nunatak between active ice to the north and stagnant iceto the south.

STOP 2: DEFORMED BEDROCK NEAR CLAYBANK

from Aber, 1993

NTS 72I/3 UTM 844418

At the northeastern end of the Cactus Hills, clay pits expose a gentleanticline in the Upper Cretaceous Whitemud and Lower Ravenscragformations that trends east-west and plunges very slightly to thewest (Fig. 13). The anticline is partially truncated at its crest and dis-cordantly overlain by till. Thrust and normal faults strike northeastand dip northwest. They cut obliquely across the anticline, suggest-ing a later phase of deformation than the folding. These structuresdemonstrate that the lower, ice-pushed ridges of the northern DirtHills were overridden by thick active ice.

STOP 3: SKYETA LAKE SPILLWAY

from Aber, 1993

NTS 72H/14 UTM 707238

A prominent spillway descends to Skyeta Lake (Fig. 12) across theeast-west trending bedrock ridges of the southern Dirt Hills (Fig. 13).A kame of poorly sorted bouldery gravel marks the head of the spill-way and margin of the Spring Valley ice tongue. Interbedded finesands, silts and clays of the Eastend Formation are exposed in road-cuts adjacent to the spillway. These sediments lie about 200 m abovetheir normal stratigraphic position in this area, with a near verticalfault contact against glacial sediments to the south. At the southernend of the spillway a terrace, underlain by well-sorted, bouldery grav-el, grades southward to a higher elevation than the surroundinglandscape. This suggests that stagnant ice occupied the region southof the Dirt Hills when the spillway was active. A gravel pit at themouth of the spillway contains coarse gravel, extremely well-round-ed boulders and a great variety of rock types, including petrifiedwood, representing distal outwash deposits associated with the spill-way.

STOP 4: ORO LAKE

R. E. Vance and W. M. Last

NTS 72H/14 UTM 746150

Oro Lake is a small, topographically closed-basin saline lake locatedimmediately south of the Dirt Hills on the Missouri Coteau. Like manyprairie lakes, Oro Lake experienced a marked reduction in lake-levelin the last 20 years, and by the early 1990s had reached levels as lowas those of the 1930s. Once a popular recreational site, declininglake levels and deteriorating water quality have restricted use. Itscombined attributes of relatively deep water and high salinity pro-duce finely laminated sediments in the deepest portion of the basin,and vibracores collected in 1994 are laminated for most of theirlength (Fig. 14). Although there has been no neolimnological ormodern sedimentological research yet done on the basin, the watercolumn was chemically stratified in 1994, with 30‰ salinity surfacewater and about 45‰ TDS at 5 m depth. Unlike many other saltlakes in the vicinity, Oro Lake brine is dominated by Mg2+ rather thanNa+. Oro Lake has the highest meq% magnesium of any salt lake yetstudied in the Great Plains. The entire water column is strongly super-saturated with respect to many magnesium and magnesium+calciumcarbonates and, during winter, is also saturated to supersaturatedwith respect to a variety of Mg-bearing sulfate salts. The surficial off-shore bottom sediments consist of a complex mixture of hydratedmagnesium sulfates (epsomite and hexahydrite), magnesium+sodiumsulfates (konyaite and bloedite), calcium sulfate (gypsum), magnesiumcarbonate (magnesite), and detrital components (quartz, feldspars,clay minerals, carbonate minerals). The stratigraphic variation of theseendogenic components in an undated short core (Fig. 15) clearly sug-gests that the basin has experienced considerable hydrochemicalchanges in the past several decades, consistent with observations bylong-term residents of the area.

Holocene stratigraphic sequences recovered from Oro Lake, withthe exception of basal colluvium and peat in OR1 and OR2, consistmainly of well bedded, highly calcareous and gypsiferous clayey silts.A 9500 year record of sedimentation was obtained from centralbasin area (OR1; Fig. 16). The basal sediment is a very dry, compact,silty diamicton composed mainly of detrital quartz, feldspars, andclay minerals. Overlying the diamict is a 10 cm thick peat, containinga rich macrofossil assemblage dominated by sedge and chenopodseeds, and Chara oogonia. The peat is sharply overlain by 1.8 m oflaminated gypsite, that in turn is sharply overlain by 3.2 m thick unitof finer-grained, aragonite-rich silty clay. This thick aragonite unit isalso well laminated, with a wide variety of bedding types rangingfrom very thin to thin (<1 mm to 3 mm) monomineralic laminae,graded beds, and distorted and convoluted bedding. Another sharpcontact separates this unit from an upper gypsum-rich laminatedsequence which comprises the top 3 m of section. The upper 70 cmof this youngest stratigraphic unit is non-bedded, with graduallyincreasing levels of hydrated sodium and magnesium sulfate saltsand decreased gypsum upward in the section. Compared to the basalpeat layer, macrofossil concentration is low throughout all upperunits. Variations in major components, including Chara, Ruppia,Scirpus and chenopods, suggest changes in water level and waterquality have occurred, although none appear as significant as earlyHolocene events.

With its long, apparently uninterrupted record of laminated sedi-ment, Oro Lake is one of the more important lacustrine sequencesyet retrieved from the Great Plains region of western Canada.Preliminary interpretation of the stratigraphic changes in chemicalprecipitates in this section suggests that although the overall salinityand depth of the lake probably did not change dramatically afterdeposition of the basal clastic-dominated unit, ion ratios of the brine

16

did undergo significant variation. The lower gypsite unit was deposit-ed in an early Holocene Ca–SO4 dominated saline lake. Water depthswere sufficiently great (> ~3 m) to preserve lamination or the lakewas chemically stratified. A relatively abrupt change in water chem-istry occurred at about 6900 BP with the lake becoming considerablymore alkaline and having a Mg/Ca ratio of not less than 10 to over100. Another sharp change occurred in the chemistry of the lake atabout 3500 BP The previous 3400 year long episode of stable buthigh Mg/Ca ratios and high alkalinities was replaced by 2500 yearsof rapidly fluctuating but still saline water compositions. Beginningabout 1000 years ago, periodic hypersaline conditions became morecommon in the basin, coincident with significantly decreased con-centrations of Ca2+ and complimentary increased proportions of Na+

and Mg2+ ions. Continued mineralogical (W. M. Last) and plantmacrofossil (R.E. Vance) analyses in all three cores, combined withstable isotope stratigraphy of core OR1 (M. C. Padden), will allowdevelopment of a detailed record of Holocene climate change andimpacts on water resources.

STOP 5: WILLOW BUNCH LAKE

W. M. Last

NTS 72H/5 UTM 530799

Willow Bunch Lake is a large (30 km2) but very shallow (Zmean < 1m)salt lake occupying a long, topographically–closed riverine basin(Table 1). Willow Bunch, Twelve Mile and Big Muddy lakes, as wellas Lake of the Rivers, lie within a major glacial meltwater spillway sys-tem that drained lakes impounded along the retreating margin of theLate Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet southward into the MissouriRiver (Parizek, 1964; Christiansen, 1979). Although the present-daydrainage basin of Willow Bunch Lake is large (>1000 km2), its hydro-logic budget today appears to be dominated by groundwater influxand diffuse overland inflow rather than stream inflow. Typical of mostof the shallow, playa basins in the region, the lake undergoes dra-matic water level fluctuations on a seasonal as well as longer-termtemporal basis, however, the basin has not completely dried duringthe period 1983 to present. Similarly, brine concentration and ioniccomposition also vary greatly on a seasonal and spatial basis. WillowBunch Lake water is saline (average salinity over the past decade isabout 50‰), alkaline (pH = 9.8), and usually dominated by Na+ andSO4

2- (Cl-) (Table 2). The concentration of Ca2+ is anomalously lowrelative to the inflowing groundwater and surface streams. Seasonalvariations in brine chemistry result from dilute inflow during spring,evaporative concentration during the ice free season, and precipita-tion of salts due to freeze-out concentration. Spatial variations aremost likely caused by subaqueous spring discharge of Ca2+ andHCO3

- –enriched groundwater.Modern sediments in the lake are a mixture of fine to coarse detri-

tal clastics (mainly quartz, feldspars and clay minerals), and endogeniccarbonate and sulfate minerals. The ratio of detrital to endogenicsediments shows a gradation from relatively high at the western endof the basin to low at the eastern end. The organic matter content islow and dominated by detrital rather than endogenic organics. Thedominate endogenic carbonate mineral present in the modern sedi-ment is aragonite, although both magnesian calcite (with 10-14mol% MgCO3) and protodolomite both occur in minor proportions.The small amount of protodolomite is unusual because it containsexcess MgCO3 rather than being Ca–enriched. The lake water is at alltimes of the year undersaturated with respect to gypsum and thisevaporite mineral does not occur in the modern sediments despite itscommon occurrence in soils and drift surrounding the lake.

The Holocene lacustrine stratigraphy from Willow Bunch Lake isknown from just one 7 m long core taken at the eastern end of thebasin (Fig. 17). With only two conventional 14C ages (on bulk organ-ic matter and endogenic carbonate material), the chronostratigraphyis highly suspect. The lithostratigraphic units identified in this coreconsist of a basal coarse clastic (alluvial?) unit that is sharply overlain

by calcareous lacustrine clays with abundant mollusc shells, and fine,irregularly-spaced lamination. Most of the laminae in the lower partof this unit are dominated by normal (low–Mg) calcite, suggesting aMg/Ca ratio of less than 1 in the lake. The upper 50 cm of the unitcontains laminae composed of magnesian calcite with 4-10 mol%MgCO3 content, indicating a Mg/Ca ratio of 2:5. Grading upward,the carbonate content decreases whereas gypsum and other evapor-ites dominate the endogenic component of the sediment. Thischange from carbonate-rich to sulfate-rich laminated sediment prob-ably reflects a gradually increasing brine concentration. The occur-rence of pedogenic horizons and microbial-laminated zones indicatethe lake experiences shallow water to completely dry conditions.Overlying the gypsum-rich laminated unit is a thin, structureless,black, highly reducing sulfide-rich mud which passes sharply up intowell indurated salt. Although sediment recovery from this salt unitwas poor, the detailed evaporite mineralogy indicates that the pre-cipitating brine was initially high in Na+ and SO4

-2 but becameincreasingly Mg+2–rich. Finally, the upper 1.5 m of sediment consistof structureless, clayey silt and silty clay with relatively high endo-genic aragonite contents.

STOP 6: ST. VICTOR PETROGLYPHS

D. J. Sauchyn - from SERM, no date

NTS 72H/5 UTM 371734

The St. Victor Petroglyph Park is the only horizontal petroglyph siteon the Canadian plains and one of only five in Canada east of the BCcoast. The age and origin of these rock carvings is unknown, but theymost likely predate 1750 when the horse arrived on the northernplains. Some glyphs are superimposed on others. Thus they may havebeen carved over a number of years by various carvers, possiblyshaman (medicine men) of the early Sioux and Assiniboine. Theglyphs were outlined with quartzite chisel and hammer stone, andrefined using wood implements, water and sand. They were carvedin late Cretaceous–early Tertiary sandstone (Ravenscrag formation)exposed about 500 m above the adjacent valleys. From this vantagepoint, the native people had a panoramic view of the surroundinglandscape. They carved turtles, human heads and hand prints, andthe tracks of grizzly bear, bison, deer, elk and antelope (Fig. 18).Other glyphs are not understood or have been weathered and erod-ed beyond recognition.

STOP 7: TABLE BUTTE, WOOD MOUNTAIN UPLAND

R. W. Klassen

NTS 72G/1 UTM 044415

Wood Mountain Upland consists of extensive tracts of flat to gentlyirregular unglaciated bedrock terrain as well as smaller areas ofstrongly dissected bedrock terrain which feature a thin drift cover.Table Butte (elevation 1000 m) is a residual of the unglaciated terrain(Rp, Fig. 19), surrounded by dissected terrain with residual drift (dRd,Fig. 19; Klassen, 1992b). Both terrain types are underlain by sandand gravel of the Miocene Wood Mountain Formation, and are dom-inantly the product of Late Tertiary and the Quaternary fluvialprocesses.

The unglaciated bedrock terrain forms the northern terminus ofthe Flaxville Plain (Alden, 1924), which consists of similar terrain cov-ering over 2500 km2 in Montana. The genetic term “unglaciated” isapplied to these surfaces because they are devoid of glacial land-forms or erratics. Earlier workers applied the descriptive term "drift-less" to these surfaces, presumably because they didn't rule out thepossibility that they had been glaciated.

The adjacent strongly dissected bedrock terrain with residual driftcommonly features local relief up to 30 m, primarily a product of flu-vial erosion. The mature, integrated drainage network developed in

17

this terrain suggests that the main geomorphic elements predate theQuaternary, with the role of Quaternary glaciation (recorded by theresidual drift) in shaping these landscapes remaining uncertain. If theerratics scattered across these surfaces are residuals of ancient glacia-tion, then virtually all other evidence of that glaciation has beenremoved. An alternative origin for the erratics is ice rafting by melt-water from an ice margin along the northern edge of the WoodMountain Upland. However, the elevation (980 m) of erratics embed-ded in the outer rim of Table Butte stand well above the surroundingterrain, making an ice rafted origin unlikely. The surface of TableButte inside the outer rim is devoid of glacial erratics and similar tothe unglaciated terrain immediately to the east.

History (from SERM, no date): A short distance north of this stoplies Wood Mountain Post Provincial Historic Park, best known as thetemporary home of up to 4000 American Sioux and their leaderSitting Bull from 1876-1881. The Wood Mountain Post was estab-lished by the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP), by purchasing anexisting Boundary Commission depot, during their inaugural marchwestward in 1874. The Post was closed in 1874 when Fort Walshwas built in the Cypress Hills, but its proximity to the US borderproved to be strategic.

As a result of events in the US plains, culminating in the Battle ofLittle Bighorn in 1876, the Wood Mountain Post was reopened. TheNWMP were waiting when Sitting Bull and his people arrived in1877. The Canadian government declared the Sioux politicalrefugees, but took no responsibility for their welfare. Despite thegenerosity of the police and a local trader, Jean Louis Legare, theSioux were unable to survive in Canada. When the Buffalo herdsmoved south across the border, the Sioux could not follow. In 1881,sick and near starvation, they returned to the US where Sitting Bullsurrendered at Fort Buford, Montana. The Post closed again in 1883but soon reopened with the Riel Rebellion in 1885. It continued tooperate as a police post until 1918, through the ranching and earlyhomestead periods. At the site of the 1887 post, two log buildingshave been reconstructed.

STOP 8: KILLDEER BADLANDS / GRASSLANDSNATIONAL PARK

R. W. Klassen and D .J. Sauchyn

NTS 72G/2 UTM 893356

The Killdeer Badlands consist of isolated buttes with intervening flatsand gullied surfaces having a local relief of up to 50 m (dRh, Fig. 20;Klassen, 1992b). They lie along the western margin of the nearly flatsurface of bedrock terrain with residual drift (dRp, Fig. 20).Distinctive hues of richly coloured Upper Cretaceous clays, silts andsands of the Whitemud, Eastend and Frenchman formations markthe succession of beds exposed along the slopes of the buttes. Theflat tops of the buttes (Fig. 21) are plateau remnants and commonlyunderlain by a veneer of in situ or re-worked sand and quartzite grav-el of the Wood Mountain Formation, that in turn overlies sand of theEarly Tertiary (Paleocene – Eocene) Ravenscrag Formation. Glacialerratics are scattered over the highest surfaces and occur within themix of colluvium and alluvium that forms a veneer over bedrock inthe bottom of these valleys. Again, the main landscape elements like-ly predate the Quaternary, although erratics do provide evidence ofglaciation. Mass wasting processes continue to shape the bedrocksurfaces and ephemeral streams periodically flush accumulations ofcolluvium out of local drainage basins and into large valleys down-stream of the badlands.

Grasslands National Park: This stop overlooks the East Block ofGrasslands National Park. The concept of a grasslands preserve insouthern Saskatchewan was first proposed by the SaskatchewanNatural History Society in 1957. After years of task forces and publichearings, Canada and Saskatchewan signed an agreement in 1981.

It identified about 900 km2 of proposed park in two blocks: the WestBlock southeast of Val Marie and the smaller, more remote East Blockwest of Killdeer. The agreement also gave the province five years toexplore for oil and gas, before the park would be formally estab-lished. The most contentious issue however was not oil and gas butwater. The park was formally created in 1988 after Parks Canadaagreed to exclude the streams from their jurisdiction. Other depar-tures from conventional Parks Canada policy included the acquisitionof land "in the open market" rather than by expropriation.

Initially the local ranchers and farmers were opposed to the park,but most eventually saw it as inevitable and then became anxious totake advantage of a proposed purchase and relocation package.Parks Canada advertised their interest in land, but the acquisition ofproperties was postponed until the 1988 agreement and then furtherdelayed by the reorganization of Parks Canada. Land owners havebecome frustrated. The properties can be inherited. For these rea-sons, land acquisition is proceeding slowly and may require manyyears.

The park office is in Val Marie. Facilities within the park are primi-tive, and likely always will be. The dominant feature of the WestBlock is the Frenchman River valley, a broad meltwater channel (seeStop 15 of this guide). Canada's only prairie dog colonies are alsofound in the West Block of the Park.

STOP 9: WOOD MOUNTAIN UPLAND

R. W. Klassen

NTS 72G/7 UTM 780608

This site is located near the northern rim of the Wood MountainUpland and provides a superb panoramic view of the groundmoraine and lake plains north of the Upland. It also marks theboundary between patchy ground moraine (Mv, Fig 22) on theUpland surface (ca.1000 m asl) and a colluvial complex (rCx, Fig. 22)over the bedrock escarpment that drops about 100 m to the groundmoraine plain to the north (Klassen, 1992b). The Upland surface con-sists mostly of sand and gravel of the Wood Mountain Formation aswell as scattered glacial erratics and a patchy veneer of till. The grav-el pits at the site have been excavated along the margin of a "hang-ing" meltwater channel, and expose an iron stained, fine quartzitegravel more than 6 m thick overlain by discontinuous patches ofsand. A well-developed soil profile in these sediments suggests theyare primarily in situ Wood Mountain Formation, although some werelikely reworked by the meltwater that formed the channel.

On the basis of detailed regional mapping, it has been proposedthat the mass wasting and gullying evident on the patchy groundmoraine surface (Mv, Fig. 22) over the southern slopes of WoodMountain Upland may reflect a considerably greater age (EarlyWisconsinan or older?) than the less eroded surfaces on similarslopes north of the Upland (Klassen, 1992a). Nonetheless, scatteredoccurrences of till on the Upland, less the 2 m thick, are similar in tex-ture and composition to the regional till to the north ( till exposed inan outcrop about 6 km south of this site is olive grey (5Y 4/3 moistMunsell chart), roughly equal proportions of sand, silt and clay, withabout 10% carbonate in the silt fraction). These similarities mayquestion whether there is a significant age differences among the tillsurfaces in this region, or if in fact all these tills are of LateWisconsinan age.

STOP 10: SEWARD SAND HILLSS. A. Wolfe

UTM 72K/1 UTM 958686

All dunes of the Seward Sand Hills (and the entire Palliser Triangle),are either blowout or parabolic. In contrast to barchans, parabolicdunes have slipfaces that are convex in plan view and wings, wheredeveloped, pointing upwind (see schematic diagram, Fig. 49). At this

18

site dune orientation reflects dominant transporting winds from thesouthwest (Fig. 23). The source sediments were glaciolacustrinesand, with some dunes having migrated out of the basin and acrosstill-mantled slopes. Most of the dunes in this area are presently sta-bilized, however, several partially active blowouts occur on otherwisestabilized dunes (Fig. 23). Locally there has been a net decrease inarea of active sand over the last 50 years.

Closed parabolic dunes and track ridges: Most sand dunes in thearea have a prominent, stabilized distal (back) ridge connecting theupwind wing tips, forming closed parabolic dunes (Fig. 23). In addi-tion, several feature a series of 4 to 5 low (about 0.5 high) parallel"dune–track" ridges between the back ridge and the head of thedune. All ridges are the result of sand being deposited along the mar-gin of the formerly-active deflation area, and are well delineated bytree and high shrub cover that contrasts the grass cover of the sur-rounding low ground. The back ridge marks the former up-windposition of each dune, whereas the track ridges record progressivedownwind migration. Well-developed track ridges occur exclusivelyon poorly-drained soils where there is only a relatively thin veneer ofunderlying sand.

Optical dating of sand in these ridges suggests the entire sequenceof deposition occurred between 130 and 200 years ago, with a meanmigration rate of roughly 2 m a-1. Dating of other stabilized sanddunes in the core region of the Palliser Triangle reveal that many ofthe stabilized dunes were active within the last 200 years.

GSC Monitored Dune (Fig. 23): This site is a large, active blowoutdune which has formed in the head of a stabilized parabolic dune.Migration of the slipface and the active sand front have been moni-tored since October 1993. By September 1995 (last reading beforeproduction of this guide) the prominent slipface had advancedapproximately 6 m, while the low sand front had migrated between17 and 22 m. The rapid migration of the sand front was the result ofslipface lowering and deflation of sand away from the dune proper.Although vegetation has begun to colonize the slipface and activesand front, the eroding area remains active and unvegetated. Localattempts at controlling the blowout have failed thoroughly, and thefence around the perimeter of the blowout is now almost complete-ly covered by sand. The active blowout has exposed the stratigraphyof the parabolic dune, revealing stacked topset beds related tomigrating bedforms on the former dune surface. High–angled ava-lanche strata are conspicuously absent in the dune stratigraphy. Thebase of the dune is composed of low-angled bottomsets or toedeposits, underlain by fine-grained lacustrine sediments. An opticalage of 114±9 years ago from sands 7 m above the base indicatesthat the stabilized parabolic dune was fully active in the past twocenturies.

STOP 11: ANTELOPE LAKE ESKERD. J. Sauchyn and D. S. Lemmen

NTS 72K/8 UTM 901763

The Antelope Lake esker is the largest esker in the Prelate map sheet(72K), over 15 km long and rising more than 40 m above the sur-rounding terrain at its highest point (Fig, 24, dashed line). Its promi-nence makes it an ideal site for the telecommunications tower northof the grid road. The stop provides an excellent view of the sur-rounding terrain, that includes crop and pasture lands as well asAntelope Lake.

David (1964) mapped the esker as ice-contact stratified drift, withpaleo-water flow towards the south. Given the small population andlimited development of the region, there are no commercial gravelpits. Thus there are no stratigraphic data for this site. Approachingthe esker from the east you travel across a glaciofluvial outwash plain(GF, Fig. 24), dominantly composed of sand and fine gravel. In placesthese sands have been extensively reworked by eolian processes,forming the Seward Sand Hills (Stop 10) and Antelope Sand Hills (Eron photo, Fig. 24). Descending the steep western side of the esker

you cross onto an extensive glaciolacustrine plain (dominantly finesand and silt) on which lies Antelope Lake. Land use strongly reflectsthe nature of the surficial materials, with crop production largelyrestricted to the glaciolacustrine plain.

STOP 12: ANTELOPE LAKEW. M. Last and R. E. Vance

NTS 72K/8 UTM 845721

Antelope Lake (Fig. 25) is a relatively large, closed-basin saline lakeon the eastern margin of the Great Sand Hills. Like many other basinsin the northern Great Plains, there has been a dramatic decrease inlake level over the past two decades. High water levels during the1960s and 70s prompted the construction of regional park facilities,and with routine fish stocking, the lake became a popular recreationsite. Since the mid-1970s however, water levels have steadilydeclined (Fig. 25), and salinity has increased from less than 10‰ toover 30‰ (Table 3). During the summer of 1994, chemical stratifi-cation of the lake was recorded for the first time. Presently, lakewater is strongly supersaturated with respect to aragonite andprotodolomite, but slightly undersaturated with respect to gypsum.

A 210Pb chronology (Turner 1994) was developed for a gravity corecollected in the offshore area of the basin (Fig. 26). These data, com-bined with the historical hydrochemical and hydrologic informationand detailed sediment composition, emphasize the complex interre-lationships that exist between water level, salinity, endogenic miner-al saturation and precipitation in even a relatively simple saline lake.The deposition of aragonite throughout the past 100 years inAntelope Lake confirms that the brine has maintained a relativelyhigh Mg/Ca ratio. The sporadic occurrence of a disordered species ofdolomite (protodolomite) further indicates occasional excursionstoward very high Mg/Ca and probably also very high carbonate alka-linities. The distribution of gypsum, a soluble evaporitic mineral,shows the influence of (i) generally elevated salinities, particularlyfrom 1965 on, and (ii) lowered carbonate alkalinities and correspon-ding increased sulfate concentrations. Continuing plant macrofossil(Vance) and mineralogical analyses (Last) on these cores, combinedwith plant pigment studies, will allow documentation of recent lakeresponse to land-use and climate change.

Vibracores were collected from near- and offshore positions toextend the record of lake-level and salinity oscillations. Offshore cores(AL1,2) are composed of massive to faintly bedded silty clay.Macrofossils are sparse in these two cores (4.5 and 5.4 m long,respectively) but an AMS age on seeds from 1.6-1.65 m in AL2 datedto 1260 BP, suggesting that AL2 may extend to the mid-Holocene.Near shore core AL3 (collected 100 m from the current eastern shore-line), consisting of 6.5 m of silty clay interbedded with sand, has pro-duced macrofossil assemblages AMS dated to 1960 and 3180 BP(60-75 cm and 5.15-5.20 m, respectively). Deposition rates are evi-dently much higher in the littoral zone.

In addition to providing a record of lake-level variation, the closeproximity of Antelope Lake to the Great Sand Hills suggests that thisbasin holds considerable promise for recording variations in eolianactivity. Core AL3 displays considerable fluctuations in various grainsize parameters and in the proportions of fine grained siliciclasticcomponents. The presence of both gypsum and aragonite combinedwith the absence of laminations throughout the upper 3 m suggeststhat the lake was a relatively shallow, nonstratified body of waterthat probably varied on a seasonal basis from a modestly saline(hyposaline?), bicarbonate-rich solution with Mg/Ca ratios of 2-10 toa somewhat more saline (TDS >~30‰), sulfate-dominated lake.Preliminary plant macrofossil analyses support this reconstruction,especially in the upper 75 cm of the record, where a steady rain ofshoreline constituents indicates shoreline proximity. Sediments in thelower 3 m of core are much better laminated and have a much moreirregular distribution of endogenic precipitates implying that lower-salinity conditions were more common. Shoreline plant macrofossilinput also suggests generally higher lake levels during this period, asfew macrofossils were recovered throughout much of the basal 3.5

19

m (with the exception of the 3.6 to 4.0 m section), especially from4.5 to 5.5 m. Particularly noteworthy in this lower half of the sectionis the occurrence of a nonbedded, 50 cm thick quartz-rich unit. Thisunit is also characterized by very low organic matter content, and lowendogenic and clay mineral components and may represent anextended period of increased eolian input to the basin.

STOP 13: SOIL EROSION - GULL LAKE RMD. S. Lemmen

NTS 72K/7 UTM 734695

The field on the north side of the road (T15, R19, SW15, west of thethird meridian) is one of 25 sites sampled by Pennock et al. (1995) ina study of the influence of parent material on rates of soil erosion inthe rural municipalities of Gull Lake and Webb. This site lies within abelt of hummocky moraine. Far greater information on the nature ofsurficial material can be derived from the regional soil maps, at ascale of 1:100,000, than the available surficial geology maps (at1:250,000 scale). The textural detail of the soil maps is particularlyuseful, although geomorphologists should treat the genetic interpre-tations of some parent material with caution. The soil unit at this siteis Haverhill-Valor 4; brown soils formed in a mixture of slightly stony,loamy glacial till (Haverhill) and shallow lacustrine materials (Valor)with loam to silt loam surface textures (Saskatchewan Institute ofPedology, 1988). Soil mapping places this site in slope class 4–5,moderately to strongly sloping (5–15%), and the surface form as H(hummocky) and D (dissected).

Five parent material groups were examined in the study; till, fineglaciolacustrine sand, glaciolacustrine silt, coarse glaciofluvial sand,and silty loess. Ten soil samples from each site were analysed for137Cs concentration (Fig. 28; see Introductory paper by D.J. Pennock)as well as organic and inorganic carbon and grain size. Five samplesites (4 cultivated and one control site) were selected in each parentmaterial group. This methodology does not allow reconstruction ofthe sediment budget for the field, but rather serves to provide a rel-ative measure of erosion susceptibility between sites. All sampleswere taken on divergent landform elements, shown by Pennock andDeJong (1991) to consistently show the highest rate of soil loss. The137Cs redistribution technique (Fig. 27) has limitations for geomor-phic analysis, as it provides only a signal of net erosion since a base-line date of 1963. It is not able to differentiate erosion by water ver-sus that by wind or tillage, nor does it provide information on possi-ble high impact, single events. Two adjacent fields with identicalcharacteristics might, in theory, show very different average erosionrates if one lay fallow during a severe erosion season while the otherhad a protective crop cover. Thus sample strategy is particularlyimportant in this type of study.

Results of the study showed the highest median soil losses(30 t ha-1 a-1) associated with hummocky till landscapes, with thelowest values found for the silty and fine sand glaciolacustrine andeolian parent materials (Fig. 28). This particular site was one of themost severely eroded of those sampled in the study, with a median137Cs of 880 Bq m-2 (study range 611 to 2373 Bq m-2). Theseobserved rates of soil loss can be used to calibrate geomorphic mod-els of soil loss in the region.

STOP 14: SWIFT CURRENT PLATEAU ANDBIDAUX DRUMLIN

W. J. Vreeken

NTS F/10 UTM 630893

The Swift Current Plateau can be divided into three geomorphic sub-divisions, Grassy Creek Scabland, Shaunavon Plateau, and DollardPlain, zoned from east to west across the continental divide (Vreeken,1991). Grassy Creek Scabland, on the highest part of the plateau(1020-1045 m asl), features an anastomosed channel system cut intobedrock (Ravenscrag Formation). Master channels, cross-linked by

hanging channels, ascend the northern regional slope and convergeon the southern slope into the Frenchman Valley. Low-relief hum-mocky topography on interfluves extends across the floors of cross-linking valleys, but terminates at the edges of the master valleys.Hummocks are underlain by loamy diamictons with sandy and grav-elly interbeds and large (5 m) cut-and-fill structures. Formation of thechannel system is attributable to subglacial waterflow and it followsthat the connecting part of Frenchman Valley should have the sameorigin.

Shaunavon Plateau (955–1020 m asl) forms a 6 km wide arcuateswale cut below, and parallel to, the scabland limit. The hummockysurface of the plateau includes parallel ridges oriented transverse tothe edges of the scablands. Individual hummocks are composed ofdiamictons with sand and pebble interbeds and soft-sediment defor-mation structures that conform to the land surface. This suggeststhat rapid subaqueous sedimentation was followed by moulding atthe base of the ice sheet. If correct, the transverse ridges may reflectripples on the glacier sole, similar to ice ripples on the base of mod-ern river ice (Ashton and Kennedy, 1972).

Dollard Plain (938 to 955 m asl), 13 km wide, has ridged terrain,crescentic troughs, and drumlins, most of them grouped into a 32-km long SW-oriented train that rises from 915 to 953 m asl (Fig. 29).Troughs, 0.1 to 2.0 km wide, have SW-pointing horns that extendinto broad, shallow flutes on the flanks of low shield-shaped emi-nences (including drumlins). These morphological elements resemblesichelwannen, produced through erosion by high-energy waterflow(Allen, 1971; Kor et al., 1991). If the troughs are of similar origin,they would reflect a broad paleoflow over the divide. Trough sedi-ments at the Shaunavon Golf Course (UTM 72F/9 817008) includeda basal boulder bed overlain by massive clay (5 m), indicating scour-ing followed by still-water sedimentation.

Along the trough edge, sorted gravels (1.0 m) on the clay are over-lain by cross-bedded and cross-laminated sands (0.5 m), indicatingabrupt resumption and waning of southwestward flow. Diamicton(1.5 m thick) extends from the edge of the trough across the adja-cent drumlin. Thus, the sediments accumulated subglacially and thepaleo-water flow was up the regional slope.

Bidaux Drumlin: The drumlins of the Dollard Plain, noted byMcConnell (1885) and described by Kupsch (1955), are 5m highshields to 30m high conical hills with steep stoss slopes that descendinto crescentic frontal troughs. The composition of the Bidaux drum-lin is representative of several drumlins examined. The main sand pitreveals four tilted sediment units with anticlinal architecture. Unit I(ca. 18 m thick) is composed of fine gravelly sand, with SW-climbinggravel dunes and silty interbeds of climbing ripples. Unit II (ca. 0.5 mthick) is a bed of rounded cobbles with a sand matrix. Many of thecobbles that are clast-supported have vertical fractures (Fig. 30). UnitIII (ca 0.5 m thick) is clay with rare sand laminae and dropstones. Itgrades into unit IV (ca 0.5 m thick) composed of loamy diamicton.Very large boulders initially present on the drumlin surface have beenmechanically removed.

A crescentic depression separates this drumlin from its nearestneighbour to the NE , which was described by Kupsch (1955). It con-tains similar tilted sediments, but its crest was found to be pierced bya slab of bedrock with a planimetric exposure of 10 x 60 metres, dip-ping 75o in the stoss direction. The sediments from both drumlins areattributable to cavity flow, followed by loading and bedrock failure.

STOP 15: FRENCHMAN RIVER VALLEY, EASTENDR. W. Klassen and D. J. Sauchyn

NTS 72F/10 UTM 609869

The Frenchman valley is a Late Wisconsinan meltwater trench, occu-pied by the Frenchman River downstream of Cypress Lake and fur-ther west by Lodge, Battle and Middle Creeks. It extends about 300km, much in side-hill position, from the western and southern mar-gins of the Cypress Hills, across the southern boundary of the Swift

20

Current Creek Plateau, along the southwestern slopes of WoodMountain Upland, and into Montana. From this site, along the eastside of Eastend Coulee, you are looking at the confluence of theFrenchman and Swift Current meltwater channels (Fig. 31). Lookingwest into the Cypress Hills, the Frenchman Valley is about 5 km wideand 120 m deep, while downstream (southeast) it is only about 2 kmwide and 30 m deep. The Swift Current meltwater channel (north,Eastend Coulee), is about 3 km wide and 40 m deep.

The side-hill positions of the Swift Current meltwater chan-nel and its major tributary valleys (Jones and Bone creeks), as well asthe confluence with Frenchman Valley all reflect an origin as ice mar-ginal spillways flowing mainly south from proglacial lakes along thenorthern slopes of Cypress Hills nunatak. However, the northern seg-ment of the Swift Current meltwater channel (presently occupied bySwift Current Creek) appears to have formed by meltwater flowingnortheast, with the present drainage divide lying 5 km north of thissite. Although post glacial infilling of up to 80 m in Swift Current andFrenchman valleys (Fig. 32) may account for the present drainagedirection, the position of the northern segment of Swift CurrentValley is best explained as a result of northeast flowing meltwaterduring deglaciation (Klassen, 1994). The relatively smaller size ofFrenchman Valley to the east of the confluence may reflect its originas a supraglacial channel across an ice lobe between the CypressUpland and the ice-free Wood Mountain Upland to the east. Thelowest unit of the valley fills was likely deposited during deglaciation(beginning ca. 15 ka BP), with the upper unit (about 40 m thick)being deposited between ca. 11.5 and 4 ka BP and the late Holocenecharacterized by incision of the modern channels, as indicated byradiocarbon and tephra dates (Christiansen and Sauer, 1988;Klassen, 1992a, 1994). The origin for these valleys as postulatedabove is restricted to the Late Wisconsinan glaciation, however, it isdistinctly possible that major segments of these valley predate thelast glaciation - for example , the Frenchman Valley along the south-west slopes of the Wood Mountain Upland.

History / Local Interest: The settlement of Eastend is on the RedCoat Trail, the route taken by the NWMP during their historic marchof 1874. The local area has considerable historical and paleontologi-cal significance. It has become a tourist destination and heavily pro-moted by the local chamber of commerce. The first settlers wereMetis who arrived in the 1860s well before the homestead period. AHudson Bay Company Post in Chimney Coulee, 6 km north ofEastend, operated in 1871 under the command of trapper/traderIsaac Cowie. Later the NWMP used the same site, naming it Eastendafter its location in the Cypress Hills. In 1887 the post was moved toa more accessible location in the Frenchman Valley.

Rich upper Cretaceous fauna beds are exposed in the Frenchmanvalley and it tributaries. In 1994 a complete Tyrannosaurus Rex skele-ton was discovered. "Scotty" is now housed in a new paleontologi-cal centre in Eastend. A 3000 acre PFRA irrigation project, surround-ing the town, produces thousands of tons of forage annually.Eastend was the childhood home of Pulitzer Price winning authorWallace Stegner. His book Wolf Willow describes the Cypress Hillsof his youth. Each summer a writer in residence lives in the originalStegner house.

STOP 16: JONES PEAK

D. J. Sauchyn

NTS 72F/10 UTM 482850

This promontory on the north rim of the Frenchman Valley is knownas Jones Peak. It provides a spectacular panoramic view of the melt-water channel (Fig. 33), which formed here in a side-hill position asLate Wisconsinan ice advanced around the Cypress Hills. The valley isincised through thin Quaternary sediments (till veneer), as well asTertiary and Upper Cretaceous bedrock strata. The type sections ofthe Ravenscrag, Frenchman and Eastend formation are located in this

part of the Frenchman Valley. The Whitemud Formation is a particu-larly conspicuous white kaolinized sandstone. It appears at variouselevations along the valley sides because it has been faulted and dis-placed downslope in large rotational landslides. Aspect control ofvegetation is apparent in the dramatic contrast between coniferoustrees on the north-facing valley side and sparse vegetation on thesouth-facing slopes.

STOP 17: CYPRESS HILLS FORMATION

D. A. Leckie and R. W. Klassen

NTS 72F/11 UTM 374898

The west wall of this gravel pit exposes gravel and sand of theTertiary Cypress Hills Formation. The sediments of this formation aremulticyclic; originally derived from the western ranges of the RockyMountains (Fig. 34) during the Late Cretaceous Laramide Orogeny,they were shed further into the Western Canada Sedimentary Basinas a result of rebound and associated thrusting due to regional ero-sion, and retransported yet again as a result of intrusive uplift of theSweetgrass Hills, Bearpaw and Highwood mountains in northernMontana during the Late Eocene and Oligocene (Leckie and Cheel,1989). Transport during this final phase was largely restricted to val-ley confined rivers with braidplains beginning beyond the valley ter-mini (Fig. 35), with the regional paleoslope dipping to the northeast.

The Cypress Plain, which forms the highest surfaces of the CypressHills, is the largest preserved occurrence of these extensive braid-plains and the oldest geomorphic surface in the northern GreatPlains. Sedimentology, faunal assemblages, silcretes and palynologyall indicate deposition of these sediments occurred under a semi–aridclimate with seasonal rainfall.

The gravel pit site is situated on the southern margin of a pedimentsurface at 1140 m asl, about 50 m below the highest part of the EastBlock of the Cypress Hills. The bedrock terrain here has a gently irreg-ular surface with a residual drift cover (dRp, Fig. 36), and is markedby shallow gullies forming a dendritic pattern extending northwardfrom the Frenchman Valley. Most of the gravel is comprised of well-rounded, cobble to pebble size quartzites, with minor chert, petrifiedwood, volcanics and argillites also present. Distinctive periglacialstructures are common in the upper part of the exposure. The sedi-ments exposed in the north wall of the pit are re-worked from theCypress Hills Formation, having been deposited within a southwesttrending abandoned channel. Boulder to pebble size glacial erratics(granite, igneous metamorphic and carbonate rock types) are scat-tered on the adjacent pediment surface.

STOP 18: BELANGER CANAL, CYPRESS HILLS

W .J. Vreeken

NTS 72F/11 UTM 177916

Geomorphic Surfaces: Geomorphic surfaces of widely differing ageand origin are seen along a N–S transect across the east and centreblocks of the Cypress Hills (Table 4, Fig. 37). The five oldest surfacesrecord the Late Tertiary evolution of the continental divide. TheCypress surface (Alden, 1932) which forms the divide, is a paleo-braidplain on gravels of the Cypress Hills Formation, deposited byNNE-flowing streams issuing from higher land in northern Montana(Leckie and Cheel, 1989). Four erosion surfaces cut into bedrock arestepped below the Cypress Plain. They each rise with concave profilesalong interfluvial axes and descend with convex transverse profiles tothe nearest valley (Vreeken and Westgate, 1992). They are attributa-ble to surface-runoff erosion (cyclic channel incision and networkrejuvenation; Ruhe, 1975) caused by regional base level lowering.The Late Miocene Davis Creek silt (Vreeken et al., 1989; Vreeken andWestgate, 1992) is present on all five of these surfaces. Tephras andpaleomagnetism suggest this silt accumulated between 9.3 and 8.2

21

Ma. The Cypress surface dates to at least 16.3 Ma, whereas theMurraydale surface began forming before 10 Ma, and the Fairwell,Moirvale, and Sucker surfaces were completed between 10 and 8.3Ma BP (Barendregt et al., unpublished).

Late Wisconsinan proglacial meltwater overtopped the continentaldivide, eroded the Cypress surface, carved meltwater channels at theheads of the Davis, Caton, and Fairwell Creeks, and carved theBelanger Gap between the East and Centre Blocks. This erosion pro-duced the Caton meltwater surface complex (Fig. 38). Laurentide iceto the north flowed through the gap, stopping just south of BlackerLake. The deposits of this ice advance define the Blacker lake geo-morphic surface. Laurentide ice from the southwest overrode theSucker, Moirvale, and Fairwell surfaces and much of the Caton com-plex, but stopped south of the Blacker Lake surface. The glacial andglaciolacustrine sediments and landforms associated with thisadvance define Belanger geomorphic surface.

Belanger Canal Section: This 1 km long section extends northacross the Belanger and buried Moirvale surfaces, ending at a tribu-tary of Belanger Creek. Stratigraphic units exposed are theRavenscrag (Paleocene) substrate, transported gravels of theMoirvale surface (Late Miocene), Davis Creek silt (Late Miocene), gla-cial diamictons and glaciolacustrine rhythmites (Late Wisconsinan),colluvium and loess (Holocene), and a Mazama tephra bed (6.8 kaBP).

Ravenscrag beds include cemented imbricated gravels and cross-bedded sands indicating northward paleoflow. At 0.25 km, thesesediments are overlain by pale brown interbedded fine sands and siltloams of the Davis Creek silt, with large secondary lime nodules. Thisis erosionally overlain by diamicton and colluvium. Along the next 70m, the silt unit thins away while fine-sand and clay interbeds in thedrift complex become more frequent. At 0.32 km, loose basal grav-els in an oxidized sandy matrix are overlain by thin Davis Creek silt.The overlying lag of transported broken lime nodules is separated bythin black clay from thick diamicton. From here to 1.04 km (beyondthe fence at 0.81 km) there is considerable sedimentary variabilityand deformation visible in the drift complex. The loose basal gravelsshow periglacially reoriented clasts. Holocene sandy-loam colluviumand loess with a Mazama tephra bed are present at the end of thesection. This final viewpoint provides a good perspective of the NE-rising slopes carved by meltwater into weathered Ravenscrag sand-stone.

STOP 19: BALD BUTTE, CYPRESS HILLSPROVINCIAL PARK

D. J. Sauchyn

NTS 72F/12 UTM 038040

Bald Butte, on the Centre Block of the Cypress Hills, provides a spec-tacular panoramic view of the plains to the north (Fig. 39) as wellwestward across “The Gap” to the West Block the Cypress Hills.Rising more than 300 m above the glaciated plains, the highest sur-faces of the Cypress Hills have never been glaciated, and formednunataks during the maximum extent of Late Wisconsinan glacia-tion. When the Laurentide Ice Sheet was wrapped around the hills,meltwater channels formed along the ice margin and many incisedacross the unglaciated plateau surfaces.

In the absence of any significant Quaternary drift cover, rain andsnowmelt water readily permeate the coarse sediments of thecaprock of the Cypress Hills. The hills are a critical regional ground-water recharge area that strongly influence surface water resourceson the surrounding subhumid to semiarid plains. Therefore naturalevents in this region, as well as soil and water management, influ-ence water quantity and quality over a very large area.

STOP 20: FORT WALSH AND BATTLE CREEK VALLEY

D. J. Sauchyn

NTS 72F/12 UTM 813916

This stop provides views of the east end of the West Block of theCypress Hills and Battle Creek valley. Evolution of the Cypress Hills byfluvial erosion of gently dipping bedrock strata, as well as landslidingof valley sides, has produced a landscape characterized by plateaus,deeply incised valleys, benches, mesas, buttes and pediments. Thebenches and pediments are cut in the Upper Cretaceous strata andoverlain by loess, colluvium and reworked sands and gravels from theCypress Hills Formation.

Battle Creek occupies a preglacial valley up to 6 km wide and 250m deep that bisects the West Block in Saskatchewan. Although thispart of the Cypress Hills is unglaciated, meltwater emanating fromthe Late Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet against the northern slopeof the hills was dispersed across the hills in a network of channels,many of them utilizing pre-existing valleys such as Battle Creek. Lessthan 20% of the depth of Battle Valley is attributable to meltwatererosion (Fig. 40).

The Holocene geomorphic evolution of Battle Creek valley hasbeen dominated by landsliding. Poorly indurated, uncemented UpperCretaceous sediments lacking in shear strength (Thomson andMorgenstern, 1977), are exposed on relatively steep valley slopes andunderlie permeable sediments that readily conduct water from thebroad plateaus. As a result, high pore water pressure and low shearstrength develop in the clay beds. While clay beds are numerous inthe strata underlying the Cypress Hills Formation, failure of bentoniticclay is the likely cause of most of the landsliding (Mollard, 1977).Shearing of these beds causes overlying strata to move out and downfrom the plateaus as rotational and translational landslides, which areubiquitous on the walls of the meltwater channels and tributary val-leys. Typically, the Cypress Hills formation remains more or less intactto form a series of slump blocks in the upper parts of the landslides.Valley side morphology is characteristic of landsliding: steep arcuatescarps, parallel ridges and depressions, and reverse slopes on slumpblocks.

The physiography, hydrogeology and climate of the West Blockfavour groundwater as a dominant geomorphic agent and source ofsurface water (Sauchyn, 1993). On the broad plateaus, rain andsnowmelt water readily permeate the loess and subjacent sands andgravels. Variable hydraulic conductivity in the underlying beds ofsand, silt and clay induces lateral flow, and thus seeps and springs arecommon on valley sides and on the floors of tributary channels. Themorphology and hydrology of stream heads suggests that seepageerosion is the dominant mechanism of valley head erosion. Duringstorms and snowmelt events, first-order streams emanate wheregroundwater seeps and flows from scarps and slumps at channelheads (Spence, 1993).

Fort Walsh: Fort Walsh, near the mouth of the Battle Creek Valley,was built by the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) in 1875, andbecame the national headquarters for the force in 1878. The villagenext to the fort included a hotel, dance hall and saloon, billiard par-lour, race track, cricket pitch and tennis court. In 1883, the head-quarters of the NWMP were moved to Regina, and Fort Walsh wasdemolished.

Despite its short life span, Fort Walsh played a vital role in thepeaceful settlement of the Canadian West. In recognition of its his-torical significance, Fort Walsh was declared a site of national impor-tance in 1924. Reconstruction of the fort by the RCMP began in1943, and transferred to Parks Canada in 1968 when the NationalHistoric Site was established (Fig. 41). Since that time there has beenconsiderable restoration of the fort and two fur trading posts thatexisted before the original fort.

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Climate / Vegetation: The mean annual temperature of the CypressHills is about 3oC less than on the surrounding plains. Annual pre-cipitation is about 100 mm greater than the plains, with approxi-mately 70% occurring in May and June. The forest canopy is strikingfor its lack of diversity. The only coniferous trees are Pinus contorta(lodgepole pine) and Picea glauca (white spruce). The understory isrelatively diverse and includes several species with distributions thatare disjunct with Cordilleran montane populations. Populus tremu-loides (trembling aspen) woodland is found near streams, as a beltalong the northern escarpment just below the Pinus contorta forest,and in stands scattered throughout the grassland on the plateaus.The mixed prairie of the plains landscape occupies the drier parts ofthe Cypress Hills, whereas fescue prairie occurs at higher elevationswhere annual precipitation exceeds 450 mm.

STOP 21: BENSON CREEK LANDSLIDED. J. Sauchyn

NTS 72F/12 UTM 737978

Benson Creek landslide occupies about 2 km of the north side ofBattle Creek Valley, 3 km east of the provincial boundary. Unlike mostof the 21 dated landslides from the area, the age of the Battle Creekslide is well constrained with both maximum and minimum radiocar-bon ages. Basal sediment from a 1.5 m core extracted from a pondon the landslide dated 1445 BP, providing the minimum age esti-mate. The maximum age is 1745 BP, the age obtained on bisonbones collected from alluvial deposits underlying the landslide andexposed in a stream cut (Fig. 42A). Stream incision of the landslidedam involved significant local adjustments of hydraulic geometry.Battle Creek has a relatively steep gradient and low sinuosity whereit has deeply incised the toe of the landslide (Fig. 42B). Immediatelyupvalley, a meandering Battle Creek is incised in a broad flat plain,interpreted as the bottom of a temporary landslide-dammed lake.Measurements of channel bankfull width and meander wavelengthindicate that the hydraulic geometry is uncharacteristic of a thirdorder stream with a mean annual discharge of 0.364 m3 s-1

(1975–91). After almost two millennia of disequilibrium, Battle Creekis apparently still responding to Benson Creek landslide.

All dates available for 21 landslides in the region fall within the lateHolocene (see Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996). As landslide movementis progressive, showing multiple phases of activity, these ages likelydocument only the most recent period of slope movement. Duringthe early and middle Holocene, climate was generally both warmerand drier than present and regional water tables were loweredmarkedly (Vance et al., 1995). A change to wetter and cooler climateafter ca. 4 ka BP raised regional water tables, providing conditionsconducive to increased slope instability in response to short-term trig-ger events (e.g. heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt). This change to a wet-ter climate resulted in a major readjustment of hillslopes. Once largesections of the valley side failed and approached a new equilibrium,subsequent failures were smaller and less frequent. Today rotationallandsliding is confined to the upper sections of existing landslides.

There appears to have been a climatically-controlled shift in thedominant geomorphic processes in this area, from fluvial and eolianduring the phytoinstability of the Hypsithermal (7700-5100 yrs BP) tolate Holocene landsliding that corresponds with the forestation ofthe Cypress Hills (Sauchyn and Sauchyn, 1991). At Harris Lake, on thenorth slope of the West Block just north of this site, this transition ismarked by a dramatic change in the lake sediment regime (Last andSauchyn, 1993). Landsliding would account for the periodic avail-ability of siliclastic sediment and, where slope failures extended tovalley bottoms, the restriction of regular inputs of fluvial sediments.A substantial increase in the number of beaver dams with expansionof forest habitat also would have caused reduced suspended sedi-ment transport, and favoured the more episodic delivery of clasticsediment to the lake during major floods.

STOP 22: POLICE POINT LANDSLIDED. J. Sauchyn

NTS 72E/9 UTM 675999

In May, 1967 an estimated 1.5 M m3 of bedrock moved away fromthe south side of Battle Creek valley near Police Point (Fig. 43). Morethan 1.5 m of snow had fallen in two late April storms (Janz andTreffry, 1968), and snow fell again in early May. Temperaturesremained low until May 14, when dramatic warming and rapid melttriggered both Police Point landslide and the flooding of nearbyGraburn Creek. McPherson and Rannie (1969) estimated that theflood discharge had a return period of more than 50 years andremoved 46,723 tons of sediment from the Graburn Creek water-shed.

The Police Point landslide remains largely unvegetated 28 yearsafter the original failure (Fig. 44), and is a major source of suspend-ed sediment to Battle Creek (Fig. 45). Monitoring of the lower slopesof the landslide was initiated in 1994 to attempt to quantify presentslope activity and sediment influx to the creek. The sediment limitsfish productivity and reproduction in Battle Creek by inundating foodsupplies, eggs and spawning beds, creating local ecological and eco-nomic impacts. Previous studies evaluating fish habitat in the water-shed have displayed an incomplete understanding of the geomorphicsetting and processes. For example, grass seeding on the Police Pointlandslide soon after its occurrence was predictably futile since thelandslide remains active, moving at depth and subject to gully erosionand subsurface piping. Likewise attempts to stabilize stream bankshave occurred without an appreciation of the geomorphology of thecreek. The impacts of the Police Point landslide in fact typify condi-tions that have characterized the valley for at least 4000 years.

Observations of erosion at 125 metal pins document the unstablenature of the landslide surface and the futility of conventional reme-dial practices in limiting downstream impacts. Net erosion hasoccurred at 78% of the pins, net deposition at 16%. The maximumerosion at one pin in response to a single storm event was 49 cm,maximum deposition was 12 cm. Thirteen lost pins have been eitherburied by debris flows or undermined by more than 1 m of erosion.Only one pin was found to be on a stable surface, with neither ero-sion or deposition observed at any time. These observations also indi-cate that gully erosion is the dominant process of sediment loss onthe landslide.

Channelized runoff from the landslide into Battle Creek duringstorm events is extremely turbid, with peak suspended sediment con-centrations exceeding 1900 mg L-1 on June 4, 1995. Three kmdownstream in Battle Creek, maximum sediment concentration onJune 4 was 438 mg L-1. In general, suspended sediment concentra-tions downstream of the landslide are 1–2 orders of magnitudegreater than above the landslide (near Reesor Lake). Peak valuesoccur immediately downstream of the landslide, but these are stillthree orders of magnitude less than occur in the landslide runoff dueto rapid dilution. These data substantiate the significance of PolicePoint landslide as the overwhelming source of suspended sedimentsin the upper Battle Creek watershed. In contrast to suspended sedi-ments, dissolved sediment concentrations show little variability witheither downstream position or discharge, confirming the significanceof groundwater in the geomorphology and hydrology of the CypressHills (Spence, 1993).

The landslide is a modern analogue of events that have dominat-ed the Holocene evolution of Battle Creek valley. It illustrates the per-sistent impacts of single, high magnitude events. The low residualstrength and fine texture of the Cretaceous bedrock results in pro-longed erosion and instability of landslides, inhibiting colonization ofplants for years or decades. At Police Point there is no indication thatrates of erosion and suspended sediment production have begun todecrease even after 28 years. Revegetation has been minimal, andplants which did manage to colonization the more stable parts of thelandslide in dry years have been largely uprooted by sliding and head-ward gully erosion during the past three wet summers (1993-95).

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Therefore landslide scarps and deposits are extremely significantsources of sediment input to the fluvial system, strongly contrastingthe minimal input from the adjacent, dominantly well-vegetated,slopes.

STOP 23: GAP CREEK - FRIDAY SITEW. J. Vreeken

NTS 72F/13 UTM 031227

The head of Gap Creek lies in the topographic saddle between theCentre and West blocks of the Cypress Hills. It is tributary to MapleCreek, which terminates in Bigstick Lake 30 km north of the conflu-ence. The valley partly coincides with a preglacial valley (Klassen,1991). Postglacial evolution of the creek has been strongly influencedby Late Wisconsinan sediments and landforms (Fig. 46). Glacial LakeDownie (Glacial Lake Carmichael 1; Klassen, 1994) drained ca. 13.5ka BP (Vreeken, 1989), leaving a vast hummocky lake plain underlainby up to 53 m of weak sediments, to be incised by the lower GapCreek. Postglacial delivery of sediment to the Bigstick Lake basin waswell underway by 9.5 ka BP.

Gap Creek had cut through the entire Downie Lake sediment com-plex by 7.2 ka BP. Until ca. 6 ka BP baselevel for the creek wasmoraine-dammed Junction Lake, which lay at the confluence withthe Maple Creek. Following drainage of Junction Lake, stream inci-sion of the lacustrine sediments produced the Weir fluvial surface.Lateral accretion deposits beneath this surface have been dated at3.6 and 2.9 ka BP. Until ca. 2 ka BP, baselevel was controlled byClown Lake, dammed by a second moraine 8 km farther north.Stream incision following the demise of Clown Lake left the Weir sur-face as a prominent fluvial terrace (Fig. 46).

Alluvial fans along the sides of Gap Creek valley began to formbetween 8 and 6 ka BP. These fans were truncated during the for-mation of the Weir fluvial surface, indicating that they had formedduring the Hypsithermal climate interval (ca 9-4 ka BP).

Friday Site: This cliff site along the eastern wall of the Gap Creekvalley provides exceptional stratigraphic exposures as well as anoverview of the Gap Creek valley and surrounding terrain. The viewto the SSW includes a preglacial surface remnant at the top of aglacially eroded bedrock slope. The gently sloping hummocky surfaceat the foot of this slope extends to uplands along the Gap Creek, andrepresents the plain of Glacial Lake Downie. The view west into thevalley reveals rotational slumps, alluvial fans, and the modern flood-plain with its meandering channel, benches and pointbars. Abovethe floodplain is the Weir terrace, and above the terrace lies a trun-cated alluvial fan. The fan sediments include a Mazama tephra bed(6.8 ka BP), and overlie dated stream sediments that document about40 m of incision below the Downie lakeplain by ca. 7.2 ka.

The bluff exposure reveals a 10.2 m thick sediment package infill-ing a depression on the Downie lakeplain. Basal sands and siltsinclude a Glacier Peak tephra bed (ca. 11.2 ka BP, Foit et al., 1993).The overlying clay cap reflects an internally drained pond environ-ment with accumulation of shell-rich loams. The 9.2-m overburden isdominated by eolian loams, alternating with about 40 weakly devel-oped buried soils (Fig. 47). A Mazama tephra bed occurs 2 m belowthe top of the exposure. The lowermost buried soil is underlain bydeoxidized sediments, marking the end of aquatic conditions associ-ated with a high groundwater table at this site. The overlying oxi-dized sediments record a xeric environment. A radiocarbon age oncharcoal collected from this lowermost buried soil suggests that GapCreek had incised below the elevation of the soil by 10.5 ka BP.

STOP 24: BIGSTICK SAND HILLS

S. A. Wolfe

NTS 72K/3 UTM 286602

Blowout Dunes (Morphology and Change): Baby Dune andSouth Dune are both blowout dunes residing on stabilized parabolic

dunes. Erosion and deposition has been monitored on a quarterlybasis since May 1994 using an array of more than 400 marker pins.The size of the blowouts differ by half an order of magnitude, withthe Baby Dune approximately 2.5 m deep and the South Dune near-ly 13 m deep (Fig. 48, left). South Dune is active on the 1956 air-photos, while the Baby Dune is not visible on any airphotos up to1991 and may be less than 5 years old. Despite the differences in sizeand age, they are remarkably similar in morphology. Each blowouthas a very steep (30o to 90o) actively eroding south slope, and a gen-tler, although still steep (<30o), north slope covered with loose sand.Near the surface, both the north and south slopes are near-vertical,owing to the binding effect of plant roots. Erosion on the southslopes commonly provides good stratigraphic exposures in the other-wise stabilized parabolic dunes.

Erosion and deposition of the blowouts has been monitored for 2years, with recordings taken 3-5 times a year. The net change in ele-vation in each blowout between May 26, 1994 and Sept 24, 1995 isshown in Fig. 48 (right). The patterns of erosion and deposition aresimilar for each of the dunes, with greatest erosion on the south andeast slopes of the blowouts and deposition occurring east, northeastand west of the blowouts. The centre of the blowouts show little netchange over the 16 month period.

Sand is typically transported out of the blowouts across the northand northeast slopes by winds blowing from the west and south-west. Winds also blow out of the east in late summer, depositingsand around the northern and western rims of the blowouts. Erosionof the south slopes typically occurs through collapse failures in latefall or spring, as the actively eroding slopes over-steepen and blocksof sand and vegetation move downslope towards the centre of theblowout. The centre erodes slowly, since it is an end point of deposi-tion for sand eroding from the south slope as well as an initiationpoint for the erosion of sand blowing out across the northeast slope.

The steep-sided south slopes appear to be primarily a product ofthe sand moisture content. The south slopes (north-facing) are shad-ed throughout the year, with moist sand present at the surface. Incontrast, the north slopes (south-facing) are directly exposed to thedrying sun. In late fall, the south slope is the first to freeze, while drysand continues to be transported across the north slope.

STOP 25: BIGSTICK SAND HILLSS. A. Wolfe

NTS 72K/3 UTM 290632

Active Parabolic Dune: At this site, the road runs near the front andnorthern flank of an active parabolic dune, featuring a slipface, crest,head, backslope and deflation area as below. The morphology con-trasts sharply with the more simple blowout dunes observed previ-ously. The wing ridges rise towards the head, while the depressionarea between the wings is deflated (Fig. 49). Sand derived from thedepression area and the back-slope moves across the head onto theslipface, resulting in dune migration. Vegetation colonizes the defla-tion area, stabilizing the upwind portion of the dune. Stabilized wingridges and poorly developed track ridges are present upwind (west,Fig. 49) of the active dune, indicating former upwind positions of thedeflation area.

STOP 26: INGEBRIGHT LAKEW. M. Last and Y. Shang

NTS 72K/6 UTM 186819

The Ingebright Lake complex (Ingebright and North Ingebright lakes)is Canada’s largest sodium sulfate deposit and contains the thickestsequence of Holocene lacustrine evaporites in North America. A fewkilometres east of Ingebright is Freefight Lake, Canada’s deepestsaline lake and also the country’s most saline permanent lacustrinewater body. The northern Great Plains have been an importantsource of commercial sodium sulfate for over 75 years, with some of

24

the earliest industrial efforts centred on salt extraction from the alka-line sloughs and saline lakes in southern Saskatchewan. Total com-posite reserves of both sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate for theregion are among the largest in the world. Presently about 400,000tonnes of sodium sulfate are produced annually from the lakes, withan annual value of the product normally exceeding $20 million.

Commercial exploitation of the salts began in 1918 with theextraction of MgSO4, Na2SO4, and NaHCO3 from Muskiki Lake nearSaskatoon. Production of anhydrous sodium sulfate (salt cake) fromsome 20 different lake basins in Saskatchewan and Alberta reacheda peak in the early 1980's (Slezak and Last, 1985). Historically, thetwo largest uses of sodium sulfate have been in producing kraftpaper and allied products, and in the manufacture of detergents.Although demand for salt cake has decreased significantly over thepast decade, the lakes of the northern Great Plains still supply about55% of North America’s total demand.

The salts are extracted from the lakes using a variety of open pitand solution mining techniques. Here at Ingebright, a combination ofdredging, “brining” (allowing the lake water to precipitate Na2SO4minerals in evaporation ponds), and direct excavation (Fig. 50). Theextracted salts (referred to as “Glauber’s salt”) are dehydrated andconcentrated to form relatively pure, finely crystalline thenardite(Na2SO4) which is shipped to markets in eastern Canada by rail.

Ingebright and North Ingebright Lakes: Ingebright Lake (Fig. 50),a 290 hectare hypersaline playa on the western flanks of the GreatSand Hills region, contains an extraordinary thickness of Holoceneevaporites with nearly 45 m of mainly sodium and magnesium sul-fates overlying gravelly clay (till?). This salt has been mined since1967, but unfortunately no detailed mineralogy or sedimentologystudy was conducted on this unusual deposit before the stratigraph-ic record was disturbed. However, bulk chemical data presented byCole (1926) clearly demonstrates that there are (were) major strati-graphic changes in the ionic composition of the salts in Ingebright.An even smaller hypersaline playa, North Ingebright Lake (Fig. 51),occupies a narrow (0.5 km wide) riverine channel to the northeast ofthe main Ingebright basin. North Ingebright Lake also contains largethicknesses of evaporites but has not yet been mined and has beenthe site of detailed stratigraphic investigations as part of the ongoingPalliser Triangle Project.

The extraordinary thicknesses of relatively pure evaporites in theIngebright and North Ingebright basins present some interestingdilemmas for sedimentologists, geochemists, and limnologists.Several strikingly different depositional scenarios have been put for-ward to account for these types of saline giants. The “shallow water,build-up” hypothesis is probably the most sedimentologically andgeochemically reasonable explanation, although there are no welldocumented modern analogues in the Great Plains today. Similarly,the hydrodynamics of groundwater flow in and around such a verti-cally accreting playa system are difficult to imagine. Conversely, the“deep water, fill–up” hypothesis, originally proposed by Rueffel(1968), was, until recently, discounted because of the lack of anyknown modern deep water evaporite mineral formation.Nonetheless, the discovery of several modern lakes in the GreatPlains (e.g. Freefight Lake, Deadmoose Lake) in which high rates ofevaporite mineral precipitation and deposition are occurring hasrestored some scientific credibility to this hypothesis (Last, 1994).

Holocene Stratigraphy and Geochemical Evolution: Sedimentcores recovered from these lakes consist mainly of well-indurated saltwith only minor amounts of mud and organic debris. Indeed, the sec-tions are remarkable in their lack of obvious bedding, colour varia-tions, detrital material, and other visible sedimentary features. Themineral suite of the North Ingebright deposit consists mainly ofhydrated Na, Ca, and Mg+Na sulfates, carbonates, chlorides. Basedon the bulk mineral composition of these salts, 7 lithostratigraphicunits have been identified. Closely spaced (2 cm) detailed evaporiteand carbonate mineralogy was used to further subdivide these units

into some 31 individual “compositional zones”. The specific majorand ancillary evaporite minerals (and mineral ratios) in these individ-ual compositional zones form the basis of the chemical reconstruc-tion of the precipitating brine. These detailed mineral assemblageswere also used to back-calculate various thermodynamic activityparameters and, from these activities, to estimate relative humidity inthe Ingebright basin (Fig. 52). Obtaining a detailed, reliable chronol-ogy remains a problem, with thus far only bulk dates available fromblocks of sediment.

STOP 26B: FREEFIGHT LAKE

W. M. Last

NTS 72K/6 UTM 340845

Freefight Lake is a meromictic, hypersaline lake with a distinctivemorphology: a large expanse of seasonally flooded mudflats andsandflats surround a deep, flat-bottomed basin (Table 5). Its remotelocation and limited accessibility accounts for the fact that there areno scientific references to the site prior to Last & Slezak (1987), eventhough the basin is well known among local land owners and ranch-ers. During the 1960's and 70's it was a popular recreation site,however, drought during the 1980s lowered water levels and thehigh salt content decreased its recreational attractiveness.Nonetheless, Freefight Lake is a sedimentologists wonderland wherea wide range of physical, chemical, and biological processes operateto form six major modern sedimentary facies (colluvium, mud flatand sand flat, delta, algal flat, slope and debris apron, deep basin;Fig. 53). Inorganic and biomediated chemical processes dominate inmost facies.

From 1984-90, groundwater sources contributed about the 35%of the total inflow to the lake, while the two inflowing ephemeralstreams contributed only about 3%. The basin is topographicallyclosed and most likely also hydrologically closed. The inflowinggroundwater is dilute (average: 1000 mg L-1 TDS), alkaline (pH 8),and dominated by Mg2+ and Na+, with subequal proportions of Cl-,SO42

-, and HCO3-. The mixolimnion, with an average salinity of

~110‰, is dominated by Mg 2+, Na+, and SO4

2+ (Table 6). A stablechemocline occurs at about 6 m depth separating a monimolimnionof ~200‰ from the overlying water column. The chemical stability ofthis stratification is among the highest calculated for any meromicticlake (0.9 J cm-2). The chemocline also features dense populations ofpurple phototrophic bacteria.

Geolimnology: The lake water at all depths and at all times of theyear is at or near to saturation with respect to gypsum. Themixolimnion is supersaturated with respect to many Ca, Mg, andCa–Mg carbonates including calcite, aragonite, dolomite, huntite,hydromagnesite, and magnesite. The monimolimnion is also highlysuper-saturated with respect to many of these carbonates, andstrongly supersaturated with respect to most metal sulfides andmany clay minerals. Over 40 endogenic and authigenic minerals havebeen identified in the sediments of Freefight Lake (Slezak, 1989; Last,1993); many of these have been reported from no other lacustrine orcontinental setting in the Great Plains. Several facies are of particularinterest because they are not commonly found in other lakes of theregion. The mudflat facies is the site of penecontemporaneousdolomizitation, while the algal flat facies, with its living pustularmicrobial mat, appears to be unique among the salt lakes of theGreat Plains. Modern sediment accumulation rates in the deep basinfacies are remarkably high, averaging approximately 30 kg m-2 a-1

over the past decade, with a range from 10 to over 60 kg m-2 yr-1. The mid to late Holocene stratigraphy in the basin is known from

over 40 metres of core taken from 25 locations. Although the mud-flat and sandflat facies stratigraphies are difficult to interpret becauseof the large amount of post-depositional and penecontemporaneousmineral diagenesis, the laminated microbialite sediments of the nearshore and shallow water areas provide a good record of water level

25

fluctuations and mixolimnion hydrochemistry changes. In the off-shore deep basin facies, lack of suitable material for 14C dating is aserious problem hindering the interpretation of an otherwise out-standing late Holocene record of water chemistry changes. .

STOP 27: NW GREAT SAND HILLS

S. A. Wolfe

NTS 72K/11 UTM 215173

The Great Sand Hills of Saskatchewan are located near the centre ofthe Palliser Triangle. Covering over 1000 km2, the sand hills comprisethe largest continuous sand dune area in southern Canada (David,1977). Several smaller sand hills occur to the south and east, andalong the South Saskatchewan River to the north and west. Only afew dunes in the Great Sand Hills are presently active, and theseoccur primarily in the area of this stop and also to the southeast. Theremaining dunes are stabilized by vegetation, although local blowoutdunes do occur.

A variety of parabolic dunes are present in the local area (Fig. 54).The central area (A) is comprised of compound parabolic dunes.These dunes represent several merged parabolic dunes which wereactive simultaneously in an area of high sediment supply. Around theperimeter of the merged dunes (B) are individual parabolic dunes,many with well developed back ridges (e.g. closed parabolic dunes).These individual dunes have formed in areas of slightly lower sedi-ment supply and stabilized soon after formation. An area of chaoticterrain occurs to the west (C), and is comprised of blowouts and par-tial wing remnants. The area has undergone multiple periods of activ-ity resulting in superimposed and reworked dunes. It is likely thatmuch of the sand in area A was initially derived from area C. Theremaining area (D) is primarily composed of deflation surfaces, mostwith glaciolacustrine sediments near the surface.

STOP 28: LANCER ICE-THRUST MORAINED. J. Sauchyn

(From Kupsch, 1962; David, 1964; St. Onge, 1972; and Aber, 1993)

NTS 72 K/15 UTM 618272

The Lancer ice-thrust moraine extends about 36 km from nearShackleton to about 13 km northwest of Lancer. Poorly consolidatedbedrock and Quaternary sediments were shoved by a LateWisconsinan ice lobe in the South Saskatchewan River valley as flowwas compressed against the Shackleton bedrock escarpment to thesouth Fig. 55). The resulting landscape contains "possibly the bestdeveloped sharp-crested ridges in western Canada" (Kupsch, 1962:585). The maximum elevation of the moraine, 720 m asl north ofAbbey, lies about 120 m above the source depression to the northand about 45 m above the upland to the south.

The moraine is composed mostly of Quaternary sediments, 75-150m thick. Some ridges are cored with Belly River sandstone, in placesup to 130 m above its undisturbed stratigraphic position. More than90 m of lacustrine sediment underlies the lowland north of themoraine. The lacustrine sediments likely played a significant role inthe ice-thrusting, although it is uncertain whether they were frozenor thawed at the time. The original deformation morphology hasbeen modified by the deposition of stratified sand and gravelbetween ridges, the draping of glaciolacustrine sediment (glacialLake Stewart Valley), and postglacial gully erosion in a trellis pattern.

STOP 29: LANCER PALEOSOLfrom Cosford, 1996

NTS 72K/15 UTM 626270

This cut into the Lancer ice-thrust moraine (Fig. 56) exposes beds ofsteeply dipping loamy till, glaciolacustrine clays, and a well preserved

paleosol. A radiocarbon age of 31 300±1400 BP (J. Campbell,unpublished) places the paleosol in the Middle Wisconsin interstade,possibly correlative with the Prelate Ferry Paleosol in the SouthSaskatchewan River valley (David, 1987). During Late Wisconsinan,the Lancer paleosol was thrust with the underlying sediments fromthe source area immediately to the north. It was a solodized Solonetzdeveloped under semiarid conditions, indicated by a thin layer of sol-uble salts (gypsum/anhydrite) at a depth of 25 cm and by the domi-nance of silica–rich clay minerals (illite and montmorillonite), whichtend to leach out in wetter environments. The presence of fossil char-coal suggests that there were frequent fires. At this site there appearsto be two paleosols exposed, about four metres apart, both steeplydipping but with profiles having opposite orientations. This suggeststhat the paleosol was sharply folded and is now exposed on the limbsof anticline that has been truncated anthropogenically.

STOP 30: LOWER SWIFT CURRENT CREEKD. J. Sauchyn

NTS 72J/12 UTM 070093

Near its mouth, Swift Current Creek is deeply incised throughQuaternary sediments and into the underlying Upper CretaceousBearpaw formation. Slopes in the drift are stable, as evidenced by thefluvial morphology of the tributary valleys (Fig. 57). In the shale,however, massive rotational landslides have occurred with the reduc-tion in confining pressure. Similar massive retrogressive slope failurecharacterizes the nearby South Saskatchewan River valley.

More than 300 m of this marine shale underlie surficial depositsthroughout much of southern Saskatchewan. Its geotechnical prop-erties are understood largely from the construction of the GardinerDam (Lake Diefenbaker), the first major engineering structure in theInterior Plains constructed in Bearpaw shale. An upper zone, dis-turbed and softened by weathering and swelling, has high naturalmoisture contents and low shear strength. Plasticity indices and liq-uid limits average 40-80% and 65-100%, respectively (Scott andBrooker, 1968). At the Gardiner Dam site, they are 92% and 115%respectively, with a maximum liquid limit of 265% for bentonitic clay(Mollard, 1977). Slopes as low as 4o failed during construction of thedam. This prompted a re-evaluation of laboratory shear strengthparameters: cohesion of 40 kN/m2 and a 20o angle of shearing resist-ance. Field measurements on the failed clay revealed zero cohesionand 9 degrees of frictional resistance (Mollard, 1977).

The landslides visited at previous stops along Battle Creek in theCypress Hills occurred in younger bedrock, including coarse Tertiaryterrestrial sediments. Battle Creek is also a highly underfit stream,largely confined to a wide floodplain. Even though Swift CurrentCreek has a similar channel size and discharge to Battle Creek, at thislocation it occupies a relatively narrow valley. Therefore fluvial erosionof the basal valley walls is likely the dominant trigger of landslides.This contrasts the broad meltwater valleys, including the upperreaches of Swift Current Creek, where landsliding is more related towater table elevation as controlled by groundwater hydrology andclimatic.

STOP 31: CLEARWATER LAKER. E. Vance and W. M. Last

NTS 72J/13 UTM 956397

Clearwater Lake occupies a small, groundwater-fed basin in south-western Saskatchewan (Fig. 58). Although topographically closed,the modern lake has maintained relatively low salinity (~1‰ TDS)throughout the last several decades (Table 7) despite experiencingsome fluctuations in lake-level, presumably due to the presence of anopen hydrologic system, in which the basin acts as both a dischargeand recharge site for shallow groundwater. The area immediately sur-rounding the lake was established as a regional park in the 1920s,

26

and remains a popular recreation site, although declining oxygen lev-els have sharply reduced fish populations in the last 5 years.

To document past changes in lake extent and lake water chemistry,both short (<1 m) gravity cores and long vibracores were collectedfrom Clearwater Lake. Gravity cores recovered in the vicinity of CW1(Fig. 58), sectioned in 1 cm increments, are currently being analysedfor sedimentological (Last), plant pigment (Vinebrooke), diatom(Wilson) and plant macrofossil (Vance) content. 210Pb dating indi-cates that these cores span the last few centuries (Fig. 59). A 7.7 mlong vibracore (CW2) collected at a shallow water, near shore loca-tion provides detailed insight into early Holocene history, with AMS14C ages ranging from 9980 BP at the base to 7320 BP at 1.075 mdepth (Fig. 60). Evidently lake level declined to the point that CW2was above water after 7300 BP, although an unconformity markingthis event in CW2 has yet to be identified.

The basal metre of CW2 consists of massive, relatively coarsegrained, siliciclastic-rich sediment with low moisture and organicmatter contents. It contains an abundance of chenopod seeds as wellas Picea glauca needles and Rubus cf idaeus seeds, indicating ashoreline setting with nearshore environments occupied by borealelements. Sharply overlying this basal clastic material is a 45 cm thick,faintly bedded, organic-rich, gypsite (Fig. 60) with an abundance ofChara oogonia. Both aragonite and Na2SO4 salts also occur in thisthin evaporitic unit. From about 625-400 cm (ca. 9500-8900 BP),Chara oogonia content remains high in a considerably finer grained,faintly laminated, aragonite-rich unit (Fig. 60). Within this calcareoussediment is a relative abundance of a variety of sedge seeds, indicat-ing shoreline proximity. Aragonite content increases gradually toabout 5 m depth and then decreases further upward in the unit.Similarly, nonstoichiometric dolomite also increases upward to about5 m, whereas both organic matter and gypsum contents show agradual but sporadic decrease upward. The δ18O and δ13C of thearagonite both in this unit and in the underlying gypsite show astrong positive correlation and are high relative to the endogenic car-bonates above and below, suggesting closed basin, evaporitic condi-tions.

The metre of sediment overlying this aragonitic unit (400-300 cm)is unusual. It is a well bedded, siliciclastic unit composed largely ofdetrital quartz and feldspars with very low clay mineral contents.There is a very sharp contact at the top of this unit. The sediment at303 to 310 cm depth in the core exhibits a distinctive pedogenic-likestructure and has a considerably lower moisture content relative tosediment above 303 cm depth, and may represent a sharp reductionin water level at ca. 8400 BP, although no upland plant macrofossilswere recovered in this unit. Immediately overlying this marker hori-zon at 3 m depth is a relatively coarse grained, faintly bedded, arag-onite-rich unit (Fig 60) that contains an abundance of Chara oogo-nia. Gypsum contents decrease upward in this unit, from as much as40% at the base to sporadic occurrences above 150 cm depth, indi-cating a gradual freshening of the lake water. Similarly, clay mineralsshow a gradual decrease upward with a complimentary increase inboth quartz and feldspar contents, likely related to greater erosionand runoff from the watershed. The stable oxygen and carbon iso-topes of the aragonite in this upper unit are negatively correlated,likewise suggesting a change toward more open basin conditionsafter 8400 BP. Moreover, macrofossils from shoreline plant taxadecline in representation compared to underlying sediments, sug-gesting increasing lake levels and upslope movement of shorelineposition.

STOP 32: MISSOURI COTEAU

C. H. Yansa

NTS 72J/14 UTM 267370

The Missouri Coteau is an area of extensive ice-thrust features andhummocky moraine that marks the eastern limit of BrownChernozemic Soil zone in the Palliser Triangle. Recent investigationsof small kettle depressions (ca. 30-80 m diameter) from three differ-ent sites on the Coteau document changes in local vegetation, cli-

mate, and hydrology from 10.2 to 5.8 ka BP. Exquisitely preservedplant remains indicate vegetational assemblages representative ofmesic and wetland environments throughout this interval (Yansa,1995), and floristic patterns similar to those reconstructed for othersites within the southern Alberta Plain (i.e. Beaudoin, 1992; Klassen,1994).

This stop lies near two sites that are not accessible by road, Kyle(50o 53'N, 107o 50'W; 823 m asl) and Beechy (50o 55'N, 107o 40'W;808 m asl), where preliminary investigations have been conducted.Detailed analysis of the Andrews site (50o 20'N, 105o 52'W; 720 masl), which lies approximately 150 km SE of this stop near Moose Jaw,forms the basis of this discussion. Species diversity data from theBeechy and Kyle sites are comparable to those obtained between 5.8and 3.1 m at the Andrews site. Analysis of 67 samples from this 2.7m interval at the Andrews site allowed recognition of 5 botanicallydistinct zones representing periods of environmental changebetween 10.2 and 5.8 ka BP (Fig. 61; Yansa, 1995).

Zone I at the Andrews site consists of sparse, allochthonous plantmacrofossils within till (Fig. 62). The lowermost sediments of Zone IIcontain fossil evidence that postglacial vegetation at all three sitesconsisted of an open white spruce woodland, including Picea glauca(white spruce), Rubus ideaus (wild red raspberry), Shepherdiacanadensis (Canada buffaloberry), and a few woodland forb species.These deposits are overlain by the Zone III lacustrine sediments whichcontain trunks of Picea glauca. Radiocarbon ages from wood collect-ed from all three sites demonstrate this white spruce woodland wasestablished by 10.3-10.2 ka BP.

At the Andrews site, a transition from a spruce-dominated wood-land to a pond/deciduous parkland environment occurred at about10 ka BP. A 1 m thick sequence of laminated deposits (Zone III) isinterpreted as recording deep water sedimentation. These lacustrineconditions existed at this site from ca. 10.0 ka BP until at least 8.8 ka.A rise in relative water level, probably related to melting of buriedglacier ice, may have asphyxiated the mature white spruce trees atthe Andrews site, and possibly at other kettle-fill sites on the MissouriCoteau. The lower 55 cm of sediment of this zone at the Andrewssite contain an assortment of pond and woodland species, whereasthe uppermost 45 cm (10.0 to 8.79±0.14 ka BP) indicate a vegeta-tion dominated by river birches, poplars and shoreline forbs sur-rounding a permanent wetland containing abundant aquatic andemergent taxa. Comparable species have been identified at the Kyleand Beechy sites.

Brackish and alkaline conditions developed at the Andrews site aswater levels began to drop at the end of Zone III, and are reflectedby the presence of numerous fruits of Zannichellia palustris (hornedpondweed), Potamogeton pectinatus (sago pondweed), and Scirpusamericanus (three-square bulrush), seeds of Chenopodium salinum(saline goosefoot), and oogonium and shoots of Chara sp.(stonewort algae). These species were also common at the Beechyand Kyle sites. The absence of fruits of Ruppia sp. (ditch- grass), anaquatic macrophyte of saline water, at the Andrews and Beechy sitesuggests that saline conditions never developed. In contrast, Ruppiasp. fruits are abundant at the Kyle site, which suggests highly salinewater likely associated with periods of peak aridity (cf. Vance, 1991).

The lacustrine sediments of Zone III at the Andrews site are over-lain unconformably by charcoal-rich sandy clay at a depth of 4 m. Thedeep water phase was truncated at ca. 8.8 ka BP with slopewash (atleast partly in response to prairies fires) the dominant sedimentaryprocess until ca. 7.7 ka BP (Zone IV). This arid period, interpreted asthe Hypsithermal, was followed by rising water levels until ca. 5.8 kaBP, with a semi–permanent calcareous-rich slough was established ina grassland setting (Zone V). Plants common to Zone V at theAndrews site include Chara sp., Potentilla norvegica (rough cinque-foil), Lycopus americanus (water horehound), Ranunculus sceleratus(celery- leaved buttercup), and Typha latifolia (common cattail). Someof these species were also identified at the Beechy and Kyle sites.After 5.8 ka BP, the Andrews site, and probably many other wetlandson the Missouri Coteau, became ephemeral and not conducive forpreservation of plant macrofossils.

27

Aber, J.S. 1993: Glaciotectonic landforms and structures; in Quaternary and

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Research Council and Geology Department, University ofSaskatchewan, scale 1:1 520 640.

Agriculture Canada Expert Committee on Soil Survey1987: The Canadian System of Soil Classification, 2nd edition;

Agriculture Canada Publication 1646, 164 p.Alden, W.C.1924: Physiographic development of the Great Plains; Geological

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Allen, J.R.L.1971: Transverse erosional marks of mud and rock: their physical

basis and geological significance; Sedimentary Geology, v.5, p. 167-315.

Anderson, D.W.1987: Pedogenesis in the grassland and adjacent forests of the

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Ashton, G.D., and Kennedy, J.F.1972: Ripples on underside of river ice covers; Journal of the

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review of the paleoecologic problems; Annals of theCarnegie Museum, v. 56, p. 259-273.

Beaudoin, A.B.1992: Early Holocene paleoenvironmental data preserved in “non-

traditional” sites; in Abstracts, The 2nd Palliser TriangleGlobal Change Conference, Regina, p. 1-2.

Bootsma, A.1994: Long term (100 yr) climatic trends for agriculture at select-

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Canada, Map 1254A, scale 1:5 000 000.Bull, W.B.1991: Geomorphic responses to climatic change; Oxford

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Sediment Source Areas; in Soil Erosion and Conservation,ed. S.A. El-Swaify, W.C. Moldenhauer and A. Lo; SoilConservation Society of America, Ankeny, Iowa, U.S.A., p.128-138.

1987: Badlands of Dinosaur Provincial Park; The CanadianGeographer, v. 14, p. 82-87.

1992: Spatial and temporal variations in erosion and sedimentyield; in Erosion and sediment transport monitoring pro-grammes in river basins, ed. J. Bogen, D.E. Walling, and T.Day; International Association of Hydrological SciencesPublication No. 210, p. 455-465.

in press: The fluvial system; in Geomorphic Systems of the PalliserTriangle: an evaluation of the potential impacts of climatechange; ed. D.S. Lemmen and R.E. Vance; GeologicalSurvey of Canada Bulletin.

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Canada Publication 5243/B.Carson, M.A., Hudson, H.R.1992: Assessment of the impact of farmland erosion on sediment

quality: the Saskatchewan River basin, Western Canada; in,Erosion and sediment transport monitoring programmes inriver basins, ed. J. Bogen, D.E. Walling, and T. Day;International Association of Hydrological SciencesPublication No. 210, p. 467-472.

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28

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33

Ian A. CampbellDept. of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AlbertaT6G 2H4icampbel@geog.ualberta.ca

Jason CosfordDept. of GeographyUniversity of ReginaRegina, SaskatchewanS4S 0A2

Peter P. DavidDept. de GeologieUniversité de MontréalC.P. 6128 Succ. ‘Centre-ville’Montréal, QuébecH3C 3J7david@ere.umontreal.ca

William M. LastDept. of Geological SciencesUniversity of ManitobaWinnipeg, ManitobaR3T 2N2mlast@ccm.umanitoba.ca

Dale A. LeckieGeological Survey of Canada3303-33rd St. NWCalgary, AlbertaT2L 2A7dleckie@gsc.nrcan.gc.ca

Donald S. LemmenGeological Survey of Canada3303-33rd St. NWCalgary, AlbertaT2L 2A7dlemmen@gsc.nrcan.gc.ca

Rudy W. KlassenGeological Survey of Canada3303-33rd St. NWCalgary, AlbertaT2L 2A7rklassen@gsc.nrcan.gc.ca

Dan J. PennockDept. of Soil ScienceUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoon, SaskatchewanS7N 0W0pennock@sask.usask.ca

David J. SauchynDept. of GeographyUniversity of ReginaRegina, SaskatchewanS4S 0A2sauchyn@uregina.ca

Yuqiang ShangDept. of Geological SciencesUniversity of ManitobaWinnipeg, ManitobaR3T 2N2shang@ccm.umanitoba.ca

Robert E. VanceNatural Resources Canada588 Booth StreetOttawa, OntarioK1A 0E8RVance@NRCan.gc.ca

Willem J. VreekenDept. of GeographyQueen’s UniversityKingston, OntarioK7L 3N6

Stephen A. WolfeGeological Survey of CanadaP.O. Box 35Yellowknife NTX1A 2N1swolfe@gsc.nrcan.gc.ca

Catherine H. YansaDept. of GeographyUniversity of Wisconsin - Madison384 Science Hall, 550 North Park St.Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1491cyansa@vms2.macc.wisc.edu

34

TABLES

1. Willow Bunch Lake vital statistics

2. Willow Bunch Lake hydrochemistry

3. Antelope Lake hydrochemistry

4. Subaerial and buried geomorphic surfaces in the Belanger area

5. Freefight Lake vital statistics

6. Freefight Lake hydrochemistry

7. Clearwater Lake hydrochemistry

FIGURES

1. The Palliser Triangle and Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone

2. Regional stratigraphic nomenclature

3. Physiographic subdivisions

4. Ratio of average annual precipitation to potential evapotranspi-

ration

5. Major soil units

6. Sand dune occurrences

7. Types of landslide movement

8. Model of soil redistribution

9. Salt lakes of south-central Saskatchewan

10. Salt lake morphology versus sediment type

11. Surficial materials and field stop locations

12. Geomorphology and structure of the Dirt and Cactus hills

13. Ice-pushed ridges of the southern Dirt Hills

14. Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy, Oro Lake

15. Endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake short core

16. Chronology and endogenic mineralogy, Oro Lake core OR1

17. Stratigraphic record of Willow Bunch Lake

18. Petroglyphs from St. Victor Park

19. Surficial materials of the Table Butte area

20. Surficial materials of the Killdeer Badland area

21. Killdeer Badlands, Grasslands National Park

22. Surficial materials of the Wood Mountain Upland escarpment

23. Active and stabilized parabolic dunes, Seward Sand Hills

24. Airphoto of area NE of Antelope Lake

25. Vertical air photographs of Antelope Lake contrasting 1961 and

1991 water levels

26. Sediment characteristics, Antelope Lake gravity core

27. Redistribution of 137Cs by soil erosion

28. Soil loss by parent material, Gull Lake and Webb rural munici-

palities

29. Drumlins, crescentic troughs and transverse ridges in the Dollard

area

30. Fractured clasts, Bidaux Drumlin

31. Surficial materials, Frenchman Valley near Eastend

32. Cross-section of fill in Frenchman Valley

33. View across Frenchman Valley from Jones Peak

34. Origin and provenance of the Cypress Hills Formation

35. Depositional environment of the Cypress Hills Formation

36. Surficial materials of the East Block of the Cypress Hills

37. Geomorphic surfaces of the East and Centre blocks, Cypress Hills

38. Meltwater channels on the East Block upland

39. View from Bald Butte

40. Topographic profile of Battle Creek Valley near Fort Walsh

41. Fort Walsh National Historic Site

42. Topographic and bedrock cross-sections of Benson Creek

Landslide

43. Battle Creek Valley between Police Point and Benson Creek land-

slides

44. Airphoto of Police Point Landslide

45. Ground photos of Police Point Landslide

46. Geomorphic surfaces in the Gap Creek basin

47. Buried soils in postglacial loess, Friday site

48. Morphometry and sediment redistribution for GSC monitored

blowout dunes

49. Morphological features of an active parabolic dune

50. Airphoto of Ingebright Lake

51. Modern sediment facies, North Ingebright Lake

52. Interpreted relative humidity, North Ingebright Lake region

53. Freefight Lake; water levels, sedimentary facies and x-radiogra-

phy

54. Active and stabilized parabolic dunes of the NW Great Sand Hills

55. Aerial photograph of Lancer ice–thrust moraine

56. Proximal slope of Lancer ice–thrust moraine from paleosol site

57. Rotational landsliding along lower Swift Current Creek Valley

58. Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy of Clearwater

Lake

59. Sediment characteristics of gravity core, Clearwater Lake

60. Endogenic mineralogy and stable isotope analysis, Clearwater

Lake core CW2

61. Stratigraphy of the Andrews site, Missouri Coteau

62. Plant macrofossil diagram for the Andrews site

35

TABLES AND FIGURES

Some readers may opt to use this guidebook by first browsing through the Tables and Figures. This section makes that option possible. Theblue table or figure numbers are links which take the reader to the named destination. Tables and figures that refer to specific stops havelinks in the caption or title which will take the reader either to the map showing the location of the stop (Fig. 11) or to the beginning of thetext on that particular stop. To return to the figure simply use the link to that figure shown in the text.

Contents Stops Tables/Figures Navigation hints

36

Table 1Willow Bunch Vital Statistics (stop 5)

(average 1983-1994)

Surface Area (A) 32.9 km2

Drainage Area 1128 km2

Maximum Length (Lmax) 34.2 km

Maximum Width (Wmax) 1.2 km

Maximum Depth (Zmax) 2.1 m

Mean Depth (Zmean) 0.4 m

Relative Depth (Zr) 0.04

Volume (V) 0.002 km3

Shoreline Length (L) 79.2 km

Shoreline Development (Dv) 3.87

37

Table 2Willow Bunch Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 5)

mg L-1 log molal

Ca2+ 136.8 -2.446

Mg2+ 592.8 -1.592

Na+ 15 490 -0.150

K+ 370 -2.003

HCO3- 3847.6 -1.179

SO42- 23 666 -0.587

Cl- 3415.4 -0.995

TDS 47.8 ppt

Ionic Strendth 0.805

pH 9.8

Total Alkalinity 66.23 meq

Carbonate Alkalinity 66.11 meq

38

Table 3Antelope Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 12)

August, 1994 January, 1995Concentration in Aug. Sept. June Sept mg L-1 1938 1957 1971 1985 surf. 4 m surf. 4.75 m

Ca2+ 22 63 67 51 31 25.7 37.7 30.7

Mg2+ 1132 1276 642 1149 1470 2860 1970 2760

Na+ 2328 1232 1360 2543 2730 5350 4020 5600

K+ nd nd 123 220 247 443 242 334

HCO3- 717 645 662 781 977 2020 1393 2065

SO42- 801 4450 4840 8668 10700 22100 15200 21100

Cl- 325 169 239 428 439 857 547 768

TDS (ppt) 12.4 7.3 8.4 15.1 16.4 33.9 24.6 33.9

pH 8.9 8.7 9.0 9.0 9.1 8.9 9.0 8.8

39

Table 4Subaerial and buried geomorphic surfaces in the Belanger area (stop 18)

SURFACE DOMINANT PROCESS/ AGEORIGIN

Cypress Fluvial (channel) Middle Miocene

Murraydale Fluvial (subaerial) Late Miocene

Fairwell Fluvial (subaerial) Late Miocene

Moirvale Fluvial (subaerial) Late Miocene

Sucker Fluvial Late Miocene(subaerial & channel)

Caton Glaciofluvial Late Wisconsinan

Blacker Lake Glacial Late Wisconsinan

Belanger Glacial &Glaciolacustrine Late Wisconsinan

40

Table 5Freefight Lake Vital Statistics (stop 26B)

Surface Area (A) 2.94 km2

Drainage Basin Area 55.2 km2

Maximum Length (Lmax) 2.95 km

Maximum Width (Wmax) 1.25 km

Maximum Depth (Zmax) 25.60 m

Mean Depth (Zmean) 19.5 m

Relative Depth (Zr) 2.18

Volume (V) 0.02 km3

Shoreline Length (L) 9.16 km

Shoreline Development 1.66

Volume Development (Dv) 3.8

41

Table 6Freefight Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 26B)

(conc in mg L-1) Mixolim. Monim.

Ca2+ 89 395

Mg2+ 13 279 15 192

Na+ 20 930 48 531

K+ 3366 3734

HCO3- 4471 15 360

SO42- 77 483 118 318

Cl- 8361 10 316

TDS (ppt) 111 189

Ionic Strength 1788 2873

pH (pE) 8.4 (3.4) 7.9 (-5.3)

H2S 0 959

42

Table 7Clearwater Lake Hydrochemistry (stop 31)

Concentration in July Nov. Feb. June Sept. Aug. Jan.mg L-1 1938 1966 1967 1967 1967 1994 1995

Ca2+ 8.9 4.0 7.0 11.0 8.0 5.6 11.6

Mg2+ 136 126 158 115 133 163 211

Na+ 84.0 68.0 76.0 54.0 63.0 87.6 122.0

K+ nd 22.0 25.0 19.0 21.0 27.8 2.9

HCO3- 541 579 733 566 537 685 847

SO42- 134 158 187 139 165 248 312

Cl- 20.5 24,0 29.0 19.0 23.0 32.5 40.9

TDS (ppt) 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.2

pH nd 8.75 8.55 8.40 9.00 9.25 8.98

Saskatoon

ReginaMoose

JawMedicineHat

o

o

o

oo o o o o o

o

Frenchman R.

WoodMountainUpland

kilometres0 50 100

Qu'Appelle River

Calgary

Alb

erta Saskatch

ewan

Man

itob

a

Sas

katc

hew

an

RedDeer River

Swift

Curre

nt

CreekMilk R.

Souris R .

Assinib

oineRiver Brandon

Lethbridge

114

53

51

49

112 110 108 106 104 102100

Fig. 1 The Palliser Triangle (dashed red line) as defined by Capt. John Palliser. The Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone (colour) is used in this guide as a working definition of the "Triangle".

Cypress Hills

South Sa s katch

ewan

River

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 43

N

Upp

er C

reta

ceou

sTe

rtia

ryQ

uate

r-na

ry

Pale

ocen

eEo

cene

Olig

o-ce

neM

ioce

nePl

ioce

nePl

eist

o-ce

ne

Period StageSouthernAlberta

SouthwesternSaskatchewan

Milk River Milk River

Pakowki Pakowki

Belly

Rive

rGp.

Foremost

OldmanJudithRiver

Bearpaw

BearpawBlood Reserve

St. MaryRiver

EastendWhitemud

Battle

FrenchmanWillow Creek

Porcupine Hills Ravenscrag

Swift Current

Cypress Hills Cypress Hills

Laurentidedrift

Laurentidedrift

Wood Mountain

EmpressSaskatchewansand and gravel

Fig. 2 Regional stratigraphic nomenclature. Modified from Dawson et al., 1995.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 44

RainyHills

Upland

RainyHills

Upland

SullivanLakePlain

CouleePlain

NeutralHills

Upland

Sceptre(Snipe Lake)

Plain

BoundaryPlateau

Sand Hills -Bigstick Lake Plain

Swift CurrentCreek Plateau

MissouriCoteau

MissouriCoteau

Saskatchewan RiversPlain

ReginaPlain

Old Wives LakePlain

SwiftCurrent

Milk RiverPlain

Cypress HillsUpland

LakeDiefenbaker

Red

r

Deer R vi e

Wood MountainUpland

kilometres

0 50 100

South

Saskatchewan River

Milk R ei v r

Sweet GrassHills Upland

RainyHills

Upland

MedicineHat

Old ManOn His Back

Plateau

Qu'AppellePlains

MissouriCoteau

MooseJaw

uplands

plateaus

plains

continental drainage divide

N

Fig. 3 Physiographic subdivisions of the southern portion of the Alberta Plain. Compiled and modified from Acton et al., 1960, Pettapiece, 1986 and Klassen, 1992. Uplands shown in darkest tone. See Fig. 5 for soil units and Fig. 11 for surficial geology.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 45

Calgary0.90

0.80

0.75

0.70

0.60

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.80

Saskatoon

Regina

Coronach

Yorkton

Estevan

Brandon

Dauphin

NorthBattleford

53

51

49114

110 106102

kilometres

0 50 100

0.70 0.80

Red Deer

Suffield SwiftCurrent

MooseJaw

Outlook

Lethbridge

Manyberries

MedicineHat

Coronation

Broadview

Fig. 4 Ratio of average annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (30 year means; Environment Canada, 1993). Lower values indicate greater aridity (negative moisture balance). In drought years ratios may be <0.4 in some areas.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 46

Moose Jaw

cl

cl

cl clcl

var

varcl

cl

sl

sl

slsl

sl

sl

sl

lm

lmlm

lmlm

lm

cl cl

clcl

cl

clvar

s

s

s

s

clcl

cl

var

lm

lm

lm

lmcl

ssl

ssl

sl

c

ccc

cl

cl

cl

cl

cl

var

cl

clcl

cl

cl

lm lm

var

Regosolic

Black ChernozemicSOILS:

lm

c

loam

clay

slsvar

Brown Chernozemickilometres

0 50 100

Medicine Hat

Swift Current

Cypress Hills

N

Fig. 5 Major soil units in the Palliser Triangle. Polygons are generalized from the Soil Landscape Maps of Saskatchewan and Alberta (Canada Soil Inventory, 1987a&b). See Fig. 3 for physiographic subdivisions and Fig. 11 for surficial geology.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 47

cl

lm

Great Sand Hills

Water Body

TEXTURE:

clay loamvariable

sandy loamsand

Dark Brown Chernozemic

Brown Solonetzic

Regina

0 50 100

Alberta

Saskatchewan

MedicineHat

SwiftCurrent

Regina

MooseJaw

ki lometres

LethbridgeGrassy Lake

Pakowki

Retlaw

Verger

Westerham

Hilda

Burstall

Tunstall

Cramersburg

Lacadena

ElbowBirsay

Bigstick

AntelopeLake

Rolling Hills

MiddleSand Hills Great

Sand Hills

Kirkpatrick LakeSand Hills

Seward

Crane Lk

Fig. 6 Principal sand dune occurrences (yellow) in the Palliser Triangle. Modified from David (1977).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 48

N

550

580

610

640

Elev

atio

n (m

)

200 400 600 800

Earth Slump Earth Flow

Sheared Surfaces (inferred)

Preslide ProfileSheared Surfaces (inferred)

Distance (m)0

Till Sand, Silt and Clay Silt and Clay Clay

Till

0 200 400 600 800Distance (m)

Elev

atio

n (m

)

400

500

600

Sand, Silt and Clay Silt and Clay Clay

a

b

Fig. 7 Types of landslide movement. A - Translational failure: sliding is confined to distinct horizontal beds and slide mass morphology is dominated by graben structures. Modified from Cruden et al., 1993, see also Campbell and Evans, 1990; Misfeldt et al. 1991). B - Rotational failure: characterized by reverse slopes and arcuate subparallel ridges and depressions. Modified from Scott and Brooker (1968). Most landslides in the Palliser Triangle are complex and involve several types of movement.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 49

3

210

200 250 300 350

150

100

50

Z(m)

X(m)

Y(m)

Level: -6 Covergent Shoulder: -18

Covergent Backslope: -21

DivergentBackslope: -24

DivergentFootslope: 4.4

Covergent Footslope: 17

Divergent Shoulder: -26

Fig. 8 Generalized landscape-scale model of soil redistribution in the Brown Soil Zone (original data in Pennock and de Jong, 1991). Soil redistribution values are means for that landform element in t ha-1 a-1; negative values indicate net erosion. Landform elements are defined in Pennock et al. (1987).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 50

Regina

Fife Lake

Twelvemile Lake

CeylonLake

Lake ofthe Rivers

Buffalo Pound Lake

Big MuddyLake

Shoe Lake(Na2SO4 mine)

Chaplin Lake(Na2SO4 mine)

Bishopric(Na2SO4 mine)

Old Wives Lake

Willow Bunch Lake

0 50km

Fig. 9 Landsat photograph showing the major salt lakes of south-central Saskatchewan. Willowbunch Lake is Stop 5 in the field excursion. The approximate location of the area shown in the photo is indicated on Fig. 11.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 51

N

Manitou

Devils

Deadmoose Freefight

Antelope

Manitoba

Waldsea

Basin

Clearwater

Oro

Lenore

Quill

Oliver

ArthurBlackstrap

Dana

Willow Bunch

Harris

Old WivesPorter Bitter Corral Chappice

Ceylon

Mud Grandora IngebrightMuskikiVincent

LittleManitou

Redberry

CLASTIC CHEMICAL

CLASTIC CHEMICALSediment Type

Dominant Sedimentary Processes

Sediment Type

Dominant Sedimentary Processes

CLAY MINERAL AUTHIGENISIS FLOCCULATION OF FINE GRAINED MATERIAL

SHORELINE PROCESSESTURBIDITY FLOW

DEVELOPMENT OF MEROMIXISDEVELOPMENT OF THERMAL STRATIFICATIONSUBAQUEOUS SOLUABLE SALT PRECIPITATION

FREEZE-OUT SALT PRECIPITATIONEVAPORATIVE CARBONATE PRECIPITATION

SULFIDE PRECIPITATIONSULFATE REDUCTION

BIO-MEDIATED CARBONATE PRECIPITATIONCARBONATE DISSOLUTION

SALT KARSTINGFORMATION OF SALT CRUSTS

CYCLIC PRECIPITATION/DISSOLUTIONSUBAQUEOUS SALT PRECIPITATION

FORMATION OF SALT SPRING DEPOSITSINTRASEDIMENTARY SALT FORMATION

WIND SETUPDEFLATION/AEOLIAN INFLUX

EVAPORATIVE PUMPINGCYCLIC FLOODING/DESSICATION

MUD DIAPIRISM

Deep

Shallow

MORPHOLOGY

Deep

Shallow

MORPHOLOGY

Fig. 10 Salt lakes of the northern Great Plains: morphology versus sediment type.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 52

Fig. 11 Surficial Materials map within the Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone of the Palliser Triangle showing Field stop locations. Map is compiled and simplified from David (1964), SRC (1986, 1987a&b), Shetson, 1987), and Klassen (1991, 1992). See Fig. 1 for map showing extent of the Brown Chernozemic Soil Zone and Fig. 3 for major physiographic divisions. Rectangle shows the approximate area shown in the landsat photo of Fig. 9 (click on any corner of rectangle to view landsat image).

OldWives

Lake

N

27 28

29

31

30

18

1211

13

14

9

7

6

5

4

2 13

8

15

16

1719

23

21

2425

26

1820

22

32

26B

0 50 100

km

21

1

21

1

9

3

1

7

ReginaMoose Jaw

SwiftCurrent

Eastend

Lethbridge

MedicineHat

MapleCreek

Leader

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 53

SouthSa

s katchew an River

CypressHills

GreatSandHills

Colluvium(colluviated drift, primarily till, and bedrock

Loess EolianDunes

Lacustrine & Glacio-lacustrine Deposits

GlaciofluvialDeposits

Till Plain(flat to gently rolling) Bedrock

Till, Hummocky(Includes stagnation moraine & ice-thrust ridges)

Valley Complex(alluvium, colluvium, glacio-fluvial deposits, minor others)

0 20km

2

2

36334

339

Provincial Highway

Fold Axis showingplunge

Horizontal Fold Axis

Dipping Strata Thrust Fault (toothon upthrust side)

High-angle Fault (tickson upth rown side)

Vertical Strata

Older bed rockridges completlyoverriddenYounger bed rockridges mostlyoverriddenYounger bed rockridges notoverriddenEnd Moraine(after Parizek, '64)

Ice Tongue position

MeltwaterSpillway

Horizontal Strata

I

I

I

I

I

II

II

II

II

II

II II

II

II

II

II

II

III

Alb

erta

Sask

atch

ewan

Man

ito

ba

ReginaOrmiston

Galilee

MAXWELLTON

CACTUS H

.

MISSOURI

COTEAU

DIRT HILLS

Avonlea

Crestwynd

Ardill

ARDILL

Claybank

Skyeta Lake

Old Wives Lake

SpringValley

Shoe L.

MORAINE

Lake of the Rivers

END

END

MORAINE

Stop3

Stop2

Stop1

Fig. 12 Geomorpholog y and stru cture of the Dirt and Cactus hills (Fig. 11, stops no. 1, 2 & 3). The hills are the produ ct of gla ciote ctonic deformation asso ciated with three tongues of the Weyburn ice lobe; stru ctures correspond closel y to trends of ridges and overall morpholog y of the hills (modified from Abe r, 1993).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 54

N2 km

Fig. 13 Ice-pushed ridges of the southern Dirt Hills (Fig. 11, stop no. 2). Spillway is denoted by black arrow. Skyeta Lake is visible in lower right corner.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 55

Oro Lake Chemistry

SASKATCHEWAN

MANITOBA

ALBERTA

Hand Hills

Cypress Hills Moose Mt.

MONTANA NORTH DAKOTA

Aspen parkland

Bunchgrass steppe

Northern mixed-grassprairie

0 0.5km

N

Fig. 14 Physical limnology and generalized stratigraphy of Oro Lake (Fig 11, stop no. 4). General location of lake denoted by black circle on Palliser map.

laminated clay& silt

massive mud

TDS 31g/l

Mg 4.5 0 SO4 22.2 Na 1.9 4 HCO3 0.87 K 1.9 4 Cl 0.60

10-15cm peat overlyingcolluvium

OR1

OR1OR2

OR3

970±60

429 0±60

673 0±60

909 0±70942 0±230

8.09m

OR2

706 0±60

815 0±603.93m

OR3

672 0±60

889 0±604.14m

Bathymetry in metres (Aug., 1993)

pH 8.7

6

4

2

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 56

M

Mg & N aE V A P O R IT E S

P E R C E N T

C a E V A P O R IT E S& H A L IT E

P E R C E N T

E N D O G E N ICC A R B O N A T E S

P E R C E N T

0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 00 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

P R O T O D O L O IT EMP R O T O D O L O IT E

N a +Mg S U L F A T E S

Mg S U L F A T E S

G Y P S U M

H A L IT E

A R A G O N IT E

Fig. 15 Endogenic mineralogy of undated short core from Oro Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 4).

N a S U L F A T E S

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 57d

ep

th i

n c

m

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

0 25 50 75 25 50 75 100 25 50 75900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Dep

th (c

m)

% Aragonite % Gypsum percent AMS dates

Protodolomite

Hyd romagnesite& Magnesite

Na SO42

970±70

4290±60

6739±60

9090±70

9420±230

Fig. 16 Chronology and endogenic mineralogy of Oro Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 4) core OR1. All AMS ages were obtained on seeds from upland plant species.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 58

HIGH ARAGONITE, MINOR Mg-CALCITELOW ORGANIC MATTER, TRACE Na SULFATES THROUGHOUT

SALINE TO HYPERSALINE PLAYA

POOR RECOVERYNO OBSERVABLE BEDDING, HARDVARIABLE DETRITAL CONTENTVERY LOW ORGANIC MATTERGRADING FROM Na SULFATES ATBASE TO Na+Mg SULFATES AT TOP

SALINE TO HYPERSALINEPERENNIAL LAKE

POORLY SORTEDPOOR RECOVERYFLUVIAL/ALLUVIAL SEDIMENT?

ABUNDANT SHELL MATERIAL

PERENNIAL, DEEPWATER FRESH TO BRACKISH LAKE

ABUNDANT FIBROUS ORGANIC MATTERHIGH GYPSUM & Na SULFATES

SALINE TO HYPERSALINE PLAYA

LAMINATED CALCAREOUS SILTY CLAY

GRAVELLY SAND & SANDY, SILTY GRAVEL

MICROBIALITE

LAMINATED SILTY CLAY& CLAYEY SILT

FIRM, DRY PEDOGENIC ZONE

SALT

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

6730(diffuse organic

matter)

10,360(shell material)

NO SAMPLE

C yr BP DEPTHin metres

LITHOLOGY COMMENTS & INTERPRETATION14

Fig. 17 Stratigraphic record of Willow Bunch Lake. (Fig. 11, stop no. 5).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 59

Human foot

Hoof Track

Hoof with Dew Claws

Turtle

Grizzly Beat Track

Human Foot

Human Hand

Human Head

Fig. 18 Examples of petroglyphs from St. Victor Park ( Fig. 11, stop no. 6 ), modified from SERM brochure.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 60

Fig. 19 Surficial materials of the Table Butte area ( Fig. 11, stop no. 7): Rp=Bedrock plateau; Rb=Bedrock benches, d=with scattered erratics; Ap=Alluvial plain.

dRb

dRb

dRp

Rp

Rp

Ap

TableButte

Highway

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 611

N

0 2km

Fig. 20 Surficial materials of the Killdeer Badland area (Fig. 11, stop no. 8): Rp=Bedrock plateau; Rb=Bedrock bench; Rh=Bedrock forming badlands, d=with scattered erratics; Ap=Alluvial Plain.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 62

dRp

dRb

dRb

dRh

dRh

ApAp

dRh

stop 8

0 2km

N

Fig. 21 Killdeer badlands (Fig. 11, stop no. 8), East Block, Grasslands National Park, Saskatchewan.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 63

stop 9

Plains

Mv

Mv

Mv

Cx

Cx

Ap

WoodMountainUpland

Fig. 22 Surficial material s, Wood Mountain Upland escarpment (Fig. 11, stop no. 9): Mv=Till veneer; Cx=Colluvial complex; Ap=Alluvial Plai n

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 64

N

0 2km

N A P L A 2 1 0 0 4 - 6 3 : 1 9 6 9 - :

0 0 .5

km

Stop 10

Fig. 23 Airphoto showing active and stabilized parabolic dunes, Seward Sand Hills (Fig. 11, stop no. 10). Formative winds are from the SW. Note prominent dune-track ridges behind dunes low lying terrain. In 1996, the area of active sand (white) was somewhat less than in this 1969 airphoto. Dashed line illustrates how back ridge and wings join to form a “closed” parabolic dune.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 65

N

stabilizedparabolicdunes

trackridges

backridge

backridge

GSC monitored site

AntelopeLake

GL

Er

GF

GF

Fig. 24 Vertical air photograph of area NE of Antelope Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 11). Dashed line denotes most prominent reach of the Antelope Lake esker. GF - glaciofluvial outwash; Er - eolian dunes; GL - glaciolacustrine plain.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 66

Stop 11

N

0 2km

Fig. 25 Verti cal air photographs of Antelope Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 12) showing dramati c drop in water level over the past three decades. White circles mark Palli ser Triangle Project coring sites.

AL1 AL2 AL3

1961 1991

0 1kmN

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 67

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

1880

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

1880

ENDOGENICMINERALOGY

DETRITALTEXTURE

MEAN PARTICLESIZE

MicronsPercentPercent

SILT

CLAYGYPSUM

ARAGONITE

PROTO-DOLOMITE

SAND

Fig. 26 Sediment characteristics of 210Pb dated gravity core, collected near Antelope Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 12) core AL1 .

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 68

P reva i l i n g Wind

f a l l o u tD e p l e t i o n

Enrichment

transport137Cs

Fig. 27 Cartoon illustrating redistribution of 137Cs by soil erosion

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 69

molecule attachesto a soil particle

-20

-40

Fig. 28 Boxplots of soil loss at cultivated sites for five parent material s in the RM's of Gull Lake and Webb (Fig. 11, stop no. 13). Numeric value is the median for that parent material type (from Pennock et al., 1995).

Par ent Material of Associations

Glacio-lacustrine

(sand)

Glacio-lacustrine

(silt)

Glaciofluvial/lacustrine

(coarse sand)

EolianSilt

Till

So

il R

ed

istr

ibu

tio

n t

ha

-1 y

r-1

40

20

0

-60

-30

-13 -14

-21

-11

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 70

0 2km

N

Crescentic troughs

Drumlins

Transverse ridgesBidaux Drumlin

Swif

t Curre

nt V

alley

Eastend

13

13

Frenchman Valley

Dollard

108o

50'W

108o

34'W

49o30'N

49o30'N

Fig. 29 Drumlins, crescentic troughs and transverse ridges of the Dolla rd Plai n (near stop no. 14, Fig. 11). Grassy Creek Scabland and the Shaunavon Plateau lie to the ENE.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 71

Fig. 30 Fractured clasts in the Bidaux Drumlin (Fig. 11, stop no. 14). Measuring stick is 60 cm long.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 72

Fig. 31 Surficial materials in vicinity of Frenchman Valley near town of Eastend (Fig. 11, stop no. 15). Mp=Till plain, Mv=Till veneer, Cx=Colluvial complex, Gt=Glaciofluvial terrace, Ap=Alluvial plain. Note position of PFRA cross-section of valley presented in Fig. 32

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 73

0 2km

Mv Mp

Ap

ApGt

CxMp Mp Mp

Cx Cxstop15 Frenchman Va l l e y

Swift C

urren

t

chan

nel

line ofcross-section

highway

1 km

3500'

3400'

3300'

3200'

3100'

3000'

2900'

Till

Colluvium

Bedr ock

Sand/gravel

FrenchmanRiver

NE SW

EASTEND SITE-PFRA

Fig. 32 Cross-section of the Frenchman Valley (Fig. 11, Fig. 31) showing fill sequence west of the town of Eastend. Black bars denote boreholes drilled prior to construction of the PFRA dam at the site.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 74

Fig. 33 View southeast across the Frenchman Valley from Jones Peak (Fig. 11, stop no. 16). Note ubiquitous landsliding along valley sides.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 75

++

++

+++++++++++++++++++ ++++

+++

+

++

++++++++ ++++ ++

+++

+++++++

+

+

SW NELate Cretaceous - Paleocene

Sand

Gravel

IntrusiveRocks

Eocene - Oligocene

TodayRockyMountains

SweetgrassHills

CypressHills

U.S.A. Canada

? ?0 100

km

elev

atio

n (m

asl

)

0

2000

Fig. 34 Sequence of events to account for the origin and provenance of the Cypress Hills Formation. Recent cross section is drawn to scale (modified from Leckie and Cheel, 1989).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 76

BearpawMountains

SweetgrassHills

N

Fig. 35 Reconstructed depos itional environment of the Cypress Hill s Formation. Quartzite clastic detritus was derived from sediments overlying the Bearpaw Mountains and Sweetgrass Hill s. Granite intrusions, which formed the mountains and hill s, provided detritus when exposed by subs equent erosion. The exposu re at stop 17 (Fig. 11, stop no. 17) represents the braidplain facies of the formation (modified from Leckie and Cheel , 1989).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 77

Stop 17

N

0 2km

dRp

Cx

Cx

Cx

CxCx

MnxMv

Fig. 36 East Block of the Cypress Hills just north of Frenchman Valley: dRp = Bedrock plateau with residual drift, Cx = Colluvial complex, Mv = Till veneer, Mnx = Till transitional to hummocky glaciolacustrine deposits. See Fig. 11, stop no. 17.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 78

Fig. 37 Geomorphic surfaces of the East and Centre blocks, Cypress Hills. Stop no 18 (Fig. 11) is the Belanger Canal section.

CC

CCCC

21

CC

CC

stop18

1 km

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 79

CC

FloodplainDissected SlopesBelanger IceMarginCaton Channels

Caton Slopes

SuckerSurfaceMoirvaleSurfaceFairwellSurfaceMurraydaleSurface

CC

DC

PC

N

Fig. 38 Meltwater channels on the East Block upland. Brown area delimits the upland; yellow area marks Cypress surface remnants; beige area marks Murraydale surface remnants. DC–Davis Creek, CC–Caton Creek, PC–Piapot Creek.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 80

Fig. 39 View north from Bald Butte (Fig. 11, stop no. 19) across the north slope of the Centre Block and subhumid plains toward the Great Sand Hills.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 81

0 4

1400

1300

1200

1100

10008 12Distance (km)

Ele

va

tio

n (

m)

South North

Preglacial Valley

Battle CreekMeltwater

Channel

Fig. 40 Topographic profile of Battle Creek Valley near Fort Walsh (Fig. 11, stop no. 20) (from Klassen, unpublished).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 82

Fig. 41 Fort Walsh National Historic Site (Fig. 11, stop no. 20).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 83

BensonCreekland-slide

Fig. 42 A - Topog raphic and bedrock cross-sections of Benson Creek Landslide (Fig. 11, stop no. 21) running perpendicular to main axis of the slide. CH = Cypress Hill s Formation, RC = Ravenscrag Formation. B - Longitudinal profile of Battle Creek showing effect of Benson Creek lands lide on hydraulic geometry (modified from Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996).

Elev

atio

n (m

)El

evat

ion

(m)

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

CH

RC

FrenchmanBattle

Whitemud

Bearpaw

Eastend Battle Creek

Distance (km)

St ream Distance (km)0 5 10 15

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

1140

1150

1160

1170

1180

1190

A

B

landslide debris

verticalexaggeration = 5.6X

verticalexaggeration = 3,2X

1445±320 BP

1745±85 BP

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 84

Nstop 21

stop22

Fig. 43 Battle Creek Valley between Benson Creek (stop 21) and Police Point (stop 22) landslides (Fig. 11). Approximate outer scarp of slides is marked by dashed black lines; arrows indicate direction of movement.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 85

Fig. 44 Police Point Lands lide (Fig. 11, stop no. 22). Numbers: 1–upper plateau surface; 2–upper scarp expos ing Cypress Hill s Formation; 3–rotated slump blocks; 4–gully erosion within Cretaceous sediments and 5– sediment washed from lands lide into forest. Bottom of lands lide lies about 140 m below plateau surface (from Sauchyn and Lemmen, 1996).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 86

A B

C D

Fig. 45 Ground photos of Police Point Landslide (Fig. 11, stop no. 22). A–Upper scarp exposing about 30 m of Cypress Hills Formation - note rotated slump blocks below scarp. B–Gully erosion and tensional failure of Cretaceous sediments. C–Sediment infilling of depression below toe. D–Highly turbid sediment plume entering Battle Creek after major rain storm. From Sauchyn and Lemmen (1996).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 87

N

0 2km

Floodplain

Weir Terrace

Fan

LandslidesJunction Lk. PlainDownie Lk. Plain

DLP

DLP

DLPDLP

JLP

JLPDLP

Fort

Wal

sh

Map

le C

reek

The Weir

Friday Site

Tp 10

Tp 10

R 27

271

Fig. 46 Geomorphic surfaces in the Gap Creek basin (Fig. 11, stop no. 23).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 88

Fig. 47 Buried soils in postglacial loess at the Friday site (Fig. 11, stop no. 23). The lowermost soil was dated at 10.5 ka BP. Measuring stick is approximately 160 cm

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 89

15

10

5

50

40

30

20

10

10 30 50 70 90m

40m3530

-30 -20 -10 10 20cm0

0-20 20 40cm-40-60

252015105

contour int. 0.50 m

contour int. 0.20 m

10m

2m

10 m

20 m

10 m

20 m

N

N

South DuneMay 26, 1994

Baby DuneMay 26, 1994

N

N

Fig. 48 GSC monitored blowout dunes at Bigstick Sand Hills (Fig. 11, stop no 24). Note similar morphology (right) although South Dune (bottom) is half an order of magnitude larger than Baby Dune (left). Patterns of sediment redistribution are also similar (see corresponding shade scales), with greatest erosion during the 16 month period on the south and east sides of the blowout depression, and greatest accumulation to the east beyond the lip of the blowout. Note that there is very little change in elevation of base of blowout.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 90

H

Br

Br

D

D

W

W

Bs

Bs

H

H

Sf

Sf

Sf

H

D

c

Bs

Br

W

c

c

A'

A'

A

A 0 250m

10m

dune buildingwind direction

vegetation

top ofslipface

back-ridge

back-slope

crest

deflationdepression

head

slipface

wing

Fig. 49 Morphological features of an active parabolic dune.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 91

Fig. 50 Ingebright Lake and sodium sulfate mining operation (Fig. 11, stop no. 26). Values plotted on lake surface referred to measured thickness of Holocene evaporites.

29m

43m Na2SO4 PLANT

Stop 26

km0 1

INGEBRIGHTLAKE

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 92

N

0.5 km

Fig. 51 Modern sediment facies; North Ingebright Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 26).

MirabiliteSalt

Mud flat/Sand flat

MarshyLand

SPRING

CORINGSITE

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 93

Unit 7

Unit 6

Unit 5

Unit 4

Unit 3

Unit 2

Unit 1

5,500 yr BP

6,720 yr BP

10,250 yr BP

Dry Low High Very high

Fig. 52 Interpreted relative humidity; North Ingebright Lake region, near stop no. 26 (Fig. 11).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 94

O.5km

O.5km

O.5km

FREEFIGHT LAKE FREEFIGHT LAKE

FREEFIGHT LAKE

FREEFIGHT LAKE

MAY, 1981

AUGUST, 1985

SEPTEMBER, 1991

Modern facies mappingby Slezak, 1989

Deep Basin Core - Laminated Facies

(lake overturn)

1990-1991Deep Basin Facies

Accumulation Rate:63kg/m/yr

SEDIMENT TRAPS

Deep BasinFacies

DeltaFacies

Algal flat Facies

DetritusSlope

Facies

Mudflat Facies

ColluviumFacies

40 45 50 cm

40 45 50 cm

Fig. 53 Vertical air photographs of Freefight Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 26B) showing sedimentary facies (1985 photo) and variability in water levels. Inset shows finely laminated sediments evident in x-radiographs (top photo).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 95

N

Fig. 54 Active and stabilized parabolic dunes of the NW Great Sand Hills (Fig. 11, stop no. 27). “Big Dune” and “Picnic Dune” are the two areas of active sand (white) immediately north of the letter ‘A’. See text for explanation of coding.

B

C

D

A

B

B

D

0 2km

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 96

N0 2km

Fig. 55 Vertical air photo of Lancer ice-thrust moraine (Fig. 11, stops nos. 28 and 29). White arrows denote general direction of ice-thrusting. Stop 28 lies near highest point of moraine. Note smooth surface of source depression contrasted with more hummocky surface of plateau to the south of the moraine. Black arrows indicate driving route described in road guide.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 97

stop 29stop 28

Abbey

Highway 32

sourcedepression

Fig. 56 View southeast along proximal slope of Lancer ice-thrust moraine from paleosol site (Fig. 11, stop no. 29).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 98

0 1km

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 99

Lake Diefenbaker

N

Stop30

Fig. 57 Lower Swift Current Creek Valley east of Stewart Valley (Fig. 11, stop no. 30). Rotational landsliding is ubiquitous along valley walls as well as along the trunk South Saskatchewan Valley.

CLEARWATER LAKE

SASKATCHEWANALBERTA

Hand Hills

Cypress Hills Moose Mt.

MONTANA NORTH DAKOTA

Aspen parkland

Bunchgrass steppe

Northern mixed-grassprairie

Bathymetry in metres (Aug., 1992)

0 1km

5.0

CW2

CW2

CW1

CW1

3.0

1.0

organic-rich silt

massive siltand clay

laminated silt& clay

fine graysand & silt

laminatedsand, silt &clay

7320±70

1700±70

3430±80

7.7m

3.2m

7310±60

8840±60

8930±70

9340±70

9980±70

Fig. 58 Limnology and stratigraphy of Clearwater Lake (Fig. 11, stop no. 31). Open circle on map indicates general location of lake basin. Black circles in lake basin indicate coring sites.

MANITOBA

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 100

N

Fig. 59 Sediment characteristics of gravity core CWS2, collected near site of CW1 (Fig. 11, stop no. 31). Vertical axis is date (in years AD) inferred from 210Pb analysis.

MEANPARTICLE SIZE

ENDOGENICCARBONATES

CALCITECOMPOSITION

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

1880

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

18800 0 0 5 10 15 205 10 15 20 2525 50 75

MICRONS PERCENT MOLE % MgCO3

ARAGONITE

ORGANICMATTER

Mg-CALCITE

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 101

AR AGONITE

PERCENT0 2 5 5 0 7 5 1 0 0

0

1 0 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

4 0cm 0

5 0 0

6 0 0

7 0 0

8 0 0

0

1 0 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

4 0 0

5 0 0

6 0 0

7 0 0

8 0 0

E VAP OR ITE S

PERCENT2 5 5 0 7 5 1 00

18O & 13Cof C aC O3

ppt PDB-1 0 -5 0

Na2S O4

18O dd

d d

13C

9340+/-70

7320+/-70

7310+/-60

8840+/-60

8930+/-70

G YP S U M

9980+/-70

Fig. 60 Endogenic mineralogy and stable isotope analysis of core CW2 at Clearwater Lake (Fig. 11, site no. 31). Unconformity in upper m has not been identified. In "Evaporites" diagram, solid black dots refer to sodium sulphate while the continuous line refers to gypsum.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 102

poplar

spruce log

sandy clay

silty clay

litter

till

charcoal-richsandy clay

1 m

3.1m

0 m

3.9m4.0m

5.0m5.1m

5.8

7.78.8

10.2

10.210.2

14Cagezone

I

IIIa

IIIb

V

II

IV

Fig. 61 Stratigraphy of the Andrews site, near Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan (Fig. 3).

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 103

zone

Zone V

Zone IV

Zone IIIb

Zone IIIa

Zone IIIa

Zone II

Zone I

trunks

trunks

1001001005050 202020 5 52020202020 40 100100Macrofossils (#/50ml)

4007.7ka

5,8ka

3.8ka

10.2ka

10.2ka

10.2ka

450

500

550

350

400 60 100

dep

th in

cm

Age Pice

a gla

uca (l

eave

s)

Rubus idae

us

Frag

aria

virg

inia

na

Rumex

mar

itim

us

Men

tha

arve

nsis

Ranuncu

lus s

cele

ratu

s

Lyco

pus am

erica

nus

Pote

ntilla

norv

egica

Typha

latif

olia

Hippuris

vulg

aris

Chara

sp. (

algae

)

char

coal

Depan

ocladus p

olyca

rpus (

moss

)

Zannich

ellia

pal

ustris

Pota

moget

on sp. (

drupes

)

Pota

moget

on sp. (

test

as)

Myr

iophyl

lum

ver

ticill

atum

(bra

cts)

Carex

spp.

Scirp

us spp.

Chenopodiu

m sp

p.

Populu

s spp. (

buds)

Shep

herdia

canad

ensis

Betula

cf. B

. occ

iden

talis

AquaticsEmergentsWet Meadow HerbsTrees & Shrubs

Fig. 62 Summary plant macrofossil diagram for the Andrews site near Moose Jaw Saskatchewan (Fig. 3), showing 22 of the 41 species identified. Analysis by Catherine H. Yansa.

LANDSCAPES OF THE PALLISER TRIANGLE p. 104

start

end

Approximate road route for Day One stops. See STOP LOG for detailed description.

start

end

Approximate road route for Day Two stops. See STOP LOG for details.

start

end

Approximate road route for Day Three stops. Several route changes in the Cypress Hills area are too small to map at this scale. Also some stops are off the map. See STOP LOG.

startend

Approximate road route for Day Four stops. See STOP LOG for detailed description.