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LANDMINES AND LAND DEGRADATION: A Regional Political Ecology Perspective On The Impacts Of Landmines On
Environment And Development In The Developing World
By
Asmeret Asefaw Berhe
A Masters Paper
Submitted to Michigan State University
In Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Resource Development
2000
ABSTRACT
LANDMINES AND LAND DEGRADATION: A Regional Political Ecology Perspective On The Impacts Of Landmines On
Environment And Development In The Developing World
By
Asmeret Asefaw Berhe
Landmines are one of the most serious aftermaths of wars facing the world today.
Although the landmine calamity is typically described as a purely medical or social
problem, this study examines the environmental concerns of the crisis in the developing
world to demonstrate how it transcends both humanitarian and sociological concerns to
bring about ecocide. Disruption of land’s stability, pollution, and loss of biodiversity add
to limited and already overtaxed natural resource base of countries in the developing
world to lower the productivity of land and result in land degradation. This study is
designed to illustrate the interrelationships between the different environmental and
socio-economic problems in order to understand the problem better and search for
practical policy responses.
A pioneering application of the conceptual framework for studying human-
environment relationships – regional political ecology – is employed in this study. This
study endeavors to demonstrate how regional political ecology, a conceptual framework
that qualitatively integrates both societal and ecological concerns, can better describe the
extensive effects of landmines, in order to contribute to the resolution of the landmine
crisis through a more inclusive assemblage for environmental, social, economic and
political variables than has been explored previously.
Through an electronic mail survey and interview with professionals working in
areas related to landmines, peace research, environmental management and law, and
extensive archival research, findings from this study demonstrate the ability of the
regional political ecology framework to capture many variables and interrelationships
related to the landmine-environment nexus. Findings from this research demonstrate the
ability of the regional political ecology approach to anticipate various heretofore
unaddressed factors in the problem area. This research illustrates the complexity of the
issues and interrelationships between the issues surrounding the degradation and
management of landmine-affected environments. Findings of this study also indicate
some of the impediments to resource management policy initiatives that are meant to
assuage the pressing environmental, socio-economic and political crises.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research process has been a great learning experience for me. I am greatly
indebted to my advisor in the Department of Resource Development, Professor Eckhart
Dersch, for his erudite guidance, boundless patience and assistance in my Master’s
research and throughout my graduate studies at Michigan State. I would also like to thank
my thesis committee at Michigan State University – Professors Michael Thomas and
Larry Leefers – for graciously agreeing to serve on my committee and giving me their
invaluable advice.
I would like to thank all the practitioners that participated in the study, their
knowledgeable and thoughtful contributions to my research has resulted in successful
completion of the study. I would particularly like to express my gratitude to Dr. Arthur
Westing, at Westing Associates in Environment, Security and Education, Ms. Ananda
Millard at the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo and Ms. Karen Troll at the
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research for their invaluable insights and for
providing me with many helpful materials. I want to express my dearest thanks to my
friends Trish Redeker Hepner and Maite Salazar for their help during the research
process.
I would like to convey my heartfelt thanks to my family, especially my father
Asefaw Berhe and my mother Ghidei Woldeslassie, for their belief in me, persistence
encouragements, and continuous help with locating and collecting scores of materials.
Thank you for always being there to cater to my dreams; I could never find able words to
describe my love and appreciation, I am just blessed for having you both.
v
Table of Contents
List of Tables viii List of Figures ix CHAPTER 1 ARMED CONFLICTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………….…. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem and Need for Research…………….... 3
1.2.1 Objectives of the Investigation…………………………. 4 1.2.2 Research Questions………………………………….…... 6
1.3 Impacts of War on the Environment……………………………… 7 1.4 Landmines ………………………………………………………….... 10
1.4.1 Background to the Global Landmine Crisis………….. 10 1.4.2 The Landmine Crisis of the Developing World – Issues of Paramount Concern…………………...………
20
1.5 A Conceptual Framework for Problem Identification and Analysis………………………………………………………
27
1.5.1 Introduction to Land Degradation……………………... 27 1.5.2 Theoretical Context ………………...………………….… 29
1.6 Plan for the Thesis ………………………………………………….. 32 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Paradigms in Land Degradation Research…………………….… 34 2.1.1 Regional Political Ecology………………………………. 34 2.1.2 Land Management, Managers………………………..... 39
2.2 Land degradation: Concepts, Principles and Causes…………… 40 2.3. Landmines and the Environment – Causal Links………...…… 44
2.3.1 Environmental Impacts of Landmines……………….. 44 2.3.2 Land Degradation through Warfare, Landmines……... 48 2.3.3 Causal Links……………………………………….…….. 49
2.4 Sustainable Development……………………………………….…. 52 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Qualitative Research……………………………………………. 57 3.1.1. Qualitative Paradigm for the Research………………. 57 3.1.2. The Research Approach……………………………... 58
3.2 Research Design………………………………………………... 61 3.2.1. Data Collection………………………………………. 62 3.2.2 Analysis Procedures…………………………………. 64
vi
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 General Statement of the Results ………………………………. 67 4.2 Categorization of Landmine Effects …………………………… 69
4.2.1 Environmental Dimension: Effects of Landmines on Land Degradation………………………………... 69
4.2.2 Socio-Economic Dimension: Effects of Land Degradation on Society……………………………..
87
4.3 Interrelationships in the Landmines-Environment Nexus… 90 4.4 Implications for Sustainable Regional Development: Development
With Landmines and in the Aftermath………..
96 4.5 Political Dimension: Implications on Management and Conservation Policies…………………………………………...
99
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary: Regional Political Ecology and Landmines…….. 110 5.2 Challenges Ahead………………………………………………... 114 5.3 Limitations of this Study……………………………………….. 115 5.4 Recommendations for Future Study…………………………. 116 5.5 Concluding Thoughts……………………………..………………... 118
Appendixes
1. The Most Common Types of Anti-Personnel Landmines….. 120 2. Description of Blast and Fragmentation Mines………….…. 122 3. Countries Worst Affected by Landmines…………………….. 124 4. Questionnaire Cover Letter…………………………………….…... 126 5. Questionnaire………………………………………………….... 128 6. Unprocessed Responses from the Questionnaire…………… 134
Bibliography……………………………………………………………….. 145
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.1 Number of landmines per square kilometer in some of the affected countries of the world…………………………………………………..
15
1.2 Number of landmines per person in some of the affected countries of the world……………………………………………………………….
16
1.3 Human development ranking of mine affected countries………… 21 1.4 Countries with reported severe landmine problems………………. 22 4.1 Average heavy metal concentrations after landmine detonation… 76 4.2 Average heavy metal concentrations at the center of explosion after
landmine detonation…………………………………………….
76 4.3 Species of living things facing risk of endangerment ……………. 78 4.4 Levels and elements in decision-making………………………….. 106 6.1 Description of blast and fragmentation mines…………………….. 119 6.2 Unprocessed responses from the questionnaires …………………. 131
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.1 Countries most threatened by landmines………………………………….. 13 1.2 Source and destination of landmines…………………………………..….. 25 4.1 Increasing land degradation over time……………...……………… 82 4.2 Triangular relationship between landmines, environmental degradation
and underdevelopment…………………………………
90 4.3 Explanation of the phenomena and policy responses for land degradation
and rehabilitation for developing countries…………
101 6.1 Most common types of antipersonnel landmines ………………… 117 6.2 Countries most affected by landmines ………………………….…. 121
1
CHAPTER 1
ARMED CONFLICTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1.1 Introduction
This research contributes to the understanding of the environmental1
repercussions due to landmines. It explores the environmental and socio-economic
impacts2 of landmines within the framework of land degradation. Furthermore, this
inquiry provides a renewed opportunity to examine the different ways landmines can
affect the natural environment, a society’s relationship with the environment and regional
development. Regional political ecology is a recently emerging area of critical thinking
and analysis that combines the concepts of political economy and ecology in the process
of trying to understand the relationships between society and the natural environment
(Keil et al., 1998).
The menace of landmines left behind after an armed conflict is an enormous
threat for both people and the environment. Landmines affect natural resources – soil,
flora and fauna – causing profound damages to the ecosystem by destruction of soil
stability, contamination, injury, carnage, and interfering with the productivity of these
resources. Land based, arable and pastoral activities provide livelihood for a major
portion of the population in developing countries, a third of which are suffering from
serious landmine problems. These aftereffects of landmines are partly responsible for
causing additional environmental degradation and socio-economic impoverishment for
1 For the purpose of this thesis the word ‘environment’ is used to connote all living things and their surrounding. Environment is a comprehensive term that describes natural resources and ecological relationships between people and their resources. It represents “all external conditions that affect an organism or other specified system during its lifetime” (Miller, 1990, pp. A41). 2 ‘Impact’ is used to represent the change of the environment (or other receptor) due to different activities or processes. Impact, in environmental studies, considers man as the generator and nature/environment as the receptor of that impact (Thomas, 1999).
2
rural populations in the developing world who barely can satisfy their basic individual
and social needs.
For the most part, problems related to landmines have been studied under medical
and socio-economic frameworks. Accordingly, solving problems related to landmines is
generally considered a humanitarian issue (including demining, and resettlement of
refugees and internally displaced people) by local/national funds and humanitarian
agencies. But the environmental consequences are not typically treated as a significant
part of the resulting human conditions. In this study, a conceptual framework is used for
the analysis of the human-environment problems. It helps to elucidate the dynamic and
complex nature of impacts of war on the environment. When employed for studying the
impacts of landmines, application of the conceptual framework of regional political
ecology for studying land degradation generates a matrix of key environmental, social,
political and economic variables that play important roles in affected regions. The
outcome of the matrix along with how these variables are related to each other
contributes to a more informed understanding of the problem. This study illustrates the
promising nature of holistic, multi-level, multi-dimensional, and participatory strategies
for alleviating the landmine crisis.
In the following sections of this chapter a statement of the problem, specific
objectives and research questions posed in the study are described. Succeeding this
segment of the research, the general impacts of war on the environment are discussed,
followed by a more in depth investigation of the global landmine crisis and issues of
great concern in landmine-affected developing countries. Then, an introduction to land
3
degradation will be followed by an elaboration on the conceptual framework used in this
study. Chapter 1 closes with an overview of the remaining chapters of this research.
1.2 Statement of the Problem and Need for Research
The former Secretary General of the United Nations, Boutros Boutros-Ghali
(1994), declared that the scourge of landmines tops the list of global problems at the turn
of the century, while Bruce Gray (1997) has indicated that landmines are one of the most
toxic pollutants facing the world today. This crisis is an issue in both the developing and
the developed world. However, the countries most affected by landmines are those in the
developing world, with Cambodia, Angola and Afghanistan leading a growing list of
countries that have very serious landmine problems (Roberts and Williams, 1995).
Rural agrarian and pastoral populations that depend on land-based activities for
survival and development predominantly inhabit many of the landmine-affected
developing countries (The Arms Project of Human Rights Watch and Physicians for
Human Rights, 1993). In most war devastated developing countries, an unhealthy mix of
war, drought, poverty and their consequences have created a crisis in which the quality
and availability of land is at a critical stage, where the goals of sustainable development
can be severely compromised as a result.
In the case of landmine-affected regions, the land resource base, specifically, and
the ecological system, in general, are negatively affected by adverse conditions of
explosion, pollution and abandonment. Since ecological and social systems are part of a
whole bionetwork and are dependent, interrelated at many different stages, the danger
created by landmines often makes subsistence and sustainable development difficult, if
4
not impossible, for people whose lives are tied to the land. The effect of landmines in the
South3 has become so serious that for many of the rural poor in the developing world, co-
existing with mines is becoming the norm rather than the dreaded, horrible way of life of
few; it is a way of life that they can’t change with their limited capacity and resources.
1.2.1 Objectives of the Investigation
In this study, the application of the land degradation framework, under the
concepts and perspectives of regional political ecology, to guide the study of
environmental impacts of landmines, is explored for better understanding and explanation
of the landmine crisis in the developing world. This study argues that the inclusive and
interdisciplinary nature of this conceptual framework is able to improve past approaches
that considered limited sets of variables by identifying the more sets of variables that
need to be considered.
Environmental problems of landmines have been the subject of a growing number
of studies. Many researchers (Westing, 1985; Gray, 1997; Misak et al., 1999; and
Nachón, 2000) and organizations (International Peace Research Institute - Oslo, Swedish
Peace Research Institute United Nations Environmental Programme, and International
Campaign to Ban Landmines) have been conducting research regarding environmental
impacts of landmines. However, important information needs to be included and newer
modes of analysis considered to improve our understanding of this grave and crippling
crisis. The understanding of the effects of landmines on land resource use and
degradation is critical to planning for sustainable development in landmine-affected
regions of the developing world because human/social and natural systems are part of a
3 The term ‘South’ is used to refer to the countries in the developing world.
5
larger ecological system and can not be divorced from one another. This study recognizes
the need for incorporation of sustainable development principles into political decision
making systems and provides essential data at an appropriate level of analysis and a study
that can be utilized to better inform sustainable development policies.
Consequently, in order to be able to accomplish the above-mentioned objective,
this study builds on the work of the above mentioned and others and employs regional
political ecology to gain an improved insight into the nature and consequences of the
crisis. This renewed understanding contributes to the process of finding better/alternative
directions that can be pursued in the search for more effective solutions to securing a
sustainable natural environment upon which landmine-affected and war-torn societies can
plan future development.
As the aim of this research is to use a better framework to help identify the
relationships and linkages between human and natural ecosystems, development and
degradation in war-devastated developing countries to help frame the effects of
landmines in the South. Land degradation, including natural resource exploitation and
endangerment, were chosen to be the basis of this study because of its interdisciplinary
and comprehensive nature. This Masters research examines the short and long-term
impacts of land degradation to the environment and society. It identifies the impacts, their
implications for land use, and regional development. By examining the different impacts,
their implications, and recommended policy directions in the context of sustainable
development, this research seeks to contribute to the effort for protecting resources and
6
improving them from degraded conditions for all the stakeholders in an environmentally
sustainable4 manner.
This study is the first known in its perspective and is aimed at seeking a newer/better
model by which to approach micro- and macro-level situations. In order to arrive at
findings and conclusions that can be relevant to the land resource in general – and not a
parcel of land in a specific part of the world – the study will not be confined to a specific
locality but rather will include interviews with professionals who have experience in
different areas as well as extensive archival research.
Apart from gaining better understanding and analysis of the short and long-term
contributions of landmines in rural land degradation, this study will also contribute to the
academic knowledge base in the areas of natural resource degradation, planning and
development.
1.2.2 Research Questions
The suggested conceptual framework for conducting a more comprehensive
investigation into the environmental devastation of landmines brings to mind four
questions that are guiding this research. First, what are the different forms of land
degradation that can be caused due to the presence of landmines in a region? This
question addresses the identification of affected environments and the extent of impact
suffered. Second, what are the principal after-effects, processes and relationships related
to landmines that constitute land degradation? Identification of the constituent elements
4 Sustainability is a concept that seeks to limit impacts and consumption of natural resources – while present generations are trying to meet their needs – in order to respect natural limits and avoid compromising the ability of future generations to enjoy the level of resource availability that the present generations get (Dubey, 1998; and Beatley and Manning, 1997).
7
of the principal variables and interrelationships clarify the significance of the problem
and help in bringing to the surface the complexity of the problem.
The third research question builds from the previous two to examine the
implications of land degradation that is caused by the presence of landmines on regional
development and the impacts on the future of a region.
Finally, the fourth research question addresses the quest for effective solutions,
mechanisms and/or processes, to alleviate the environmental problems associated with
landmines by avoiding, reducing or mitigating the adverse effects. Employing the
regional political ecology perspective by considering important elements of the effects,
interrelationships and developmental challenges helps to organize and cohere the
different elements in the analysis of this complex multi-level and multi-dimensional
human-environment problem. Alternative strategies that show potential to address the
aftermath and achieve environmentally sustainable solutions for the crisis are addressed
from the perspective and experiences of individuals and organizations that are working
on the matter.
1.3 Impacts of War on the Environment
War is among the many threats the world is being faced with, in terms of
degradation of the environment and its overarching disasters. Since the start of time, and
especially at this point in history, the world has seen countless wars. Wars have been
waged in practically every corner of the globe at one time or another. Today, in many
parts of the world, hearing news about wars is a daily phenomenon. For many people the
8
issue ends in the evening news, but for others it is something that threatens their very
existence and their resources; day in and day out they live with the resulting disasters.
Wars create a brutal and widespread form of destruction of both the social and
physical environments of a region. War, by its nature, is destructive and unsustainable; it
plays a key role in creating and perpetuating underdevelopment.
“War necessitates the payment of a huge opportunity cost in socio-economic and [e]nvironmental terms, and the redirection of scarce human and material resources that would otherwise have been used for both the productive and constructive purposes. Wars leave countries underdeveloped, poor and physically devastated” (W.Ghiorgis, 1993, pp. 83).
In modern history, wars have taken shapes that are even more devastating than
they have been. People have used their genius to make the most destructive weapons that
have potential to degrade the environment gravely and wipe out its inhabitants.
Warfare is one of the means by which access to resources that are essential for
human survival is acquired (Westing, 1985). Many wars are fought to gain access to land,
water bodies or other environmental resources. During this quest for resources, wars
impose huge human-life, social and environmental costs. As we have learned from the
countless wars that the world has seen so far, the consequences of wars don’t end with
the immediately obvious consequences of deaths of massive numbers of people, unsafe
living conditions, disablement, exile, internal displacement, and ruining of societies and
their values; they also create poverty and underdevelopment. By damaging physical
infrastructures, wars result in the collapse of economic systems, and create (or eternalize)
aid dependency. In many developing countries the most devastating disasters have
become everyday realities; armed conflicts over access to scarce resources (Westing,
9
1985) and other social issues, coupled with poverty, have conveyed the simultaneous
degradation of societies and natural resources.
War destroys the natural resource base by inflicting damage on agriculture, and
by exacerbating deforestation, desertification, loss of biodiversity, and land degradation.
Disruption of the environment has emerged as an even prominent concern of warfare in
the last century; wars have caused widespread, long-term and severe damage to the
natural environment (Westing, 1988). By creating environmental degradation, conflicts
endanger regional and national development, because in rural, agrarian societies
environmental problems are virtually indistinguishable from developmental concerns.
Moreover, when every bullet is being fired, when every bomb is launched and every
resource is destroyed, wars leave long-lasting scars in the natural environment that affect
not only the present but also future generations.
Environmental degradation5 is a critical element in the broader matrix of factors
that influence social and political responses of decision makers to the effects of war in the
developing world. Lanz (1996) asserts that environmental degradation, which results
from armed conflicts, initiates social degradation and results in protracted degenerative
cycles of social and environmental decline by creating poverty, overexploitation of
marginal resources, underdevelopment, and in extreme cases famine and complete
destruction of societies. The author further explores the relationship by stating that these
degenerative cycles create conditions of heightened sensitivity of resources that increase
the risk of perpetuating the degenerative trends. The social and environmental crises
climb to stages of chaos and create a climate that is more conducive to further conflicts.
5 Environmental degradation is the disturbance, destruction or depletion of natural resources; in the case of renewable resources like soil, forests, pasturelands, or wildlife (Miller, 1990)
10
There are different aspects of warfares that are of great concern as far as the
environment and sustainable development are concerned. Effects of warfare have ranged
from massively burning oil wells, to defoliation6, killing and injuring of animals,
destruction of flora and loss of biodiversity. Instruments of warfare that endanger the
environment range from hand rifles that result in individual harm to weapons of mass
destruction that include landmines, nuclear bombs and chemical weapons.
1.4 Landmines
1.4.1 Background to the Global Landmine Crisis
A landmine is defined as “a munition placed under, or near the ground or other
surface area and designed to be exploded by the presence, or proximity of a person or
vehicle” (ICRC, 1996, pp.3). Others extend this definition a little further to include “mass
produced, victim operated, explosive traps”(Croll, 1998, pp. ix) (See Appendix 1 for
pictorial description of the most common types of landmines). Landmines are generally
equipped with a fuse that is comprised of “a tripwire, an anti-handling device or a form of
electronic sensors” (Lloyd, 1997, pp.2).
The etymology of the word mine is derived from the Latin mina – a vein of ore;
the term was originally used to describe the excavation of materials from within the earth.
The technique and the word were later borrowed by “military engineers who dug mines
during sieges and packaged them with explosives to cause the collapse of fortification”
(Croll, 1998, pp. ix). They include booby traps, concealed spikes and stakes that are in
many ways similar to the contemporary landmines. The concept and use of these
6 Defoliation of different types of vegetation is caused by chemical warfare of herbicidal nature.
11
weapons can be traced back 2,500 years in history, making them one of the oldest tools in
warfare.
Landmines are broadly classified into two categories, as anti-personnel (AP) and
anti-tank (AT). They are targeted at and detonated by people and vehicles respectively.
Anti-personnel mines contain ten to 250 grams of explosives, while the Anti-tank mines
contain two to nine kilograms of explosives and usually require a pressure of at least 100
kilograms to be detonated (UNDHA, 1995). The International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC, 1996) has identified about 360 types of anti-personnel landmines that
are/were produced by approximately 55 countries.
Anti-personnel landmines are generally classified into two categories, as blast
mines and fragmentation mines (for more description see Appendix 2). Recently the
advancement in mine technology has enabled the development of mines with switches
and also mines that are self-neutralizing, or self-destructive, giving rise to the “smart”
mines whose life cycles are known, as opposed to the conventional “dumb” mines that
have been known to stay active for more than five decades (Lloyd, 1997).
Unless otherwise specified, the terms ‘landmine’ and ‘mine’ in this research are
used in reference to anti-personnel mines, and not anti-tank mines.
Landmines have a very persistent, undiscriminating and uncontrolled nature that
makes them different from other weapons. Once mines are laid in the ground they pose
threats for decades; they cannot be recalled by the military when a cease-fire is declared,
each and every mine must be individually disarmed or destroyed, or it will potentially
claim a victim (McGrath, 1994). Other than the personal harm and emotional trauma
(Goliath, 1998) that are their direct outcomes, landmines are weapons of social cataclysm
12
(IANHRD, 1997) that have “an insidious multiplier effect that can shatter human
potential and drain resources throughout the entire fabric of society… with [potential] to
continue to bring misery to generations” (Davies 1997).
Landmines cease being strictly military entities when the enemy is no longer their
victim – at the time they start killing innocent civilians, children, and refugees, and when
they deny land for agriculture or other civilian purposes (McGrath, 1994). Right after that
moment they become things that affect rehabilitation and development and in this
research they are dealt with as such.
In 1994, the former Secretary General of the United Nations, Boutros Boutros-Ghali wrote:
“Like a deadly disease long absent and assumed conquered, the landmine, that scourged the battlefield of the World War I, has emerged on a scale unimaginable and with hideous, unanticipated effects … there is today a global landmine crisis”(Boutros-Ghali, 1994, pp.8). Landmines may be “the most toxic and widespread pollution facing mankind”
(USDoS, 1993, pp.2; quoted in Gray, 1997, pp. 2). This assertion is supported by the
widely accepted definition of pollution as
“The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the environment resulting in deleterious effects of such nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and ecosystems, and impair or interfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment7” (McGrath, 1998, pp.9). Today there is a global crisis whose extent no one knows for sure. It is estimated
that more than 110 million active mines are scattered in 70 countries with an equal
number stockpiled around the world waiting to be planted (see Fig 1.1) (UNMAS, 1999).
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) estimate there is
one mine laid for every 48 people, which comes to one for 16 children in the world
13
(IPPNW, 2000). The mine problem – as the size of the minefields – is as extensive as
people fear it is, because no one can say for sure how many landmines are laid out there
and where
7 This is a definition of pollution that is adopted by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development in 1974; it was also incorporated into the Montreal Rules of International Law applicable to transfrontier pollution of 1982 (McGrath 1998).
14
Countries m
ost threatened by landmines
Figure 1.1 (Source: G
erman Initiative to B
an Landmines 1999).
15
exactly they are laid. Those who laid the mines are not telling and no one besides them
can make a definite assertion; all we have to go on are our educated guesses.
Over 400 million landmines are believed to have been deployed since the
beginning of World War II, including more than 65 million in the 15 years since the
formulation of the 1980 Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW)8 which attempts
to regulate their use (Roberts and Williams, 1995). The current global landmine crisis is
largely the result of the huge number of mines laid in the 1970s, 1980s and the 1990s.
Currently, many countries, the majority of which are developing, are identified as
facing the most severe landmine problems (for more information see table 1.4). Many
countries have been, and are continuing to be, extensively and indiscriminately mined.
We have reached the point where now there are an estimated 10 million mines each in
Afghanistan, Iraq and China; while Angola and Cambodia closely follow with unsure
estimates of eight to 15 million mines within their boundaries. Bosnia, Croatia,
Mozambique, and Eritrea come next on this list with around 2 million mines each. The
crisis is so severe that there are an estimated 50 mines per square kilometer in Cambodia,
49 in Bosnia, 35 in Croatia, 26 in Mozambique, 22 in Iraq, 15 in Afghanistan, and 12 in
Eritrea (see table 1.1).
8 The full name of the CCW is the 1980 Convention on the Prohibition or Restriction of the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons that may be deemed to be Excessively Injurious or Having Indiscriminate Effects. Protocol II of the CCW attempts to restrict the use of landmines and limit their injurious effects. (Roberts and Williams, 1995)
16
Table 1.1 Number of mines per square kilometer in some of the landmine-affected countries of the world.
Country Number of mines Total land area (Km2) Number of mines per Km2
Afghanistan Iraq China Angola Cambodia Bosnia Croatia Mozambique Eritrea Sudan Somalia
10 million 10 million 10 million
9-15 million 8-10 million 2-3 million 2 million 2 million
1-2 million 1 million 1 million
657,500 448,742
9,561,000 1,246,700 181,035 51,233 56,538 78,030 121,320
2,505,823 637,661
15.2 22.2 1.0 9.6 49.7 48.8 35.4 25.6 12.4 0.4 1.6
(Source: Misak et al, 1999 and US Department of State, 1998)
Landmines are usually referred to as cheap weapons. In strictly military terms,
they may well be, but in humanitarian terms they are very far from inexpensive (Roberts
and Williams, 1995). A landmine that originally costs $3, costs between $300 and $1000
to clear, maims or kills an estimated 500 people per week9(LWR10, 1999), and adds to
untold more millions in humanitarian and environmental costs (UNGA11, 1994) (for more
on humanitarian impacts of landmines, see Appendix 3). Although landmines are not
usually considered as weapons of mass destruction, “more people have been killed by
anti-personnel mines than by nuclear and chemical weapons combined…landmines truly
are weapons of mass destruction in slow motion” (Cameron et. al, 1998, pp.13). The
proportion of mines laid to population is so atrocious that there is today close to one mine
9 The International Committee of the Red Cross estimates more than 800 people are killed, plus thousands more maimed per month from explosive remnants of war. In the last decade alone 36,000 and 23,000 amputations have been recorded in Cambodia and Somalia, respectively (Westing, 1996b). 10 Lutheran World Relief. 11 United Nations General Assembly.
17
laid for each citizen of Cambodia and Bosnia (see table 1.2); while every one of two
people in Afghanistan, Iraq, Croatia, Eritrea and Sudan faces a threat from these
indiscriminating and unforgiving weapons.
Table 1.2 Number of mines per person in some of the landmine-affected countries of the world.
Country Number of mines
Total population (in millions)
Number of people per mine
Afghanistan Iraq China Angola Cambodia Bosnia Croatia Mozambique Eritrea Sudan Somalia
10 million 10 million 10 million 9-15 million 8-10 million 2-3 million 2 million 2 million 1-2 million 1 million 1 million
20.1 20.4
1.2 billion 11.1 10.3 3.2 4.7 16 3.6 28.1 9.3
2 2
100 1 1 1 2 80 2 2 10
(Source: Misak et al, 1999 and US Department of State, 1998)
Their long-term impacts and indiscriminate nature have earned landmines a
reputation that grants them the name “eternal sentry” (Williams and Goose, 1998). Other
than the already-realized humanitarian, social and environmental impact of landmines,
they are bound to claim even more casualties because of their long time-span and the
difficulty involved in demining. Winslow (1997) cites a 1994 United Nations Report
saying that even if mine laying stopped immediately, clearing the world of mines could
cost $33 billion and take 1,100 years. Unfortunately, that is not happening, and it is
believed that 20 new mines are being laid for every mine cleared (UNMAS, 1998).
18
The landmine crisis has been receiving a lot of international attention lately
through the works of different non-governmental and humanitarian agencies and the
special interest the media has developed in the mine issue. Much research has been
conducted as a result of outraged public opinion (Croll, 1998). A lot has been done to
document the scope of the crisis by different large-scale surveys and experiences of aid
and development agents. There is also a movement that was created and led by several
agencies that make up the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize winning International Campaign to
Ban Landmines (ICBL), in order to secure a total ban of anti-personnel landmines. The
mine ban treaty that came out after the Ottawa convention12 has received tremendous
support from different parts of the world and it is hoped to possibly bring an end to the
misery of people and nature that is caused by this menace.
In 1980, the need was recognized to impose proper regulations on the use of
landmines in an indiscriminate manner, and therefore regulation for the use of landmines
was specified in the Landmine Protocol (Protocol II) of the United Nations to restrict the
use of landmines and limit their injurious effect. Convention on the Prohibition or
Restriction on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW), which may be deemed
to be Excessively Injurious, or having Indiscriminate Effects has been effective and is
ratified by 62 states to date. During a review of the conference in May 1996, the
participants of the conference endorsed “self-neutralizing, self-deactivating and
12 The landmark treaty entitled: “Convention on the Prohibition, Use, Production, Transfer and Stockpiling of Anti-personnel Landmines and on their destruction” was signed in Ottawa, Canada in December of 1997; in order to set an international norm of illegality for the use, stockpiling, production and trade of landmines, and also to bind countries to attend to the urgent need for demining and victim assistance. The treaty was signed by 123 countries in Ottawa, but some of the major producers, including the USA, Russia and China, have still not signed the treaty. (Grange and Larson, 1998)
19
detectable mines”13. The fact that it was just a protocol and can impose no control over
the manner in which wars are fought and because of the very nature of war itself, it
became clear that the CCW could not do a lot to stop the crisis. This disappointing result
of the conference has been criticized by agencies that are involved in mine action and
those that are working with the ICBL.
The next step that was taken in order to provide a legal framework for
international cooperation on mine action is what is known as the 1997 Mine Ban or
Ottawa Treaty. The United States based Human Rights Watch, one of the leading
agencies in the International Campaign to Ban Landmines states,
“The 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production, and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction represents a breakthrough in the struggle against landmines. In addition to its complete prohibition of anti-personnel mines, the Ban Treaty requires destruction of stockpiled anti-personnel landmines within four years and destruction of mines already in the ground within ten years.” (HRW, 1999, pp.1) In December of 1997, 123 countries signed the Ottawa Treaty in Ottawa, Canada
(Grange and Larson, 1998). As of December 3, 199914, 136 countries have signed the
treaty while 89 of them have also ratified it. By September 1998, 40 countries had ratified
the treaty, thus making the treaty an international law as of 1 March 1999. Since the
treaty became law, countries may no longer sign it, they must accede. Those countries
which have already signed, must still ratify it in order to be fully bound by the ban
provisions (ICBL, 1999A).
13 This means “parties are free to use landmines as they wish so long as they follow the guidelines of the revised Protocol which prohibit the use of all undetectable ‘dumb’ mine, requires that the remotely delivered AP mines be designed to self-destruct within thirty days with ninety percent reliability; requires that detectable but non-self-neutralizing mines be used in areas that are fenced off, marked and guarded and that the party that lays the mines is responsible for cleaning them; and outlaws the export and import of undetectable mines which are prohibited under this rule” (Lloyd, 1997, pp. 21) 14 December 3 is the Anniversary of the Ottawa Treaty signing; it is also the International Day of Handicaps.
20
A number of issues regarding the Mine Ban Treaty have been raising serious
concerns. First, more than 65 million of the landmines that constitute the present crisis
were deployed in the 15 years since the formulation of the 1980 Convention on
Conventional Weapons (CCW) (Roberts and Williams, 1995); second, there have been
cases in which some signatories of the Ottawa Treaty have used AP landmines in their
current wars (HRW, 1999); and third, from a mine clearance perspective, this treaty has a
potential to be very challenging to implement. Bringing the landmine crisis under control
during the next decade is bound to be difficult, if not entirely impossible.
The issue of landmines in developing countries is further complicated because
landmines are gravely affecting the world’s poorest nations that have the least resources
available to deal with the aftereffects. The post-conflict humanitarian and environmental
impacts of landmines and the resulting social and economic disaster for millions of
people are issues of paramount concern in the developing world (Roberts and Williams,
1995).
1.4.2 The Landmine Crisis of the Developing World – Issues of Paramount Concern
In scale, the landmine crisis is global, with 87 countries in the world affected by
landmines and unexploded ordinances (NPA15, 1999). The menace of landmines has been
and continues to be a problem in Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe. However,
landmines are ultra-hazardous16 to the environment and development of many of the
developing countries of the world because of consequential damages that they cause and
their ability to arrest or even destroy the basis of development. International Physicians
15 NPA stands for the Norwegian People’s Aid.
21
for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) have pronounced landmine as a “highly
toxic pollutant and major contributor to economic and social impoverishment especially
in the third world” (IANHRD, 1997, pp.1).
When studying the landmine crisis within the framework of regional political
ecology, among the many things that make the cases of developing countries more
challenging are that most of the highly mine affected countries are those listed in the year
2000 Human Development Report – produced by the United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) – as the least developed and poorest countries in the world (See table
1.3). The human development ranking is developed from such indicators including per
capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP), life expectancy, and education levels. In the
report, those countries with a ranking higher than 140 are described as having low human
development, while 47 – 140 are medium and below 47 are highly developed countries.
In total one third of all developing countries are currently contaminated with landmines.
16 In legal terms an ultra-hazardous activity is one that is characterized because of its likelihood to result in pollution and serious consequences that may result from damage caused by the activity (McGrath 1998).
22
Table 1.3 Human development ranking of mine affected countries17.
Country Number of landmines Human development ranking
Angola Afghanistan Iraq Cambodia Bosnia/Herzegovina Croatia Mozambique Eritrea Kuwait Somalia Ethiopia Nicaragua Azerbaijan El Salvador Vietnam Laos Iran
9-15 million 10 million 10 million
8-10 million 2-3 million 2 million 2 million
1-2 million 1.6 million 1 million 500,000 108,000 50,000 10,000
Unknown Unknown Unknown
160 -
126 136
- 49 168 159 36 -
171 116 90 104 108 140 97
(Source: UNDP 2000 and Misak et al, 1999)
Continentwise Africa currently has the gravest problem of landmines with 27
nations, including Somaliland experiencing serious landmine problems (Westing, 1996b).
Many more countries from the different continents are also listed as having severe to
most severe, from tens of thousands to tens of millions – landmines (see table 1.4).
17 In the Human Development Report 2000, UNDP determined the development ranking of 174 countries.
23
Table 1.4 Countries with reported severe landmine impacts.
AFRICA AMERICAS ASIA EUROPE MOST SEVERE Angola Djibouti Egypt Eritrea Ethiopia Malawi Mozambique Somalia (and Somaliland) Sudan
El Salvador Nicaragua
Afghanistan Cambodia China Iraq Kuwait Vietnam Yemen
Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Yugoslavia
SEVERE Chad Mauritania Morocco Namibia Rwanda Zimbabwe Zambia
Guatemala Honduras
Burma Iran Israel Laos Lebanon Sri Lanka Syria
Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Tajikistan
LESS SEVERE Botswana Liberia Libya South Africa Burundi Uganda DR Congo Congo-Brazzaville Niger Swaziland
Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba
India Malaysia New Caledonia Oman Pakistan Thailand
Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Estonia Germany Latvia Lithuania Netherlands Poland Russia Turkey
(Source: Data collected from Arms Project for Human Rights Watch and Physicians for Human Rights, 1993; NPA, 1999; and ICBL, 1999b).
In most cases, the population’s survival and their development are dependent on
land-based arable or pastoral activities. By denying access to land, landmines limit food
production, and create/exacerbate poverty and malnutrition. Landmines can seriously
affect populations by destroying the stability of the soil structure and killing livestock
they depend on as means of income generation. The effects of landmines on the land and
the lives of people that depend on that land are further manifested as socio-economic
24
problems of urban areas. Disruption of their traditional subsistence lives has forced many
rural inhabitants to move to urban centers where they have further contributed to the
problems of overcrowded housing, traffic congestion, unemployment, shortage in water
supply, sanitation and waste disposal (IANHRD, 1997).
Wars, unfavorable climatic and economic conditions, and sustained poverty have
limited the resources and capacity of many (almost all) of the landmine-affected countries
in the developing world to combat the impacts of landmines (Eden, 1996). Moreover,
environmental impacts are viewed as secondary to humanitarian disasters; weighing the
claims of humans against other resources of nature has proven to be problematic (Stone,
1998). In addition, many governments in the developing world have shown uncertain
commitment to the environment (Eden, 1996).
Other than the above-listed issues, the landmine problem in the developing
countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America is not only a socio-economic and
environmental issue, its projection also extends to politics (Eden, 1996). Continued
militarization of former battlegrounds and denial of access to resources have been reasons
for power struggles and even further conflicts.
Most of the wars of developing countries – and the resulting landmine crises –
have been and are constantly being aggravated with the support of outside entities from
the western developed/capitalist world and those in the former socialist/communist
eastern block. External forces provide the weapons of mass destruction to both opposing
forces and add more fuel to the conflicts (See Fig 1.2). This is yet another example of the
rich getting richer while ensuing persistence of poverty and misery in the lives of the
poor. Most of the war devastated countries of the third world are burdened with large
25
medical expenses for the landmine-disabled people and economies that are sinking
deeper in foreign debts due to military expenses (Ngwenya, 1999).
26
The source and destination of landm
ines – for Angola, A
fghanistan, countries of the former Y
ugoslavia, Iraq, Cam
bodia, V
ietnam, and M
ozambique.
Figure 1.2 (Source: O
ne World 1999).
http://ww
w.onew
orld.org/ni/issue294/minesm
ap.htm
27
Especially in developing countries, landmines play a very prominent role in
perpetuating underdevelopment through eco-terrorism; long after the troops have
withdrawn and all the guns have been silenced “landmines remain in the ground as brutal
reminders that successful peace building and development are still beyond the horizon”
(Boutros-Ghali, 1994, pp.8).
1.5 A Conceptual Framework for Problem Identification and Analysis
1.5.1 Introduction to Land Degradation
Land degradation is defined as an environmental phenomenon where the “ability
of the land to produce the goods and/or services people demand from it is found to be
declining” (Biot, 1991, as quoted in Dahlberg, 1994, pp.9). Land degradation is
“reduction or loss of the biological and physical productivity and complexity of land
resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including
processes arising from human activities” (Pagiola, 1999, pp. 2; and Blaikie and
Brookfield, 1987). Johnson and Lewis (1995, pp.2) characterize the loss in intrinsic
qualities or decline in capability due to land degradation as ‘substantial decrease in either
or both of an area’s biological productivity and usefulness’.
The word ‘degradation’ was derived from Latin and it implies ‘reduction to a
lower rank’; where the ‘rank’ is in relation to actual or possible uses, and reduction
implies a problem for those who use the land. The different definitions of land
degradation indicate a drop in rank or status; and all of them have in common the loss of
utility or the reduction, loss or change of features or organisms that are hard, if not
entirely impossible, to replace (Barrow, 1991). Blaikie and Brookfield (1987) have
28
stressed that purely natural and environmental problems such as drought, leaching and
erosion occur with or without human interference; however, for these natural processes to
be portrayed as ‘degradation’ implies a socially decisive factor that relates land to its
actual or possible uses. When land is degraded, it endures a loss of inherent qualities or a
decline in capability of land to satisfy a particular use or possible intended future uses.
Recently, land degradation has emerged as a more formal and generalized concept
that covers the dynamics of soil, vegetation, other relating ecological systems, and
resulting social impacts (Barrow, 1991; Dahlberg, 1994 and Eden, 1996) that arise as
responses to a multitude of complex interacting physical progressions along with human
values and constrictions (Barrow, 1991) in the ecosystem. The contemporary, a little bit
customized and holistic, definition of land degradation incorporates different natural and
man-made phenomena of decrepitude of human living conditions, drought, soil erosion,
and loss of vegetation cover (Eden, 1996).
Many researchers (Barrow, 1991; Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987; Dahlberg, 1994;
and Eden, 1996) emphasize that land degradation is an interdisciplinary issue, one that
should by definition include both biophysical and social problems and restoration
capabilities. What matters in the case of land degradation is not only the movement of top
soil, the introduction of harmful heavy metals, the increase in salinity, the reduction in
organic matter and soil sealing, but also the impact on the “ability of soil to generate
‘well-being’ through the range of goods and services the land produces” (Biot, 199118, as
quoted in Dahlberg, 1994, pp.9). Therefore, degradation is best viewed not as a one-way
18 Biot, Y., 1991: Quantifying sustainability. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Evaluation for Sustainable Land Management in the Developing World. Chiang Rai, 15-20 September 1997, 27p.
29
street, but rather as a result of forces, or product of an equation, in which both human and
natural forces play a role.
1.5.2 Theoretical Context
Development planning in war-torn and less developed countries must consider a
complex set of issues that include varying cultural, natural and climatic conditions; weak
economic and natural resource base and capacities that are usually even further destroyed
by long wars, and different local and national policies. The presence of landmines further
complicates rehabilitation and development planning by restricting access to resources
and inflicting horrifying damages even after all the guns have fallen silent. The
complexity of the issues requires a conceptual framework capable of analyzing the
problem in terms of an environmental, economic, social and political nexus. The
consideration of non-quantifiable, non-material dimensions of landmine related problems
(for example: disruption of resources, community, social values, self-efficacy and others)
are also of great importance.
While efforts have been made to study the landmine crisis through the application
of different sociological concepts and models, there is a shortage of studies that view the
landmine crisis as an environmental problem that has implications for development of
countries and nations. Representatives of non-governmental organizations active in mine
action, joined by members of international organizations and government departments,
gathered in Berlin, Germany (1999) in order to review the Bad Honnef Guidelines19 of
19 Guidelines by and for NGOs that were produced in mid 1997 at the meeting sponsored by the German Campaign it elaborates integrated mine action programs by placing them in the context of long-term development. (ICBL, 1999a)
30
1997 and highlighted the need for an integrated approach guided by development-based
principles to deal with landmine impacts. By employing principles and methods of land
degradation, an interdisciplinary approach, this study falls within the realm of inquiry
into the dynamic relationships between natural and human systems. The theoretical
background employed in this study draws upon the concepts and causal links of land
degradation in human-environment relationships, and the ideas of rural and regional
development planning.
The regional political ecology perspective provides a framework within which the
interrelated social, economic, political and ecological variables of management can be
examined in order to seek effective solutions to problems of development and
environmental maintenance. The regional political ecology approach can be described as
one that encompasses interactive effects, different geographical scales, socio-economic
organizations and the contradictions between social and environmental changes through
time (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987). The concept of regional political ecology considers
the variability in land capability and degradation in light of the ecological, political and
economic systems in which the resources are consumed. The framework is a useful tool
for examining natural resource capability, impact from human populations, underlying
economic situations, loss or degradation of means of subsistence of rural communities
and impacts on national economies.
In the case of landmine affected regions, a comprehensive understanding of the
presence of landmines and its implications and proper inclusion of local communities in
the development processes are crucial in order to lead rehabilitation and developmental
efforts in one way or another. For example (a logical assumption), uninformed,
31
ineffective and inadequate policies that only consider personal harm but not
environmental, economic and social implications cannot help the development processes
in the way that they should, because they do not consider the livelihood of farmers whose
land-based agricultural capital is subject to increased decline or degradation, including
loss of other benefits incurred to the family’s financial income and the impact on the
soil’s health in terms of loss of topsoil, fertility of the soil and pollution from the toxic
substances that are found in landmines. In societies whose development greatly depends
on agriculture, it follows that the deterioration of rural agricultural systems leads to a
weakened national economy. Ineffective resource management and development policies
also amount to subsidized or aid-dependent income at the expense of rural community
development.
There is a lack of research on the landmine problem as an environmental impact
that has implications for the development of countries and nations. In order to better
understand and analyze these environmental implications in a development context, this
research borrows methods and ideas from the literature in rural land development, natural
hazard/disaster, and refugee and displacement studies.
Using the conceptual framework of regional political ecology to guide this research is
beneficial because it provides an inclusive understanding of human-environment
relationships, and because it provides usable insights into the importance of multi-
dimensional, multi-scale analysis of problems related to development in the South.
Adoption of this perspective helps to construct a “chain of explanation” (Blaikie and
Brookfield, 1987, pp.12) that links the usually site-specific bio-physical products of land
degradation to social, political and economic factors that operate at different scales
32
ranging from local to global (Pires, 1999). Employment of the perspectives of regional
political ecology for the landmine crisis helps to move the current paradigm in landmine
impact studies from a narrower outlook of one that is concerned with only the personal
injuries and emotional trauma on victims to one of a broader scale that encompasses the
impacts on the natural environment and its implications for development of regions.
By adopting principles of regional political ecology that integrate the natural sciences
perspective of ecology with social perspective from political economy in an historical
context (Pires, 1999), this study attempts to explain the developmental challenges of
landmine affected areas based on an informed understanding of the environmental
impacts related to land degradation, land use under the circumstances, and their
significance on regional resource development. This knowledge is essential for
identifying the elemental components of the environmental planning model.
1.6 Plan for the Research
Following this introductory chapter, the remainder of this research is composed of
the succeeding four chapters.
Chapter two is the literature review and provides substantial background information
and discussions related to environmental impacts of landmines, problems and costs of
land degradation, and land degradation through warfare, specifically landmines. This
chapter further discusses the causal links and indicators of land degradation, the concepts
of ecological carrying capacity, paradigms in land degradation research, and finally
sustainable development. Some of the issues that are discussed include impacts on land,
its use and productivity; factors causing land degradations; development pressures that
33
can lead to taking risks or creating a shift to other practices, abandonment or emigration;
ecosystem management, and issues related to human relations with land.
The third chapter presents the research approach, methodology and analysis,
including an introduction to the qualitative research. This section provides explanation on
why qualitative methodology was chosen to guide this study. This chapter also includes
description of the data collection methods, and the methods and procedures of analysis
that are followed to interpret the findings of the research.
The fourth chapter presents the results and findings of the research in terms of
threats – the environmental and socio-economic dimensions of the conceptual framework
and the interrelationships in the landmine-environment nexus. This is followed by
illustrations of the implications of these effects on regional development – a section that
builds the floor for the political dimension of the framework to address effective
management and conservation policies.
Chapter five concludes the research by providing the summaries, conclusions and
recommendations that can be derived from this study. This chapter also considers the
utility of the conceptual framework of regional political ecology for use in landmine
related studies. The implications of the impacts on regional development, the challenges
ahead, limitations of the study and how future studies in this area could progress to enrich
the subject matter and provide avenues for more effective solutions are discussed at the
end of this research.
34
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Paradigms in Land Degradation Research
2.1.1. Regional Political Ecology
Landmine-related environmental problems are varied in nature and are too
complex to be studied with traditional models of the natural sciences. This complexity in
the nature of the problems makes the purely biophysical perspectives insufficient to
understand the broad array of factors intervening at different spatial and temporal levels.
The relatively newer and innovative approach of regional political ecology borrows
concepts from ecology and political economy to provide a useful approach in the search
for more a comprehensive understanding of this human-environment problem20 (Blaikie
and Brookfield, 1987; Pires, 1999 and Keil et al., 1998).
Studies in land degradation and landmine impacts need the collection of massive
amounts of data, including physical changes in the soil and vegetation, decline in
productivity of the land, population health and movement, income and market conditions,
value and productivity of resources. These constructed data demand very detailed
technical exercises and a lot of biophysical modeling of relationships that are inundated
by enormous uncertainties and errors in definitions and measurements. Presented with
these problems, Blaikie and Brookfield turned to the idea of Thompson and Warburton
(1985a,b)21 that proposes a means for dealing with these uncertainties. In order to be able
20 The combined use of Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (EIA and SIA) principles and methodologies can also be helpful tools to be employed in addressing such complex problems with both ecological and social concerns. 21 (a) Thompson, M. and Warburton, M. (1985) ‘Uncertainty on a Himalayan Scale’, Mountain Research Development 5, 115-35; and (b) Thompson, M. and Warburton, M. (1985) ‘Knowing Where to Hit: a
35
to adapt this approach to land degradation it became necessary to avoid sole hypothesis
explanations and move away from single ‘scientific’ definitions and reductionist
explanations. The foremost elemental component of this approach was accepting
pluralism – “plural perceptions, plural problem definitions, plural expectations and plural
rationalities” (1987, pp. 16). This integrated approach to land degradation promotes
effective assessment of impacts including the socio-political importance of specific
degradations (Eden, 1996).
Regional political ecology is the suggested approach to tackle this complexity. It
has the capacity to make use of limited data; for example, the exact relationship between
the land-user/manager and the land itself (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987 and Pires, 1999).
Regional political ecology is an approach that endeavors to coalesce purely natural and
social science perspectives in order to study the relationships between land degradation
and society by considering important interactive and feedback effects through time at an
appropriate spatial scale. The adjective ‘regional’ represents environmental variability
and the spatial variation in resilience and sensitivity of the land, as different demands are
put on the land through time, and it also implies the incorporation of environmental
considerations into theories of regional growth and decline. By taking into consideration
the continuously changing dialectic between society and land-based activities, the phrase
‘political ecology’ addresses the concerns of both ecology and political economy (Blaikie
and Brookfield, 1987).
Political ecology is an innovative, relatively recent area of critical explanation that
finds its roots in political economy and cultural studies (Keil et al., 1998). Political
conceptual framework for the sustainable development of the Himalayas’ Mountain Research and Development, 5, 203-20.
36
economy is defined as a practical science concerned with principles that inform the
production, distribution, and exchange of resources in order to advance the prosperity of
a nation (Fawcett, 1874 and Ware, 1844). Political economy places weight on private
affairs – it explores the characteristics of the private world in terms of how it works to
satisfy human needs and strives to understand the limits of that ‘private’ world (Levine,
1995).
In his widely popular pieces, Karl Marx lists capital, land, labor, the state, foreign
trade and world markets as categories that are deemed essential to study the field of
political economy. Environment, noticeably absent in Marx’s work, is not just an
ideological notion. Systems of society, economy and ecology play active roles in political
economy and consideration for the well being of the ecosystem needed to be
acknowledged. However, one cannot simply add ‘the environment’ to the list because it
would not fit just like any other socially determined factor in the process of material
production (Keil et al., 1998). The incorporation of environmental concerns in the
concept has forced the reconceptualization of the whole field to an emerging area of
study known as political ecology, where appropriations of societal relationships with
nature are realized.
Political ecology is concerned with the complete/whole system of being – a blend
of social, economic, political and ecological objectives and adaptations – meant to
recognize dynamic relationships in the ecosystem (Bennett, 1984). Political ecology
redefines life qualities in opposition to the ideology of limitless growth and promotes the
imposition of ecological science on political notions. In the process of affirming the
scientific verification of ecological crisis, political ecology advances attempts at
37
amalgamation and organic scrutiny; biocentric22 humanism; disarmament, and social and
civilian defense; and participatory actions (Roussopoulos 1993).
One aim of political ecology is to ensure that the linkage between developments and
degradation become explicit political issues (Eden, 1996). The impacts of land
degradation can be different - short-term or long-term, or reversible or irreversible –
whichever the case, populations sustain damage in their socio-economic well being due
to the land degradation alone or other factors that are introduced as its aftereffects. An
evenhanded political outlook on the comparative damages and potentially effective
management solutions becomes critical when formulating policy responses.
Many of the countries in the South are suffering from a combination of problems
that include land degradation, political and economic peripheralization, sluggish
production, emigration and poverty that create and/or hasten marginalization of people
and resources. In regional political ecology marginality can have three different but
related definitions as would relate to neo-classical economics (marginal unit is the last
unit of a factor which when brought into production just covers its own cost), ecology
(marginal unit of a resource is when natural conditions will just permit the plant or
animal to survive) and political economy (marginalization refers to class of people that
are excluded from different socio-economic activities due to ongoing changes). Land
degradation – which can be both a cause and result of marginalization – can result in a
vicious cycle of increased impoverishment and marginalization of land and land
managers (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987 and Tietenberg, 2000).
22 Biocentric values, also referred to as ecocentirc or universal, are value systems relevant to environmental attitudes where the concern is for the well being of the ecosystem or biosphere as a whole – actions are judged according to their effects on the biosphere (Gardner and Stern, 1996).
38
The wide variety of circumstances surrounding land degradation and the many
conjunctural powers operating at one place and time make searching for a uni-causal
model of explanation vain and call for regional political ecology to employ a more
inclusive and comprehensive ‘chain of explanation’. The chain of explanation of
theoretical bases are from the natural and social sciences. The chain starts out with land
managers and their relationship with the land, and links that with the relations of the land
mangers with each other and groups in the wider society that can affect land
management. This is further linked with state and global conditions at the end of the
chain (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987).
Population and land degradation can be related at the two extreme points of
underpopulation and overpopulation, in terms of exerting pressure on resources. Low and
excessive populations create pressure on resources by causing abandonment of land or
causing the per capita land area to grow smaller respectively (Blaikie and Brookfield,
1987). This implies that there must be a critical level of population to reduce stress on
resources and create optimal conditions, where this critical level of optimality of the
resource is what is known as carrying capacity.
The approach of regional political ecology that is adopted in this research shares
similar historical and dynamic perspectives with some of the recent directions in natural
hazard and disaster research. In both the models, trigger events that start the crises and
catastrophes have explanatory linkages with land degradation – both begin from the
concurrence of physical and social processes (Burby, 1998).
39
2.1.2 Land Management, Managers
By defining land degradation as the loss or reduction of the productive capacity of
land Blaikie and Brookfield make the role of land management explicit. Land
management is defined as “applying known or discovered skills to land use in such a way
as to minimize or repair degradation, and ensures that the capability of the land is
continued beyond the present activity, so as to be available for the next” (1987, pp. 7).
Land management strategies could be categorized as ‘avoidance’ or ‘control’
mechanisms depending on the techniques that are used to manage both onsite and offsite
and short- and long-term degradation problems.
Land management usually requires knowledge to provide urgent attention and
continuous monitoring in addition to labor, capital and special tools. The required types
and amounts of management practices can vary depending on nature of the land/soil,
surrounding climatic conditions and interference from human beings. A land manager,
that is user, undertakes various preventive or correctional methods, as they are needed.
Since the land managers can have varying demands, claims and decision criteria for the
land, it becomes important to clearly identify land managers. By making land a resource
in use regional political ecology makes land managers leading actors in the problem
solving. Provision of resources and incentives for land management from the level of
national governments may be necessary but learning from land manager’s insight of
problems, and basing responding government policies on that knowledge excludes
coercive land management problems and promotes participatory problem solving (Blaikie
and Brookfield, 1987 and Eden, 1996).
40
2.2 Land Degradation: Concepts, Principles and Causes
Land degradation is a human induced environmental problem that has potential to
affect natural resources and every fabric of society. The impacts of land degradation are
felt not only in specific localities where people directly depend on land for their survival
and well-being, but they are also more sustained and far reaching (Eden, 1996). When
people depend on land for their welfare, land degradation has effects on survival, income,
development, and micro- and macro-level management policy-making of a region
(Chisholm and Dumsday, 1987).
Land degradation is a threat to sustainability, economic growth and welfare of
rural populations in the developing world (Pagiola, 1999). There is a close relationship,
sometimes even overlap, between the different impacts of land degradation. The
biophysical impacts of land degradation, while creating specific technical obstacles to
productivity that need specific solutions, affect the economic activity and social welfare
of populations living in the affected areas (Eden and Parry, 1996).
Land degradation adversely affects the productive capacity of the land, that is the
land’s yield of labor, and results in a “quiet crisis”, which erodes the basis of civilization
and development (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987; adapted from Lester Brown, 198123).
This view claims that the crisis is all encompassing, often insidious, nevertheless critical
to the future of humankind. When intrinsic production conditions are unfavorable, as in
the case of drought stricken areas, the margin of productivity and continued existence for
a producer on degraded land is smaller than that of a producer on better-managed land of
inherently similar quality. For example, in the past four decades in Ethiopia and Sudan
23 Brown, Lester R. 1981. “Eroding the base of civilization”. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 36:255-60, October.
41
adverse climatic conditions over extended time periods and land degradation have been
factors in perpetuating underdevelopment through the destructive cycle of decreased
productivity and famine for farmers and societies in degraded lands (Eckholm, 1976).
As stated in Eden (1996), Schreckenberg et al. (1990)24 have pointed out that
degradation of the biophysical environment is a process induced or accelerated by
humans. Although land degradation has traditionally been a technical issue and the
biophysical explanations of why land is degraded belong mainly in the dominion of the
natural sciences, its causes, effects and consequences are linked to socio-economic
conditions and its prospects related to political frameworks. Human instigated land
degradation occurs due to poor or lack of proper land management practices (Blaikie and
Brookfield, 1987 and Eden, 1996). Land degradation can result from different human
activities among which stand excessive population pressures, intensive land use including
application of chemicals, technology and mechanization to improve agricultural
productivity; overgrazing; abuse of forests that leads to deforestation; improperly defined
property rights; development related activities and war (Eden, 1996).
The different effects of land degradation have far reaching consequences that can
be felt both in the vicinity where land is damaged and far away from that area (Barrow,
1991). Some types of degradation, like soil nutrient depletion or problems with aeration
and infiltration, are relatively simple to understand and are locally manageable. Others,
like deforestation and permanent decline in the utility of land, are more complicated due
to their expansive biological feedbacks and general technical complexity. Worst-case
24 Schereckenberg, K., Hadley, M. and Dyer, M.I. (Eds) (1990) Management and Restoration of Human-Impacted Resources. Approaches to Ecosystem Rehabilitation. MAB Digest 5. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
42
scenarios of the latter type of degradation have been known to necessitate sounding the
alarm about environmental deterioration (Eden, 1996).
It is difficult to determine the exact costs of land degradation, which are made up
of external and on-site costs. One type of cost that begs attention in land degradation
studies and guides land management practices is opportunity cost25. The opportunity cost
of land degradation is “the income from production on degraded land less the costs of
repairing and preventing land degradation” (Barrow, 1991, pp.11).
Blaikie and Brookfield (1987) introduced the concept of net degradation as a
product of different natural processes and human related causes:
Net Degradation = [natural degrading processes + Human interference] - [natural reproduction + restorative management] This equation considers both beneficial and detrimental processes in nature and of
human beings. There can be some natural processes – for example, loss of soil by
erosion – that have detrimental effects on land, while on the other hand nature (the land)
has some capacity to reverse degrading processes and restore its capacity – for example,
when the soil exhibits rapid rates of soil formation. In a similar manner, when
considering the negative impacts of human beings, referred to in the equation as Human
interference, we also need to note human capacity in assisting in recovery and
reproduction.
Land degradation is a perceptual, interdisciplinary term and could be open to
multiple comprehensions depending on different conditions – of the resource and the land
25 Opportunity cost represents the net benefit forgone when the resource providing the service can no longer be used in its beneficial next use (Tietenberg, 2000).
43
managers. The characterization and definition of land degradation can vary slightly
depending on three factors that include:
• Who the users of the land are? It can vary depending on whether the land
users/managers are farmers, conservationists, pastoralists, the state, or developers
because there usually are different physical changes of the biome that specifically
concern actual or potential land users.
• The manner in which the impact could be felt, depending on whether the impact
is felt individually as loss in fertility of a farmer’s land or denial of access to
communal land that affects the community.
• Whether the problem is being treated as one of natural or social nature (Blaikie
and Brookfield, 1987; Eden, 1996 and Eden and Perry, 1996).
For instance, even though it can lead to change in microclimate, hydrology and soil
conditions, deforestation doesn’t necessarily constitute degradation in a strictly
sociological sense. As far as welfare of the society is concerned, the deforested land can
be put into different uses that benefit the society, and there won’t be any social
degradation unless there is loss of benefit, or unless the society is worse off from the
present value of the product(s) of the land in comparison to what they used to get from
the forest. However, the impacts of land degradation are not only of biophysical nature,
and as a result, parallel social degradation occurs. The initial degradation has potential to
cause disturbance of the soil’s stability, erosion, or decline of its productive capacity.
This can result in indirect, and sometimes recurrent, patterns of human impoverishment
that can be expressed in terms of pollution, loss of biodiversity, increased cost of living,
44
loss of aesthetic quality of a region and etc. (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987 and Eden and
Perry, 1996).
Among the many human related causes of land degradation that were listed earlier,
instruments of warfare stand out due to their scale and disastrous nature. Before, during,
and after conflicts, warfare that is supposed to win the most important prize, the land,
ends up ruining it.
2.3 Landmines and the Environment – Causal Links
2.3.1. Environmental Impacts of Landmines
Landmines directly or indirectly affect more or less every aspect of being in mine-
contaminated countries, at individual and national scales (Roberts and Williams, 1995).
Almost all of the environmental impacts of landmines that are realized in the developing
world after cessation of hostilities can be summed up by the term “desperate ecocide26”;
under extreme conditions to survive, people are practically forced to abuse the
environment and subject it to tremendous degradation because they have no one or no
where else to turn to.
As in many complex issues of social and physical nature, there is a reflexive and
two-way relationship (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987) between landmines and their effects
in the environment. People plant landmines to prevent themselves and their resources
from harm and danger, but after they fight the battle, whether they win or loose, they are
left with unsafe conditions, in mine-infested environments that they can’t prosper from.
26 Blaikie and Brookfield (1987) use the term “desperate ecocide” to refer to the impact of human interference on the environment that results from ignorance, reckless quest for profit, poverty, deprivation and population pressures.
45
One of the well-documented and serious problems associated with landmines is
the denial of access to resources. By making large tracts of land off-limits and rendering
them unusable due to their presence (or fear of), landmines cause shortage in the supply
of land - the basic, non-living resource of nature. The need for land exceeds its
availability, that is, the carrying capacity of a unit of land is exceeded. When rural land
“has been a theatre of military operations that have left a residuum of [l]andmines and
unexploded munitions” (Westing, 1996b, pp.295) the availability of land becomes
limited; “the land area in effect shrinks … land on which to live and build one’s cities, to
farm and graze one’s livestock, to log, to mine and quarry, to hunt and fish, and to
recreate” is no more readily available (Westing, 1985, pp.7). People whose livelihood
depends on those lands would be pushed to use – in more than a few incidents abuse – the
next available or marginal resources, or to migrate to urban centers in order to survive.
When land becomes off-limits, it is left fallow for long periods of time. In cases
of easily susceptible land or land with more than adequate capacity to restore itself, soil
can be lost, over dry, be sealed and in extreme cases even subjected to desertification. On
the other side, by blocking access to resources landmines can also have a favorable effect
on the environment. When landmine presence is known or feared in an area,
anthropogenic disruption of the natural conditions is minimized or completely avoided. It
contributes to regeneration of natural vegetation and habitat recovery (Westing, 1996a).
However, this can be realized only as long as plant roots or animals do not approach the
landmines and they remain unexploded.
Second, landmine presence and explosion could have undesirable effects on the
quality and quantity of soil and ground water in a particular piece of land. Landmine
46
explosions – while claiming a victim or during demining – have the capacity to result in
land degradation by disturbing the stability of the soil structure and making fertile topsoil
susceptible to erosion. Another undesirable impact of landmines is the introduction of
toxic pollutants to the land. Landmines pollute the earth’s surface because they constitute
non-biodegradable and toxic garbage. Landmines introduce 2,4,6-trinitrotoulene (TNT),
hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazide (RDX, or Cyclonite) or tetryl as high explosive
filters, and these compounds have been known to leach into soil and underground water
as the metal or timber casting of the mine disintegrates (Gray, 1997).
Third, landmine explosions threaten flora and fauna of a region by killing
animals, invading their habitat and thereby causing the loss of biodiversity and disruption
in the food web. Landmine explosions and threats have been known to cause wild fires
(Westing, 1996a) and abuse of forest resources and different types of vegetation, and
thereby causing or hastening deforestation (Gray, 1997; Robert and William, 1995; and
Nachón, 2000).
Fourth, by blocking access to agricultural areas, paths or other means of
transportation and communication, landmines become physical obstacles to health, unity
and reconstruction efforts in a region. Landmines restrict the addressing of public health
concerns, locust control, aid delivery, peacekeeping efforts, and delivery of government
services. Environmental problems of landmines have the capacity to leave communities
socially and economically isolated, thereby prolonging the need for international
assistance (Harpviken, 1999; McGrath, 1994; Ghebremedhin, 1993; United States State
Department, 1998; and Rock, 1999).
47
Fifth, demining and clearing operations targeted at alleviating the problems of
landmine presence have undesirable environmental consequences. Besides being
expensive and time consuming, landmine clearing operations – especially those using
techniques of detonation – can be environmentally disruptive because they can destroy
soil structure and stability or pollute the land with harmful contaminants (Millard 2000
and Westing, 1996b).
The environment and non-human casualties of landmines are “silent, anonymous
and nameless” (Cameron et al., 1998; pp.14); they usually are ranked secondary to the
direct impacts of landmines on human beings. In addition, money, efforts and resources
are diverted away from environmental management. The environmental and non-human
casualties are usually subject to further impoverishment and marginalization; at times the
degradation reaches a point of no return before something can be done about it.
Since the soil environment, and hence land, is typically associated with the
physical-chemical environment, it exhibits fundamental relationships to other
environmental components, and the impacts of landmines on land are therefore felt on the
vegetation, habitat, and cultural resources of a region (Canter, 1996). When landmines
create the dangers of degradation, the viability and sustainable development of societies
and generations is jeopardized. Pollution, destruction and depletion of resources that is
caused by landmines can lead to ecological destruction of enormous proportions,
affecting not only the local environment but even larger, regional environments, if not
global.
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2.3.2 Land degradation through warfare, Landmines
Many of the world’s farmers and pastoralists are going to face threats from
unexploded munitions for decades to come. Land degraded due to the presence of
landmines and other unexploded munitions, fires or other consequences of war is a
momentous reminder of the tragedy and sacrifices of war (Barrow, 1991 and Eden,
1996).
In the case of land degradation that is caused by landmines, it has diverse
underlying causes that are broadly social in character and often far removed from those
who manage and use the land. Land degradation can be caused directly through the
disturbances in the environment or the introduction of toxic pollutants into the earth’s
crust. Environmentally undesirable effects of demining processes, delay of these
demining processes, and lack of corrective measures can also exacerbate the problem
(Eden, 1996).
Landmines indirectly cause land degradation of enormous proportions, mainly out
of desperation. The degradation that results can be due to different landmine-related
causes including abandonment of productive land due to the presence – or fear – of
landmines, widespread growth of brush and woodland, depopulation of whole regions,
and long-term changes in agricultural practices forced by labor shortage. Shortsighted
policies, ignorance, neglect or misplaced priorities on the part of the actual land users
could also be factors that cause or accelerate the rate of land degradation. From this
pattern of causality derive human impacts that in turn damage the land users and the
broader society (Barrow, 1991 and Eden, 1996).
49
The debris of war remains long after the cessation of hostilities, making land use
difficult and dangerous. Even if they survive, the people’s economic and social activities
are disrupted; they are unlikely to find satisfactory new lands that are safe from
landmines. Moreover, they also lose livestock, become refugees and have very few, if
any, resources left for environmental management (Barrow, 1991).
The interactive effects of landmines are also realized through time. Land
degradation can reduce the range of possible options for the potential uses to which land
can be put in the future, and change future life and history of generations to come unless
there is effective repair (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987).
2.3.3 Causal Links
Ecosystems and bio-geochemical/bio-geophysical cycles are integrated and
delicately balanced systems that are capable of limited self-regulation and self-
maintenance to create stability. The systems’ stability is largely a function of sensitivity
and resilience to change; sudden disturbance can overstretch the systems’ ‘elasticity’ and
result in catastrophic changes (Barrow, 1991, pp.21) that have potential to cause
dangerous disequilibrium.
Land, as one of the major natural resources, provides the crucial link between the
biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem (W. Ghiorghis, 1993) and plays a great
role in maintaining that equilibrium. Our natural environment is the basis of our
development and most certainly a prominent factor that has potential to cripple it. At this
point in history, the natural environment is very fragile because of a combination of
abuse factors of human beings that range from overexploitation of resources to habitat
50
destruction, and therefore extinction of different forms of life. The most prominent causes
of this degradation are development, war and poverty (W.Ghiorghis 1993). The
interlinked ecological and economic decline that results from landmines can trap regions
in a development that spirals downward. Land degradation has more impact on people
when they have no opportunity for alternative livelihoods and/or dwelling sites (Barrow,
1991).
Robert and Williams (1994) state that larger portions of the national territories of
the countries that are turned into battlegrounds are agricultural and grazing lands. The
mining of these lands has led to increased poverty. Where landmines have been used in
large numbers they have had a significant effect on already taxed environments.
Populations with mine-limited access to agricultural or grazing land are pushed into
increasingly fragile, marginal lands, furthering the land’s rapid degradation. In some
instances where water resources have been mined, traditional rangelands have been
affected, causing overexploitation of fragile areas. Where mine contamination has
reached a degree that disrupts traditional rural lifestyles, populations may be forced to
move into urban environments, thereby contributing to overcrowding, unemployment and
other urban problems.
When studying land degradation it is imperative to mention the two qualitative
terms that describe the quality of land systems, soil, water and vegetation; they are
indicators of the effects the resource suffers. These two concepts are sensitivity and
resilience, also referred to as susceptibility and fragility respectively. Sensitivity refers to
the degree to which a land system undergoes change and its susceptibility to interference.
Resilience refers to the ability of the land system to regain its capability after
51
interference. Sensitivity depicts the impacts that are suffered from human or other
interference, while resilience measures the restoration capital of the system, the need for
human interference and how much the system can absorb, utilize and benefit from the
interfering change (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987). The sensitivity and resilience of a
system depends on the initial quality of the land and the nature of the interference. When
a land system is insensitive and highly resilient to the interfering forces of change, the
damage that could be caused is minimized and the needed land management is relatively
easier than when the properties of the land are at the other end of the spectrum.
To describe the causal link of landmine induced land degradation with
environmentally and socially crucial factors one can give the examples of deforestation
and loss of biodiversity. Deforestation has been accelerated by extensive use of
landmines. Where arable and pasture lands have been mined to such a degree that forests
become the only source of livelihood, the long-term consequences of selling old forests
and fruit trees give way to immediate survival pressures. Deforestation affects
marshlands, waterbeds, and climatic conditions, in the immediate locality and the
surrounding areas. Landmines have also threatened the already fragile environments of
some rare animals, such as the snow leopard in Afghanistan, which is already in danger
of extinction. In Africa, elephants and other animals have been killed or maimed by
landmines after national parks have been used as military bases. One of the few
remaining male silver-backed gorillas fell victim to a landmine (Robert and Williams
1994).
52
As quoted in Eden (1996), Young and Ishwaran (1989, pp.10)27 declare, ‘it is no
accident that poverty and degraded environments are generally coincident’. Degradation
of land has many interlinked and overarching problems that are not limited to either the
natural or social sciences. There is a crucial need for an integrated approach to land
degradation that encourages scrutiny of the linkages between specific degradations,
reveals commonalities in degradation monitoring, and facilitates assessment of the
relative criticality, and hence political significance, of particular degradations.
2.4. Sustainable Development
“Human development and well-being is inextricably bound to protection of the
earth’s environment” (Nadakavukaren, 1995). Impacts on the environment are reflected
as repercussions on development of the region. Sustainable development policies seek
means of combining policies, programs, and solutions that look beyond narrow,
conventional solutions to social and environmental problems and address them from a
broad, holistic viewpoint (Beatley and Manning, 1997).
War, through its destruction and explosive remnants, is one variable that poses
serious harm to the environment, and therefore development. The presence of landmines
in a region (whether they have detonated or not) has immense social, environmental,
economic and political implications. “Degradation of the environment constitutes a
serious threat to sustainable development of regions” and resources (Guyabaah, 1994).
Since “We can not isolate development from environment …[as] they are interrelated”
(Trivedi, 1994, pp. 9), real development can’t take place unless strategies are taken to
27 Young, M. and Ishwaran, N. (1989) Human Investment and Resource Use: A New Research Orientation at the Environment/Economics Interface. MAB Digest 2. Paris: United Nations Educational Scientific and
53
foster sustainable development. Development of regions is seriously affected by the
impacts of landmines and their potential in causing or exacerbating land degradation.
Landmines create trails of devastated environments and underdeveloped regions.
To develop means “to expand or realize the potentialities of, to bring gradually to
a fuller, greater or better state” (Daly, 1994, pp. 268). Development is “better utilization
of natural resources” (Gupta and Asher, 1998, pp. 3) and reduction in [n]ature’s drudgery
(Sharma, 1998), “the state of life in which the individual and society enjoy permanent
peace, happiness and contentment28” (Bahuguna, 1998, pp. 3).
The current trend and popular perception of development that is equated with
economic growth has made man a “butcher of nature” and has created a perverted society
whose achievements can be summed up as “plenty of things: but an irreparable loss of
resources, with increasing environmental hazards, disparities, dissatisfaction and
insecurity” (Bahuguna, 1998, pp.3). Some of the hazards of the current trend in
development are “degradation of land, depletion of forest cover, desertification, increased
toxic products, depletion of wildlife and extinction of species” (Sharma, 1994, pp.13),
which are ironically all the things that wars leave behind. The idea of ‘development’
where consideration for other forms of life and the environment is secondary (Beatley
and Manning, 1997) has backlashed, making it mandatory for the current generation to
think in terms of sustainable development (Sharma, 1994).
Sustainability, which finds its roots in the concept of ecological carrying
capacity29, seeks to limit environmental impacts and the consumption of natural resources
Cultural Organization. 28 Development, as defined in the beliefs of Buddha (Bahuguna 1998). 29 Canter (1996, pp. 344) defines ecological carrying capacity as “ the total number of plants and animals that can be supported by a particular ecosystem, with out reducing the environment’s long-term ability to
54
(Beatley and Manning, 1997). Sustainable development can be defined as “any activity
that raises social welfare with the maximum amount of resource conservation and the
minimum amount of environmental degradation allowable within given economic, social
and technical constraints” (Barrow, 1991, pp.29). The World Commission on
Environment30 and Development defines sustainable development as “development that
meets the current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs” (Dubey, 1998, pp. 316). It is described as a “process of change in which
the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of
technological development and institutional changes are made consistent with future as
well as present needs” (Gupta and Asher, 1998; pp. 286).
In sustainable development, societies seek to live, develop and operate within the
natural limits, and their aim would be to minimize the extent of their ecological footprint.
Sustainable development calls for energetic efforts to reverse the degradation already
brought about and to pass along an environment of higher quality and condition (Beatley
and Manning, 1997). Barrow (1991, pp.30) explains that sustainable development strives
to maximize goals across three systems: that is,
o The biological system – with goals to sustain biological diversity and
productivity;
o The economic system – with goals to satisfy basic need, enhance quality,
improve useful goods and services;
sustain life at a desired level and quality.” It varies with the type of land resource and its inherent productivity, the climate and the usable resources that grow well in that ecosystem, as well as methods used to produce them. Barrow (1991) expands the concept of carrying capacity by stating that man has a capacity to stretch the natural carrying capacity of a resource, temporarily [there is very likely that there would be diminishing returns after some point], by technology, trade, or other activities such as tourism which could have capacity to make it easier for extraction of formerly expensive or hard to extract resources or by shifting the problem to other regions.
55
o The social system – the goal being to sustain institutions, social justice, and
participation.
Barrow also considers the possibility of achieving sustainable development as
requiring politically effective strategies for its implementation, while environmental
studies and economics are operating on the same wavelength.
Sustainability implies an “anticipate-and avoid”, rather than “react-and-cure”
approach to development. Although sustainable development is a very vague concept31,
its pursuit could help mankind avoid land degradation, because,
1. Temporary, unsustained development could support population growth; hardship and land degradation may ensue if production failed.
2. In developing countries, if development in an area fails, people may have difficulty moving /finding alternative livelihood/adapting to a new area – all of which can trigger land degradation
3. Incomes near the subsistence level give their recipients little margin to weather-failure and setbacks – this can lead to land degradation.
4. Lack of adequate social services in developing countries means there is little incentive to control population, because children serve as ‘security’ for parents, and little support if production fails.
5. People in developing countries are likely to be more directly dependent on the environment for survival than those in developed countries.
6. In the developing countries, alternative strategies/technologies are often untried or unavailable (Barrow, 1991, pp.30).
Some countries in the developing world seem to be trapped in a ‘downward
spiral’ of ecological and economic decline that is seriously affecting their development
pattern. This is because land degradation has far greater impact on societies that have
limited alternatives for their livelihood. When the better quality land that they used to
make a living from is no longer available, people may be marginalized and opt for poor
30 Also known as the Brundtland report. 31 Sustainable development, although vague could be an effective and powerful concept “as many other vague concepts such as liberty, equality and justice” (Timberlake 1988:61; as quoted in Barrow 1991 pp.29)., Timberlake, L. (1998) Sustained Hope for development, New Scientist, 119 (1620), 60-3.
56
quality and easily degraded land for immediate benefits at the expense of long-term
sustainability. Poverty and land degradation get into a feedback loop where one
reinforces the impacts of the other leading to impoverishment of communities and their
natural resources (Barrow, 1991).
57
CHAPTER 3
METHODS
3.1 Qualitative Research
3.1.1. Qualitative Paradigm for the Research
The emerging and exploratory nature of the research, lack of conceptual or
experimental frameworks for studies related to environmental effects of landmines and
the diverse nature of the relationships between the different factors involved in study of
land degradation require the use of subjective means of analysis. This study employs a
qualitative approach as a means to finding a new way of looking at the problem. This
constructivist approach, as described by Schratz and Walker (1995), is believed to be an
accommodating tool in the endeavor to better understand the environmental implications
of the current landmine crisis in developing countries.
Qualitative research provides a better insight on real world, practical problems
when there is a lack of theories to guide the studies or when the available theories are not
mature enough to accommodate the special needs of the investigation. This paradigm is a
helpful tool for seeking meaning and better understanding for exploratory or descriptive
investigations that are concerned with process rather than outcome (Creswell 1994).
Instead of a quantitative approach that depends on extensive empirical research
with predefined theories, hypotheses and assumptions, this research approaches the
problem by posing open-ended questions that would reflect the experiences of people
who have been/are working on the issue. All the applicable and required assumptions and
theories were developed during the course of the research.
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This Masters research examines the short- and long-term costs of land
degradation to the environment and society. It identifies the environmental impacts
related to land degradation, and their implications for land use and regional development.
The research explores ways of protecting the resource and improving it from the
degraded conditions for all the stakeholders in an environmentally sustainable manner.
3.1.2. The Research Approach
The landmine crisis and its effects on society are usually discussed with emphasis,
if not sole concentration, on the harm that it causes to the physical body and the
emotional trauma that follows (Goliath, 1998). Research from the United Nations
Environmental Program and the Stockholm Peace Research Institute (1985) looked into
the environmental implications. While various researches are currently being conducted
to assess the socio-economic impacts of landmines by different agencies (the Peace
Research Institute - Oslo, the Norwegian People’s Aid and the International Campaign to
Ban Landmines, International Committee of the Red Cross, Human Rights Watch,
International Development Research Center and others) and individuals, there is still a
shortage of studies that treat the landmine problem as an environmental crisis.
Central to the theme of the study are the conclusions reached by the Peace
Research Institute – Oslo and the Human Rights Watch – Arms Project regarding the lack
of studies that put landmine problems in a broader context that considers the health of the
environment and the livelihood of the people in the region. This study is important in
order to understand the developmental challenges of war-torn societies and also to
explore the relationships of environment and development further.
59
The researches conducted by Hanevik (1998), Gray (1997), Rock (1999), UNEP
and SPRI (1985) are indications that the impacts of landmines are not over with the
killing or maiming of people. These researchers and organizations called for more
research to better understand the problem and bring about effective solutions. This is a
next generation research that takes a special approach to study the impacts from the point
of land degradation and how that can affect regional development.
This study is not meant to diminish the “humanitarian holocaust” (Gray, 1997: pp.
1) that is the result of these weapons. There are few landmine-related studies that look
into the environmental implications, or specifically land degradation, as are studies that
identify the developmental impacts. In addition, focused studies that can put landmine-
related problems in a broader social and political context have also been lacking. There is
also a shortage of studies that assess and map the means by which communities cope with
the presence of landmines (Harpviken, 1999b). This study is an attempt to fill some of
these gaps and add further weight to the severity of the current landmine crisis.
Many have tried to divide the integrated reality of post-war landmine-affected
systems into smaller problem areas. However, systems of sustainable development are
built on delicate balances among their different components, which are bound together by
a number of organizational principles (Murtaza, 1998). By dealing with the problem of
land degradation that has potential to affect larger environments and populations, this
study tries to present a more comprehensive picture for identification and better
understanding of the impacts related to land degradation and their implications on
sustainable development.
60
The understanding of the impacts of landmines on land resource degradation and
land use is critical to the planning for sustainable development in landmine-affected
regions of the developing world. This study will provide essential data at an appropriate
level of analysis, and a methodology that can be replicated to better inform sustainable
development policies.
One of the reasons that it has been very difficult to conduct research on the
environmental impacts till now has been the fact that not only are there so many
unknowns but the whole issue itself is an unknown, masked by so many political
agendas. The regional political ecology perspective best suits the nature of the problem
and the research questions that are posed in this study. The multi-dimensional and more
comprehensive account of the relevant factors enriches the conceptual framework. This
study may not necessarily be superior to previous attempts to explain the environmental
challenges of landmines, but the employment of this approach contributes to a better
understanding of the human-environment problem than has been possible by the
conventional models that are available in the arenas of landmine research. This research
contributes to the process of finding better approaches to securing a sustainable natural
environment upon which landmine-affected and war-torn societies can plan future
development and provide valuable information that can be used to deal with landmine
presence.
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3.2. Research Design
Qualitative communication with professionals working in different areas related
to landmines was preferred over a quantitative survey of a random sample from the
generally affected population because of the exploratory nature of the study. At this point
in time – when there are hardly any conceptual or empirical models to guide a
quantitative experiment in the issue – the quality of the data that would be collected from
the questionnaire was believed to be appropriate for identification and better
understanding of the environmental impacts and their implications on sustainable
development of the resource.
To assess the possible implications of land degradation that is caused due to the
presence of landmines on regional development and the impacts that it could have on
future actions, this research explains the developmental challenges that lie ahead for
landmine affected regions. This part of the research also looks into the adaptations of
people to live and develop in the presence or aftermath of landmine crisis.
To identify the types of land degradation that can be caused by landmines, this
research looks at the historical and potential [future] degradation of land due to the
presence of landmines, the overuse, misuse and mismanagement of land that occurs after
it. The information that is collected from this assessment is complemented by the
literature on land degradation in order to arrive at a clear picture of how landmines can
cause degradation of land.
The implications of the environmental impacts on land quality, use and planning,
the issues of people’s adaptations for survival in these situations, the risks they take,
emigration, the humanitarian assistance that they get are included. The environmental
62
impacts that are associated with these adaptations and the implications of those choices
on sustainable development are considered. This section looks at what kind of impacts
are expected on regional development in rural regions of the developing world that
depend on land for their day to day livelihood – in order to enable this study to provide
for recommendations for further research, which would expand these issues more in order
to influence policy making for the better.
3.2.1. Data Collection
To determine how some of the already identified environmental impacts of
landmines can be related to land degradation, in terms of causes, effects, processes and
etc., this research will use two methods. These include interviews with professionals in
the areas of landmine and peace research, developmental studies, environmental
toxicology, soil science, and natural disaster and relief over the phone and through
electronic mail32. The questionnaire was sent to 46 individuals, from which 21
participated in the study. Among those that participated in the survey include researchers
and professionals in the areas of environmental studies, related to: impact assessment and
war, environmental toxicology, environmental law; application to damages of war, social
researchers, Medical Doctors, humanitarian organizations (governmental and non-
governmental) involved in Humanitarian Mine Action and Victim Assistance,
International Peace Research Institute – Oslo, United Nations Mine Action Services
(UNMAS), United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. All of the participants in
the study have conducted prior research or are working on this area. The second means of
data collection for this study was archival research for both published and unpublished
63
texts including books, journal articles, reports, results of laboratory experiments, and
others. Information was collected concerning how landmines bring about land
degradation. Related questions that were posed include those that look into the
implications of land being off-limits and therefore abandoned, land degradation that can
be caused due to the destruction of soil structure, and the introduction of toxic pollutants.
Archival research was conducted to supplement the information that was collected
from the interviews and to strengthen the knowledge base on the issue. Few of the things
that are covered by archival research are identification of baseline conditions of the
affected regions; the implications of the environmental impacts on land quality, future
land use and planning; the issues of people’s adaptations for survival when faced with
these kinds of situations; the risks they take, migration, and humanitarian assistance that
is provided from different humanitarian agencies for demining and rehabilitation.
Data was collected on the professionals’ opinions of the desired planning, policies
and practices to correct or ameliorate the impacts: spatial, temporal, rehabilitation and
development considerations. The advantages and disadvantages of following the choices
on the environment were addressed too. From this information the researcher was able to
extrapolate the possible avenues for planning, policy and practices that can be used
parallel to the demining processes in landmine-affected regions of the world.
When found necessary – for clarification or when more information was needed –
follow-up questions were asked via telephone or e-mail.
32 The qualitative survey included questions that would try to get replies to the research questions, that would be based on their expert opinions, and also results of previous laboratory or field (for more on the
64
3.2.2. Analysis Procedures
In a qualitative study of this nature, analysis and interpretation of the data
collected from the survey and/or literature review is a continuous process – from the start
of the research till completion. The procedures of analysis and interpretation were
intended to give meaning to the vast amounts of information collected from the different
sources.
The nature of the study demands a combination of open-ended questions posed to
practitioners along with supporting results from prior research. During the quest for
understanding of this human-environment problem, a cognizant effort was made not to
consider every section independently – but rather to identify patterns, recognize
relationships from the collected information and aggregate the findings into relevant
categories based on those patterns, relationships and pertinent theoretical concepts. Do
the practitioners – those in the natural and social sciences – consider landmines as
environmental threats? Do they relate the socio-economic aftereffects to the
environmental impacts that many of the regions face? What about to development of the
regions? The responses for these and other questions were different for most of the
participants depending on the expertise of the practitioners and their way of describing
what they thought to be posing a greater threat.
In the conceptual basis of regional political ecology, two phases are identified for
presenting the findings – the categorization and the process phases. The ecological, socio-
economic and political factors make up the categorization phase while the
interconnections, interdependencies and implications for development comprise the
questionnaire see Appendix 4 and 5) research/experiment that was conducted by these experts.
65
process phase of the framework (Pires, 1999). The application of the conceptual
framework was slightly modified in this study and the responses, along with supporting
information from literature, were grouped into the environmental and socio-economic
dimensions of the applied conceptual framework before addressing the interrelationships
and implications on regional development. The political dimension of the framework,
that comes after the above are described, addresses the implications of the findings of this
study on management and conservation policies.
After the responses were grouped, essential measures were taken to increase
understanding and corroboration of the findings – to eliminate/reduce possible
misunderstandings between those in diverse fields or between the researcher and the
participants. The method of triangulation – a process that combines different
methodologies that can be employed in studying a phenomenon – was employed to relate
the information from the questionnaires with literature in an effort to reduce the potential
biases in the study sources, researchers and methods. This method of triangulations was
also helpful in revealing the complexities in the issue, to achieve better convergence in
data results and to introduce new perspectives on the issue/data (Creswell, 1994 and
Romsdahl, 1999).
The consolidation of the larger picture for discussions (chapter 4) and conclusion
(chapter 5) was conducted by interpreting the gathered information and triangulating it
with independent research studies. The statistical software, SPSS, was tried for different
analytical and descriptive processes but the analysis constructed no significant findings –
because of the small sample size and extensive distribution of the responses and because
there were no meaningful groups that the respondents could be grouped into. This lack of
66
significant findings does not make the research any less valid because the nature of the
research was that it was made to explore the issue from different perspectives. The fact
that there was hardly any homogeneity among the respondents (in terms of their expertise
and area of research) makes it impractical to talk about percentages of respondents that
answered a question in one way or another. The same impracticality also applies to trying
to examine relationships, measure associations in the collected data, or tests of mean –
mainly because one of the objectives of this study was to understand all the different
impacts and not the percentage of people who think one impact is more grave than the
other.
The replies to the questionnaire were grouped together and tabulated around the
research questions (by the questions in the questionnaire that addressed each research
question) and triangulated with literature from archival research. All the different
opinions, from different viewpoints and research results were considered to arrive at the
comprehensive picture of all the impacts – environmental as well as socio-economic.
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 General Statement of the Results
The participation of numerous intellectual practitioners and researchers in
different environment and landmine related fields greatly helped this study explore the
threats of landmines to humans and the natural ecosystem through land degradation. The
convergence of their knowledge and expertise, and also literature on different previous
experiments gives this study a renewed, comprehensive outlook on the environmental
effect of these weapons of mass destruction.
The participants of the study described their views on the environmental impacts
of landmines by recognizing that landmines pose danger to the environment in several
fashions, and the majority acknowledged the ability of ‘science’ to provide more in depth
insights into the problem and evaluation of the consequences. All of the participants
described their agreement on the fact that landmines cause particularly complex
phenomena of land degradation across different temporal and spatial scales, that can be
direct or indirect. The impact of landmines on land resource were recognized to vary
depending on concentration of mines in a unit area, the chemical composition and
toxicity of the mines, previous uses of the land and alternatives that are available for the
affected population (see Appendix 6).
When asked how the presence of landmines poses danger to the environment, the
participants of the study pointed out that the environmental aftermath can vary depending
on the objectives and methodological issues of the investigation. However, for the
68
purposes of this study – for examining the effects of landmines on land degradation –
they generally categorized the manifestation of the impacts as:
o Instantaneous – includes injury and/or death of flora and fauna, destruction of
soil stability from explosion,
o Immediate – on the vicinity of the incidence, for instance, in terms of
chemical contamination,
o Protracted – population spill on non-mine affected areas,
o Persistent – access denial and
o Cumulative – loss of biodiversity and productivity.
Irrespective of the shape or form it acquires, land degradation that arises due to
the existence of landmines poses a colossal threat to the sustainability of the environment
and development of a region – especially in rural areas of the developing world – and all
but three of the participants33 agree that the problem is not localized to the mined pastures
or arable lands, and the problem is of regional and international significance.
A spectrum of variables and interrelationships were identified as significant in
studying land degradation in mine-affected regions. In accordance with the perspectives
of regional political ecology – on studying land degradation as an interdisciplinary
problem – the discussions are organized into three categories as environmental, socio-
economic and political dimensions of the framework. These three categories make up the
principal points of the framework for analyzing a multi-dimensional problem. The
interrelationships between the environmental and socio-economic dimensions of the
33 The three participants that thought the problem is local stated that the immediate concerns of toxic contamination are local, but in principle agreed that the other impacts extend far beyond the immediate localities.
69
crisis and their implications on regional development are discussed before arriving at the
planning and policy making phase of the political dimension.
In accordance with the research questions that guide this study, the first question
of different forms of land degradation, is addressed in section 4.2, under sub-sections
4.2.1 and 4.2.2, while section 4.3 addresses the second research question, regarding the
after-effects, processes and interrelationships. Section 4.4 explores the implications of
these above stated impacts and their implications on sustainable regional development,
and section 4.5 discusses the quest for effective solutions by considering the current
directions and dilemmas involved and proposes strategies to lead this mission.
4.2 Categorization of Landmine Effects
4.2.1. Environmental Dimension: Effects of Landmines on Land Degradation
The participants of the study and results of archival research on how presence of
landmines in a region – whether they have detonated or not – constitutes a major
environmental problem were found to concur. The impacts of landmines on soil, flora,
fauna and their interrelationships, and how the impacts are felt at different levels to result
in severe and catastrophic stresses on the ecological system was discussed from varying
viewpoints, and it makes it clear that the impacts of landmines on land are particularly
stern on the quality of the land and its productivity. The productive ability of the land
resource is negatively altered by adverse conditions of abandonment, exposure,
explosion, mismanagement and pollution. Land degradation can also transpire indirectly
from activities that people do or adaptations that they learn/make in order to avoid areas
that are mined.
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In accordance with the findings of this study the different ways in which
landmines cause land degradation are broadly classified into five groups as access denial,
micro-relief disruption, chemical contamination, loss of biodiversity and loss of
productivity.
A. Access denial
The presence (or fear of) landmines in an area to render land off-limits and restrict
access to resources that are pivotal for subsistence and conservation activities was a
common in the response of every one of the participants. All of them agree that the most
serious environmental problem associated with landmines is access denial. Landmines
are planted to prevent people from entering a region – to secure roads, paths, military
camps and others. For their military purpose, landmines guarantee that people and their
movements are channeled away from strategically significant sites, and they also prevent
military garrisons from incursion (Millard 2000). If landmines were laid only on front
lines, the world would not be suffering as much from the atrocious effects they leave
behind. The use of landmines is not by any means confined to military establishments or
sites of military significance.
As was clearly evident from the observations of the participants in this study,
landmines are used in large quantities around arable lands (to give some examples:
Lebanon, Angola, Mozambique, Cambodia), pasturelands (Kuwait, Iraq), forests
(Nicaragua and the demilitarized zone between North and South Korea), Coastal areas
(Kuwait, Egypt), borders and nearby population centers (Vietnam, Zimbabwe, Eritrea and
Ethiopia), residential areas (Kosovo), and water sources and irrigation systems in many
more countries. Landmines deny the inhabitant population access to land that they
71
desperately need for agriculture and related survival and development purposes, water
supply or conservation measures, and for technical teams engaged in pest control.
As was described by one of the participants and as she has written before, the fear of
presence of a single landmine can put an entire field out of cultivation and present a
hindrance for food production and/or sufficiency in a region (Troll, 2000). This access
denial can result in unemployment, loss of income and poverty. When landmines restrict
access to arable or pastoral lands, the people who depended on those lands are pushed to
use marginal lands/resources, or move into refugee camps or urban centers depending on
the availability of alternatives.
One senior researcher for the International Peace Research Institute – Oslo stated: by
denying access to land, landmines promote rapid and unsustainable exploitation of
resources and environment of non-mined areas by subsistence communities that lack
other economic reserves to endure hard times. When people move to ecologically fragile,
marginal lands, they exploit them and advance the land’s degradation even further
(Harpviken 2000, and Gray, 1997).
Practitioners from the Center for Environmental Law and Economic Integration in the
South and the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research expressed strong
concerns with how the declining availability of land increases the need for practicing
more intensive agricultural production systems, that include application of mechanical,
chemical or biological supplements for production on the available land or continuous
cultivation with no fallow periods.
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These practices could endanger the health of the soil when:
o Continuous cultivation with no fallow more rapidly exhausts the mineral nutrient
levels of the land – the land does not get a chance to renew, restock its mineral
constituents to past levels because the minerals are being tapped non-stop;
o Mechanical production systems, for instance the use of tractors – frequent tillage
or other mechanical planting means can either expose the soil surface to erosion
or crusting and sealing.
o The use of biochemical supplements, fertilizers or pesticides – accumulate excess
nutrients and contaminants accumulate in the ecosystem
A couple of participants addressed the issue of how restriction of access to land and
other resources due to landmines can have ‘positive’ effects when the mined areas
become no-man’s land - no anthropological interference – and the flora and fauna get a
chance to flourish and recover (Troll, 2000). Enhancement of environmental qualities –
recovery and improvement of natural resources – can result when anthropological
interference with land is limited. Formerly arable- and pasturelands in Nicaragua were
turned into forest and forests remained undisturbed after the introduction of landmines.
However, these benefits would only be realized as long as animals or tree roots do not
detonate landmines. In addition, in land of lesser qualities, if land is left fallow for long
periods of time without proper management practices, it can suffer loss of productivity –
salinization and/or over drying from water logging, by processes of evapotranspiration,
erosion, and compaction.
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B. Micro-relief disruption
Soil structure34 is one of the most essential characteristics of soil – in terms of its
appropriateness for plant growth and inherent erodibility35 (Goudie, 1994). The
participants of the study identified landmine detonation as having the capacity to cause
irremediable damage to the soils’ stability by shattering the soil structure, compaction,
displacement of soil and increasing the susceptibility of soil to erosion (Gray, 1997).
Gray identified landmine explosions as having the ability to undermine productivity
of the land spectacularly by destroying the fertile topsoil horizons O and A. The O-
horizon (organic) and A-horizon (the layer underlying the organic O-horizon,) have
relatively higher levels of organic matter and are more fertile that the lower horizons (E,
B, C, and R)36. The O and A soil horizons are fundamental to plant growth, biological
diversity and hydrological processes at the periphery between the soil and the atmosphere
(Brady and Weil, 1999).
When an emblematic 250-gram antipersonnel landmine detonates, it can create a
crater with a diameter of approximately 30-centimeters – this could be more depending
on the type and composition of the explosive37 and how many landmines detonate in the
vicinity. The explosion was described by nine of the participants as having the capacity to
cause or increase soil erosion – removal and displacement of topsoil (Troll, 2000) – while
34 Soil structure is the manner in which primary soil particles - sand, silt and clay – are arranged together into secondary particles, units or peds to form the profile of the soil (Brady and Weil, 1999). 35 Soil erodibility is the inherent susceptibility of soil to erosion (Brady and Weil, 1999). 36 Soils are characterized by sequence of horizons that include: O – slightly to highly decomposed organic matter from plant residues A – humus enriched mineral soil E – horizon of maximum eluviation of Silicates, Iron and Aluminum Oxides; also known as the leached zone B –layers of maximum accumulation of Iron and Aluminum oxides from illuviation, horizon of soil structure development C – loose substratum, zone of least weathering, and R – the bedrock layers (Brady and Weil, 1999, and Harpstead et al., 1988).
74
forming a raised circumference around the crater; at the same time most of the
surrounding soil is compacted into the sides. The crater can develop into a stable element
of the landscape when runoff or wind erosion washes-off soil to the bottom of the crater.
In humid, wet periods the crater may hold water, turn into a marsh and serve as breeding
ground for mosquitoes (UNGA, 1983). The extent of the impact can vary depending on
the physical conditions of the soil; the impact is greater in dry, loosely compacted and
exposed desert soils but is less severe in humid soils that have vegetation or physical
protection.
When soil is compacted due to external forces, its resistance to penetration by plant
roots and emerging seedlings increases. Moreover, compaction influences the exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the root zone of plants and the atmosphere, and
the rate of water infiltration into the soil. A decrease in the amount of water that
infiltrates into the soil changes the moisture content of the soil and contributes to
increasing surface runoff and soil erosion (Goudie, 1994).
Five participants mentioned the adverse environmental impacts of the practices of
demining. One participant particularly addressed the issue of using the method of
detonation that affects the soil’s biochemical and physical qualities. A particularly
harmful practice reported from after the Gulf War is the use of fuel-explosive bombs38
that push heavy shock waves into the ground to cause the detonation of landmines that
may exist in a parcel of land (Troll, 2000). The wave that is created is so heavy that soil,
flora and fauna in the vicinity are adversely affected.
37 The detonation of a 250kg explosive can produce a crater 8m across and 4m deep (UNGA, 1983). 38 Fuel explosive bombs are fuel filled bombs that are dropped from the sky. When the bombs are ignited they start burning and exploding rapidly to create particularly heavy shock waves. When the wave is
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Two participants addressed the use of fires or slash-and-burn practices in
demining. As can be understood from studies in soil composition and properties, when
fires are used to clear vegetation or as a means of detonation they leave undesirable
changes in the properties of the soil – altering the amount, form and distribution of plant
nutrients in the land. During burning, the temperature of soil increases causing the humus
content of the soil to be lost at a faster rate than it can be formed. Nutrients are lost from
the soil environment by volatilization into the atmosphere and convective transfer of ash,
or when ash is lost from the soil due to water or wind erosion. Burning also causes rapid
than normal phenomena of biological decay. Some not so readily available nutrients –
like Phosphorous (P), Magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K), and Calcium (Ca) – are
converted into forms that can be consumed by plants. When a forest-covered land is set
on fire, the pH of soil increases by approximately three units and creates alkaline
conditions in previously acidic soils. In addition, burning removes the protective
vegetative cover of soils and exposes the soil to the forces of erosion, wind or water
(Goudie, 1994).
Deterioration in soil structure from explosion or compaction can be a slow and
less-noticed progression, but it results in long-term changes that have extensive impacts
on the productivity of the land – land will be more susceptible to erosion, infiltration
capacity of the soil will be affected, and the compaction can make it harder to work on
the soil (Davies et al., 1993).
pushed into the ground its enormous pressure causes landmines that are buried in the ground to detonate (Troll 2000).
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C. Chemical contamination
Although the most obvious, vital function of soil in the biosphere – as far as
human beings are concerned – is its productivity, it also serves as a geochemical sink for
chemical contaminants. In addition, the soil serves another important role of acting as a
natural buffer – to control the exchange of elements between the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and biota (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1992). Although our present
knowledge of contaminants is not complete, and the effects of different contaminants can
vary depending on the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil, it is important to
discuss the issue as it relates to landmines in order to be able to complete the picture of
environmental impacts associated with mines.
Chemical contamination of landmines was mentioned by three-fourth of the
participants, while the fact that mines – after detonation – constitute non-biodegradable
waste was not addressed by any of them. Depending on density of mining per unit area,
the type and composition of the mine, and the length, amount and degree of exposure of
resources to them, landmines pose serious pollutions concerns. While addressing similar
concerns, Gray (1997, pp.3) asserted that mines pollute land with “non-biodegradable
toxic garbage” and the introduction of harmful contaminants to the environment. After
conflicts, many regions are left with a huge bulk of exploded and unexploded ordinances
that adversely affect the aesthetic quality of the area and pollute it with toxic
contaminants.
Landmines are commonly made of metal, timber or plastic casing and are composed
of “2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX or
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Cyclonite)or tetryl as high explosive filters” (Gray, 1997, pp5). When the metal casing
rusts or decays they release heavy metals into the soil.
These organic substances and the compounds that are derived from the explosives are
long lasting, water-soluble, and very toxic even in small amounts; they directly
contaminate soil, water bodies, microorganisms and plants. The compounds can leach
into subterranean waters and can accumulate in the organs of fish and in organic systems
of plants. Their effects can be mortal to some mammals and aquatic macro- and micro-
organisms – the compounds can act as a nerve poison to hamper growth and serve as a rat
killer (Organization of American States, 1999 and Troll, 2000).
Living things can consume the contamination with their drinking water, food products
or during respiration39. The Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have voiced serious concerns on the
effects of TNT or 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene on the health of the environment and specifically
on human health. In laboratory experiments with rats, these compounds were found to be
carcinogenic causing tumors in the urinary bladder, develop serious levels of mutation in
male reproductive systems, intoxication of chronically vital organs, and skin irritation,
and can affect the immunological systems. There have also been claims that 2,4,6-
trinitrotoluene can cause congenital defects in human beings (Organization of American
States 1999).
Other than TNT, RDX or tetryl, landmines also contain additional elements
including Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Cd),
39 Consumption of the contaminants is most common during and in the place of manufacture of explosives (Organization of American States 1999).
78
Nickel(Ni), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg)40 (Orehovec et al., 1998). These
alloying heavy metals can be transported from soil – through water, plants or other means
– to enter into the food chain of many living things and cause harm (Troll, 2000).
Soil contamination with these heavy metals is observed in the surrounding, covering
up to 6 kms of diameter around the site of the explosion (table 4.1).
Table 4.1 Average heavy metal concentrations after landmine detonation.
Element
Symbol
Average content surrounding the explosion
site Mercury Hg 101 ug kg-1 Cadminum Cd 0.45 mg kg-1 Chromium Cr 23 mg kg-1 Manganese Mn 888 mg kg-1 Nickel Ni 35 mg kg-1 Lead Pb 27 mg kg-1
(Source:Orehovec et al, 1998).
An even higher concentration of the heavy metals is found at the center of the
explosion (see table 4.2) – the site where the mine was placed and the soil churned up.
40 Iron, Manganese, Zinc, and Copper are among the micronutrients in the soil – essential elements needed in very small quantities for plant growth (Hassett and Banwart 1992).
79
Table 4.2 Average heavy metal concentrations at the center of the explosion after landmine detonation.
Element
Symbol Average content the center
of the explosion Mercury Hg 280 ug kg-1 Cadminum Cd 2.22 mg kg-1 Chromium Cr 54 mg kg-1 Manganese Mn 559 mg kg-1 Nickel Ni 35 mg kg-1 Lead Pb 145 mg kg-1
(Source: Orehovec et al, 1998).
Depending on the pH level of the soil, the highest safe limits of concentration of the
metals in the soil should be less than 200-450 parts per million (ppm) for Zinc, 80-200-
ppm for Copper, 300-ppm for Lead and 1-ppm for Mercury (Aubert and Pinta, 1977 and
Davies et al., 1993). Metals are strongly absorbed by humus and lower textured clay
soils; they do not leach to lower soil horizons, and once soil is polluted with metals it stay
sos ad infinitum.
Specific contaminants have unique consequences – the effects of particular
contaminant levels of the elements depends on many complex factors of reaction between
their cations and the different phases of the soil – the solid, liquid and gaseous (Kabata-
Pendias and Pendias, 1992). When the level of contamination with these metals is high
enough, it can be very poisonous to plants and animals and reduce the yield of plants.
Lead exhibits the phenomenon known as continuum of toxicity, meaning it can be
harmful even at very small amounts, and its effects rise with increasing concentration – it
can result in kidney damage, sterility, miscarriage, and birth defects. High levels of
mercury can result in neurological disorder, manifested as lack of coordination and
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difficulty with vision, hearing and swallowing. In addition, cadmium can cause kidney
failure and osteomalacia – softening of bones and multiple bone fractures41.
D. Loss of biodiversity
Landmines can cause or hasten loss of biodiversity in a region by destroying
vegetation cover during explosion or demining and deforestation for survival, and when
myriad animals fall victims.
The impact of landmines on different animal populations was discussed by all the
participants and was considered to be a foremost environmental concern, next to access
denial. Although it is widely believed and observed that landmines kill untold number of
animals every year, this is unfortunately one of the areas where there is close to nothing
data to determine how many species or where and how they fall victim to landmines. The
very little data that is collected on the impact of landmines on animal populations –
endangered, threatened or neither – is predominantly concerned with domesticated
animal and little is known about the impacts suffered by wild animals. One of the
startling indications of landmine effects on biodiversity was recorded in the last decade,
when almost four per cent of the very rare European brown bears were killed due to
landmines in Croatia in the period between 1991 and 1994 alone (Troll, 2000). One
participant of the study thought that the vanishing of predators and/or prey, destruction
their habitat and obliterating the food chains that is caused by the presence and
aftereffects of landmines can cause disturbances in the delicately balanced ecological
system of endangered or threatened species (Troll, 2000).
41 For more detailed discussion on the effect of toxic metal contaminants, refer to Nadakavukaren (1995), Pendias and Pendias (1992) or Aubert and Pinta (1977).
81
Although it doesn’t tell much about the loss of biodiversity, some recorded examples
on the carnage of animals from landmines include – the numbers only represent a fraction
of the reality – that more than 50 per cent of Afghanistan’s livestock have been victims of
landmines (Troll, 2000), and more than 125,000 camels, sheep, goats and cattle have
been killed in Libya from 1940-1980 (Gray, 1997).
There is a recurring concurrence that most of the “biodiversity hotspots”42 (Nachón,
2000, pp.10) of the world are also severely affected by landmines – exacerbating the
effect of landmines in loss of biodiversity. Nachón referred to biodiversity data from the
World Conservation Monitoring Center and identified a large number of species that are
threatened or endangered due to many factors, including the presence of landmines (See
table 4.3) in their habitat or migratory paths.
Table 4.3. Species of living things facing risk endangerment.
Species Diversity Country No. Species Found No. Species at Risk
Vietnam Angola Afghanistan Somalia Cambodia Mozambique
9494+ 766+ 5076+ 4568+
? 6835+
434 125 53 80 62 28
(Source: Nachón, 2000).
Landmines have also been known to be used as a technique for poaching endangered
species of wildlife; like poaching tigers in Burma; one bowl of tiger penis soup, a claimed
aphrodisiac delicacy, costs around US$500.00 in Japan (Nachón, 2000).
42 Nachón (2000) uses the term ‘biodiversity hotspots’ to represent countries that are believed to have a large diversity of biological species within their borders.
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The killing of animals affects maintenance of species and the lives of rural
populations. Landmines are accused of posing an extra burden for threatened and
endangered species, pushing various species to the brinks of extinction – including the
elephants in Africa and Sri Lanka and leopards in Afghanistan. Mines have killed one of
the very few remaining mature, male silver-backed mountain gorillas in Rwanda and
eradicated gazelles from Libya (Robert and Williams 1995, and Gray, 1997).
Refugees and internally displaced people also contribute to loss of biodiversity when
they hunt the animals for food or when they destroy their habitat in order to make shelters
for themselves (Troll, 2000). The impact of killed and lost animals to the subsistence of
poor rural populations is aggravated by the fact that they usually are very important, if
not the only, means of survival and continuation. Sometimes, especially for the nomadic
populations in the low lands of the horn of Africa and the Middle East, herding of these
and other animals for dairy, meat, leather products or subsistence farming activities
makes them worth a lot. When these animal populations are the basis for livelihood
and/or economic commodities for the populations, the loss of animals can challenge local
economies.
Another impact of landmines on animals, as one participant in the study pointed out,
is the use of dogs, sheep, cattle and other domesticated animals for mine clearance
purposes. These animals are let loose in minefields as easy and fast means of mine
clearance. If these practices continue to be employed, human populations being spared at
the expense of these animals, there is no telling what kind of impact it would have on the
viability and diversity of their populations.
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Moreover, in regions where arable and pastoral activities turn out to be impossible
due to landmines, participants of the study indicated cases where forests become the last
resort for food, fuelwood and shelter. Valuable forest products are exploited by the
affected population for their new livelihood – the products of the forests, including fruits
and timber – from previously avoided sensitive, lesser quality and/or endangered
ecosystems. Deforestation can affect soil and drainage systems, water tables, coastal
mangroves and dune systems (Roberts and Williams, 1995). Landmines can also cause
slow-death of trees when trees sustain shrapnel injuries or abrasions on their bark or roots
when fragmentation mines detonate, providing an entry site for wood-rotting fungi. The
plant loses strength to combat high-speed winds and rots till it eventually expires (Troll,
2000), or wood destined for lumber becomes unsafe and troublesome with metals
imbedded in it (Westing, 1996a).
Demining operations demand clearing all the vegetative covers of land, including
forests from mine-suspected areas, usually by using fires. Such activities require clearing
of the associated litter that plays imperative roles in infiltration, protecting soil from
erosion and the impact of rain drops, and providing organic matter to bind soil particles
with each other to form a stable structure (Goudie, 1994). Destruction of vegetation cover
by landmines, coupled with deforestation and poor land management practices, can have
cumulative43 effects of interrupting local hydrological conditions of the soil – of
hardening the upper soil layers reducing water infiltration (Misak 1999) and thereby
reducing the moisture retention capacity of the soil, causing flooding and movement of
top soil, especially from relatively high slope areas. The topsoil that is vulnerable to
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erosion is transported with runoff to increase sediment load of drainage systems – this
can negatively affect fish and prawn populations (Gray, 1997).
E. Loss of productivity
In different ways, all of the participants of the study indicated that loss of productivity
of the land is a prominent problem in mine-affected regions. Land degradation from the
introduction of landmines results in a downward spiral of both soil and vegetation, where
simultaneous degradation of both the soil and vegetation forms a feedback loop where
slight degradation of soil and vegetation over time develops into extreme, to result in
pollution, low productivity and poverty (Brady and Weil 1999). As can be seen in the
modification of Brady and Weil’s illustration of increasing degradation (figure 4.1) the
low availability of land (access denial), degradation of the soil (micro-relief disruption),
combined with chemical contamination of land and loss of flora and fauna diversity all
contribute to decreased productivity of previously productive land.
43 The term cumulative effects is used to describe impacts that are compounded with each occurring impact and passing time – these are not just additive impacts or neither just those that are felt in the immediate locality.
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Figure 4.1: Increasing land degradation over time44.
Participants of the study blame landmines for being partly responsible for decreased
agricultural productivity and lowered food security in mine affected countries. As
agricultural and other significant lands are taken out of production, the socio-economic
state of affairs of the segments of population that were once self-sufficient suffers
Slight vegetativeSlight soil
Moderate soil Moderate vegetative
Severe soil Severe vegetative
Extreme vegetativeExtreme soil
Desertification, low nutrient availability
Loss of biodiversity –flora and
Reduced land
Devegetation
Pollution
Low productivity
Poverty, food insecurity and
Chemical contaminati
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(UNGA, 1994); in the absence of landmines the productivity in Afghanistan could
increase by 88-200 per cent, 135 per cent in Cambodia, 11 per cent in Bosnia and 3.6 per
cent in Mozambique (Troll, 2000).
As the participant from the International Peace Research Institute – Oslo pointed out
in the author’s communication with her and in her previous works, when people can’t get
access to their land resources because it is no longer safe to enter, they become
unemployed and wait for aid, or they are forced to make ends meet with the little land
they can get. They tend to practice intensive agriculture on the limited available lands or
move to marginal areas and cause depletion of soil nutrients. Continuous cultivation on
the available land could make the soil susceptible to forces of erosion thus making the
land resource approach, reach or surpass its carrying capacity.
Demining techniques also have undesirable environmental consequences that lower
the productivity of land. The mine action techniques require removal of vegetative layers
protecting soil to be removed, by clear cutting or burning. The techniques expose land to
different agents that can result in soil compaction and/or contamination. The fuel-air
explosive bombs and other demining techniques that employ detonation destroy soil
stability and pulverize natural ecological communities of different flora and fauna, to
render the environment vulnerable to agents of erosion. The land’s productive capacity
declines to the point of non-existence.
44 Figure is a modification of the model developed by Brady and Weil’s (1999),by the author.
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4.2.2 Socio-Economic Dimension: Effects of Land Degradation on Society
Societies suffer as a result of land degradation that is caused by the introduction
of landmines, including living with constant risk, injury, loss of income, poverty, famine
and malnutrition, migration, and humanitarian aid. Landmines pose a continuous threat to
societies and prevent them from earning and leading normal lives.
In peacetime, 100 per cent of landmine victims are civilians (McGrath, 1994). Large
portions of landmine victims are adult men that are the productive forces – bread-earners
and heads of households. When they are hurt or killed there may be no income-
generation, leaving families that depended on them to look for humanitarian assistance in
order to survive.
Farmers, nomads, herders, and returning refugees and internally displaced persons are
identified in this study as being the segments of society that are exposed to the danger of
landmines when the only choices they have are to take no risk and starve or to risk death
in trying to survive. They are forced to employ their own means of risk assessment that is
mostly based on rumors or local knowledge. Children also face a particular risk because
of their limited vision of the ground ahead and because they have a tendency to mistake
landmines for toys45. Moreover, fear of mine dangers inhibits effective control of locust
and other outbreaks; it also affects local communities by scaring away tourism and other
economic means of incomes (Hanevik, 1998).
Declining availability of land and decreased productivity of the available lands can
create social problems of marginalization of the poor, women and/or minorities. The
45 Although there is no evidence that anti-personnel mines have deliberately been made to resemble toys or other everyday objects, there is some evidence that soldiers, and maybe even units have booby-trapped children’s toys and household objects. Some mines, for example the Soviet made PFM-1 that for technical reasons is made to resemble a butterfly, do also have a special attraction for children (McGrath 1994).
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poor, women and minorities would be at a particular disadvantage in acquiring land as
competition increases, with growing scarcity. The haves and the powerful could benefit
from their soaring buying powers or poor government policies that don’t have the
capacity to enforce equity (Mehra, 1995).
Unfortunately, the nations that are being faced with the most severe landmine related
land degradation are among the least developed and poorer nations of the world; their
flimsy financial systems are susceptible to devastation. Landmines and their impacts are
added burdens to their already over-taxed economies and over-stretched resource bases.
Funds are diverted away from development; they have to take care of very large health
bills for victims while at the same time struggling to feed starving people and trying to
make available basic needs.
Demining operations are time-consuming, expensive and dangerous. The current
perspectives of Humanitarian Mine Action (HMA) don’t include a long-term integrated
approach that can promote sustainable development (HRW, 1999). Moreover, HMA
programs are usually under-funded, or funded in a fragmented manner (NPA, 1999).
When the land becomes off-limits or disrupted or when its productivity decreases due
to landmines, many rural, subsistence populations are forced to live with aid from
different humanitarian institutions (Harpviken, 2000). International aid for landmine
assistance is critical, but when it is ineffectively handled it has the capacity to
inadvertently undermine local strengths, endorse aid dependency and, when aid resources
are misused it has tremendous potential to cause more impairment than good (Anderson,
1999; and Harpviken and Millard, 1999).
89
Mine clearance operations can become important contributors to local economies
where people find it difficult to live without these operations. Fear of returning to
previously mined areas and an unhealthy dose of aid dependency have created problems
of underreporting in Mozambique, in an effort by the population to delay the departure of
demining teams from the area (Millard, 2000). Some demined communities have also
been accused of laying new mines in order to attract other mine action programs to their
areas (Harpviken, 1999b).
In view of the escalating donor tiredness, it is vital to look at local/indigenous
knowledge as a source of effective incremental policies (Murtaza, 1998). There is a need
to provide systematic demining and development activities and give local populations
chance to take part in them (Harpviken, 1999d).
Mine action could be doomed to fail if it doesn’t consider the knowledge and views
of the affected local communities. In addition, mine action programs need to consider the
variation of impacts and potential solutions from one region to another (Harpviken,
1999a).
Local populations are invaluable to mine action programs because they usually
develop ingenious economic adaptations and important coping mechanisms of their own
– fencing and posting warnings around minefields, serving as counselors and informal
information channels, and helping with resettlement of affected people. Because local
communities sometimes carry out indigenous mine action by their local capacities, when
there is a delay in organized demining operations or when they can’t be funded, they can
provide invaluable contributions to demining teams. In addition, when local communities
are involved in mine action and development efforts – instead of being treated as the
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voiceless victims – they may develop a sense of ownership that can increase the success
and sustainability of the programs (Harpviken et al.,1999).
4.3 Interrelationships in the Landmines-Environment Nexus
The discussions so far in this chapter illustrate the extent of environmental damage
land resources suffer from landmines and how those affect the socio-economic living
condition of people in the region. This section examines the interrelationships between
those environmental and socio-economic variables by treating them as subsystems of a
larger whole – a comprehensive system where all the interactions take place. This part of
the study follows the process phase of the regional political ecology framework and
endeavors to systemically consolidate the different variables that were identified from the
survey and archival research. In this phase of the conceptual framework the
interconnections, interdependencies and implications for development are addressed in
order to foster a better understanding of the affected environment, by recognizing how
one can affect another, and in order to demonstrate how the cumulative effects through
time can interfere with sustainable regional development (discussed in section 4.2).
Humans and the environment have an intrinsically ecological relationship (Gray,
1997), where different activities in nature are linked to any number of other activities at
varying levels. A single activity in this bionetwork can sway others by influencing the
physical setting where the other activities take place or by affecting the physical
availability of resources (UNEP, 1976).
At this point in the study it is very important to remember that the landmine crisis is
only one of many problems in the developing world, and it operates in close interplay
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with other factors that are also important in human-environment relationships (Harpviken
and Millard, 1999). Even without the additional burden of landmines, 70,000 square
kilometers of farmland, which is mostly in the developing world, are abandoned because
of environmentally degrading factors of agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing and others
(Mehra, 1995).
Narrating the rhetoric of how environment and development are particularly
interweaved in a cause and effect chain (Ramphal, 1990) becomes particularly necessary.
This chain puts landmines, environmental degradation and underdevelopment in a
triangular relationship (Suliman, 1999), where each angle has a causal impact on the
others (see figure 4.2).
The triangular representation in figure 4.3 demonstrates how difficult and
complicated environmental (also individual and socio-economic) effects of landmines
can be. It is meant to show how the variables in the different corners of the triangle are
related to each other, and the impacts one can have on the other to pull people and the
environment into a vicious cycle of destruction.
By conveying destruction of soil’s stability, and the resulting compaction, sealing,
abandonment, devegetation, by altering the biochemical composition of the soil medium,
by affecting biodiversity and by delaying management and peace efforts, landmines result
in degradation of the environment. In addition to putting people in great danger, this
degradation also interferes with development of regions by creating different socio-
economic problems for the affected population – loss of income, poverty, migration, and
social marginalization. When this happens many regions receive international aid from
different humanitarian agencies for demining and rehabilitation. Although the intentions
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and conditions of aid provision are not being questioned here, many times we observe
that aid that comes to save the people has the potential to create more problems of
underdevelopment – as aid provision, usually when it is provided in certain ways that fail
to consider the real causes of the problem and the needs of the society – and has the effect
of fostering aid dependency. Underdevelopment results in the simultaneous degradation
of societies and their natural resources. Natural reserves are exploited at a faster rate than
they can renew themselves and marginal resources – that were previously avoided for
being inferior to the resources that they managed or because they were sensitive – are
degraded by populations that try to survive with what is available. These environmental
and related socio-economic hardships can lead populations to more conflict over the
scarce resources and, in extreme situations, has been suspected to drive populations to
mine cleared areas in order to attract aid (this issue is discussed in detail in the political
dimension of the conceptual framework, section 4.3).
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Figure 4.2: Triangular relationship between landmines, environmental degradation and underdevelopment.
Politico-military, environmental, and socio-economic problems caused by landmines
are also interrelated (Gray, 1997). The many environmental and socio-economic impacts
of landmines have the capacity to cause acute resource scarcity that can drive people to
LANDMINESDestruction of soil stability Soil erosion Pollution Abandonment Devegetation Soil nutrient availability Soil compaction and sealing Continuous militarization D l f ff tSoil
Flora Fauna
Socio-economic hardship
Exploitation of natural reserves Degradation of marginal resources Aid dependency
DEGRADATION UNDER DEVELOPMEN
Living with constant riskLoss of income Poverty Famine and malnutrition Migration Societal marginalization Humanitarian aid
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desperate actions for survival that may cause long-term, or even permanent, damage to
the environment that they live in (UNEP, 1976).
Poverty is a prominent cause of environmental degradation. When day-to-day
survival becomes crucial, communities have little luxury to think for the long-term; they
are pushed to think and live for the short-term. When communities are left with few
options, they are pushed into using, and abusing, marginal and very sensitive lands, and
thereby accelerating the resources’ degradation. By denying communities freedom of
movement and access to their natural and economic resources, and destroying the
environment, landmines create particularly brutal and exacerbated ecological and socio-
economic problems. What would individually be considered as rational behaviors and
actions of people that make sense for those on the brink of survival; bring about a
collective boisterousness – tragedy for the commons46. This problem does not arise
because of ignorance or stupidity, but rather because circular processes of desperation
and lack of choices lead to abandonment of rational, sound practices of resource use and
management (Ramphal, 1990).
After explosions, landmines degrade land and render it unusable for years and
generations to come (Gray, 1997). Especially in the developing world where the stakes
are much higher for food and survival (Paarlberg, 1994), landmines can limit land to
bring harsh and lethal consequences; people are pushed to take risks, migrate or exploit
what little is left in their very sensitive environment.
In most cases, land users/managers are aware of the inherent abilities and constraints
of their land, and they develop systems of use that minimize the problems associated with
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the quality of their land and changes due to variation in climatic or other conditions.
When these populations are forced to move to other areas, with varying qualities and
constraints, their traditional resource-management systems can prove to be unsuitable or
inadequate leading to inappropriate land use practices of excessively intensive47
cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation in the mine-free lands (Kibreab 1996). Refugee
populations usually have the dream of returning home and the settlement areas are
perceived as temporary; they usually strive to make the best out of the time they stay
there, and they don’t think about long-term investments or effects - in more than a few
instances these places continue to be the only homes they can get/afford.
The killing of fauna and destruction of their habitat threaten ecological stability and
can drive populations to extinction. The mostly unmarked landmines leave populations
crippled and in fear; they hamper rehabilitation and post-conflict reconstruction. Changes
brought about due to the introduction of landmines can have detrimental impacts on local
development when they permanently affect human or animal populations. When
landmines prevent populations from returning to their previous lands after displacement,
and when they cause damage to the soil, they acutely interfere with ecological
sustainability. In addition, these undesirable changes can have an effect on animal
populations; for example, minefields on migratory paths of some terrestrial animals can
cause death or injury to the animals. After a large number of elephants perished in the
minefield of Southeast Asia, others learned to avoid that area, instead moving into
46 ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ was a term used by Microbiologist Garrett Hardin in 1968 to describe the exploitation of common pool resources (commons) resulting when their common ownership makes unlimited exploitation rational (Hardin 1968) 47 Intensive cultivation refers to excessive cultivation; too frequent cropping without allowing time for fallowing, or rotation. It indicates excessive use of fertilizers, or baring land through overgrazing or removal of crop residues that could improve the quality of soil and availability of nutrients by decaying and protection from the impacts of raindrops (Kibreab 1996).
96
agricultural areas they previously avoided – causing crop damage in their newly acquired
migratory paths, which has also led to local people hunting the animals to prevent further
damage.
It is important to note that the changes that are being brought about by landmines,
like many human impacts to the environment, are irreversible; when the soil is eroded
from an area and when species of plants and animals are being driven to extinction, there
is little that can be done to reverse the situation and save them. Even in those cases where
the change might not be completely irreversible, after disruption of soil stability and
destruction of vegetative covers, it takes a very long time for the land to regain its
inherent qualities.
4.4 Implications for Regional Development: Development With Landmines
and in the Aftermath
Development as a concept is multidimensional, encompassing environmental,
economic, social, cultural, and political aspects of nature’s inhabitants. Development
aspires to achieve betterment while intelligently utilizing available resources (UNEP
1976). The relationship between environment and development is two-way, in which one
has the ability to influence the other.
Landmines change the natural environment in so many ways and make it hard, if
not entirely impossible, for societies to achieve development that they could have
attained without that threat. Regardless of who laid the mines and for what purpose they
were planted, landmines promise to be impediments to development for a long time to
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come. And to make matters worse, the options and alternatives for landmine affected,
war-ravaged populations in the developing world are extremely limited (Suliman, 1999).
Land degradation can affect regional development at many varying levels. By
shattering the capacity of the environment to provide needed raw materials for
development (Troll, 2000), landmines have become prominent contributors to
impoverishment of societies and underdevelopment. Landmine presence and fear and/or
impacts of mines can destroy the basis for development in mine-affected countries by
endangering people and livestock, and impeding use and progress of land and
infrastructures respectively (Westing, 1985). Landmines become great impediments to
the sustainable development of the local economy when many aspects of local
development, including the construction of roads, power lines, and irrigation systems,
become equally hampered (Westing, 1996a). Landmines also divert development efforts
– money and resources that could have been used for development efforts – for demining,
and humanitarian aid for affected populations, in order to deal with the crisis. By the
above means landmines create poverty, unemployment, high cost of scarce and needed
products and migration, and prevent the delivery of services – peace efforts, health care
and municipal services – that are important for societies’ livelihood.
The assault of landmines on the environment and efforts for sustainable
development of developing countries is particularly severe because most of the affected
regions are ill equipped to deal with the threat (Kibreab, 1996). In the developing world,
environmental degradation has been observed to be both the cause and consequence of
conflicts – environmental management is pivotal to ending conflicts and to ensuring
sustainable development (Ghebremedhin et al., 1989). Large tracts of land are mined in
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many struggling nations, with 8.9% of the arable land of Libya (Nachón, 2000) and 5 %
of the entire land area of Eritrea (Ghebremedhin 1997) mined at one time or another and
off-limits for production.
Although specific reasons can vary from one country to another, impacts of land
degradation on development in many developing countries is generally exacerbated by
factors including:
o There are more mines but less means and resources for demining,
o The economy is largely dependent on agriculture and other subsistence
practices, and the mines are laid on the lands necessary for these activities,
o Increased need and competition for use of the available resources leads to
even faster degradation,
o Development practices do not properly include the lands’ capability and other
environmental considerations,
o There are conflicts [social or other] over limited resources.
In order to deal with the environmental impacts of landmines in a regional
political ecology and development context we need a complex organizational architecture
that includes demining, humanitarian assistance, ecologically-based environmental
management and long-term comprehensive plans that incorporate sustainable resource
development. Comprehensive planning is a critical necessity in landmine-affected areas,
because the reality of those areas is made more complex through fear and near total
destruction of their natural resources and economies. Forgetting the environment in
landmine assistance policies can be an error that can undermine sustainable development
(Troll, 2000).
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Sustainable development in landmine-affected regions is unattainable unless we
are able to look beyond the personal harm and emotional trauma and recognize the extent
of the crisis. In order to plan for sustainable development, we must be able to clearly
identify and understand the impacts. Comprehension of the complex factors, their
linkages and interconnections in different resource systems – bio-physical, socio-
economic and political – is critical to the success of policies intended to achieve
sustainable development. (Smith-Sreen, 1992) In cases where the important interaction
between mine action and development were neglected, and when there is a lack of
coordination between different agencies or institutions that govern development, the
immediate and long-term impacts of landmines can be very detrimental (Harpviken et al.,
1999).
4.5. Political Dimension: Implications on Management and Conservation
Policies
After discussing the environmental and social impacts of landmines on land
degradation and addressing the interrelationships to determine how they affect
sustainable regional development, this section of the research addresses the fourth
research question regarding the quest for effective solutions that can alleviate the
environmental problems caused by landmines. This section considers the processes of
developing alternative management and conservation policies, including constraints that
can arise and the significance of well-informed and inclusive decision-making processes.
Many of the problems in the developing world, including the landmine crisis, need
the gathering and analysis of data and indigenous knowledge regarding ecosystems,
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resources’ quality and availability of land, and other attributes of the environment in the
search for effective policies, during the planning processes and making policies for
development. Such information is essential in order to prevent unsustainable exploitation
of resources, and in understanding the dynamics between appropriate lands and proposed
uses (Nelson and Knight, 1985).
Landmines represent a fundamental obstacle to development in war-devastated
regions; they pose long-lasting problems for the environment and sustainable
development. As a result of factors including their enduring legacy, their destructive
environmental impacts, their long lifespan and because when people live with landmines
they are living with constant risk, there is a critical need for special policies to deal with
the crisis in a larger developmental context (Harpviken, 1999b). Planners and policy
makers, who assume the leading roles in processes of change and redirection (Tickell,
1990) of efforts for the desired purposes, might face problems in converting sustainable
development into policy to govern actions that can convey many hard to answer
questions, including uncertainties and disagreements in environmental valuation (Solow,
1992).
Care should be exercised when governments – local, national or international – are
planning and making policies to deal with the situation. Actions, policies or aid provision
patterns that create the improper exploitation or depletion of readily available, mine-free
resources are essentially unsustainable. There need to be efforts that try to find better
ways for the people to fit into the ecological systems without radically changing them
beyond recovery – to seek some optimal level of use corresponding to the highest safe
exploitation of natural resources and to understand the capacity of the affected population
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to adapt to the changes (Allen, 1998). Progression to sustainable living and development
in landmine affected regions will require a fundamental re-orientation of a number of
prevailing and familiar research and decision-making tools. The fundamental requirement
for sustainable development will be integration of the environment in economic, social or
other decision-making processes (MacNeill, 1990). For best results, governing decisions
need to recognize the agenda for understanding the unusual needs of people and
environment affected by landmines and promoting collaboration at local and upper levels,
with proper local participation (Tickell, 1990).
While undertaking or planning to undertake demining and clearing operations, actions
that could be taken to correct or ameliorate the impacts of landmines on land and other
indirect consequences include environmental management – proper management of land
resources including rehabilitation of degraded areas and protection/conservation, and
promoting environmental awareness, monitoring and sensitivity – and trying to
understand the tolerance limits of the land in order to prevent abuse of resources, and
deforestation. Management actions can have the capacity to increase productivity of the
land; these actions have the potential to put land back into production by enhancing its
resource potentials, improving its quality and promoting sustainable development.
In an ideal world, one could implement intensive demining projects to prevent
impairment of people and the environment. However, not only would this be hard, but it
is also unlikely. Almost all of the countries don’t have the financial and resource capacity
to handle the crisis, and there are limitations in demining techniques. What we consider
the most effective demining techniques are those that are manually operated by human
beings –very slow processes that put deminers in great danger.
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In addition, despite the fact that demining operations are largely
anthropocentric, other complicated monetary and policy issues in landmine impacts
management include whether funds would be dispensed for local handling of demining or
managed with external/international assistance. In cases where nations take control, the
military arms of governments may be given the task of demining, and it would be
probable for environmental and developmental considerations to take a backseat to
technical demining projects. In the other option, cases where international NGO’s are
responsible for demining, there is a potential for problems of not recognizing local needs,
no long-term developmental objectives, and costly expenditure of funds earmarked for
development on bringing in their ‘experts’. Moreover, international assistance is
governed with many agendas, all of which might not be for the best of the affected people
or resources; aid usually comes with short-term objectives, and many “donors are only
too happy to provide high protein fish powder instead of teaching the [a]ffected people
how to fish;” the way things are going lately, one has to wonder if that is their
humanitarian mission (Sichone, 2000, pp.2). The operations of outside entities could be
disengaged from one another or other activities that are important in dealing with a crisis
of landmine proportions, in situations where different goals would be handled in an
isolated manner.
Many individual and institutional analyses are required to arrive at progressive
contextualization of environmental management in landmine-affected regions. Blaikie
(1989) and Biot et al. (1995) proposed a trajectory of analysis to achieve this objective.
This trajectory of analysis was modified for the purposes of this study and was found to
be an interesting tool to be considered during planning and policy making (see figure
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4.3). The trajectory outlines an alternative, potentially effective process of policy
making. Instead of viewing the trajectory as providing one-way, local to international,
direction for developing appropriate policy responses, the trajectory is made to recognize
systemic interrelationships between the different policy makers and decisions at different
levels – local, national and international. When the symptoms are understood at micro or
local levels and the problems identified accordingly, the matrix (box on top, far right
corner) can be developed at local and national levels to address the most pressing and
relevant issues. This trajectory identifies environmental changes that were introduced due
to landmines, biophysical and economic costs, and contribution of land users and socio-
political structures to arrive at which level international cooperation would have the
greatest effect in socio-economic and environmental governance. For example, the
national governments (at the socio-political nature of governance box) can communicate
the information from local populations to higher level agencies capable of providing the
help, of the local government doesn’t possess that capacity. The international agencies
could in turn provide the assistance in the forms of education, providing relevant and
needed information, and monetary funds to implement land management strategies at
local and/or national levels.
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Explanation of the phenom
ena and policy responses for land degradation and rehabilitation for developing countries F
igure 4.3 (S
ource: Blaikie 1989).
SYM
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As the actual levels of land degradation are hard to determine, as are the exact types
and levels of solutions. One way to look at degradation prevention would be to use an
economic method. As far as economics is concerned, the optimal level of land
degradation48 repair/prevention is likely to be the point at which marginal cost of
repair/prevention of the landmine consequences is equal to marginal benefit from
repair/prevention (Barrow, 1991).
There may be many difficulties related to the land degradation problem in landmine-
affected developing countries. Not only is there an inadequate technical basis for
understanding and managing land degradation, but also managing land degradation is
only one of the many priorities of the governments and societies, which have to deal with
day to day problems of political instability, economic constraints, food insecurity,
building and reconstruction, and development in general. There are bound to be delays in
recognizing the existence of the land degradation problem and formulating the necessary
policies, for two reasons. People – especially economists and higher level decision
makers - are usually conditioned to looking at economic indicators49 of development and
they only notice environmental/resource depletion issues when they are translated to
more visible forms50 of land degradation that are readily apparent, and, second because
48 Optimal level of land degradation is one of the classifications of land degradation that are given by Barrow (1991, pp.11); the author classifies rates of land degradation as: (a) Zero rate – where there is no land degradation; (b) Natural rate – rate of land degradation in the absence of human activity; (c) Actual rate – rate of land degradation given current land management; and (d) Optimal rate – rate of land degradation corresponding to socially optimal resource allocation and
management. 49 In this study, the term ‘indicators’ represents bio-physical/natural or socio-economic/human phenomena and signs that provide a way to measure, define, characterize or explain the situation of a resource. For example, a natural indicator can be the rate of erosion of topsoil while a human one could be the effect crop yield suffers as a result (for more on indicators see Flagg (1996) or Hammond et al. (1995). 50 The more visible forms of land degradation include the rapid loss of soil by erosion, dust storms, formation of deep gullies, land slides and others that create a rapid and major threat to human wellbeing (Barrow 1991).
106
admission of having a land degradation problem could be viewed as a
farmer/landowner’s fault or personal weakness that s/he should hide (Barrow, 1991). All
the above constraints exist in addition to imperfect governmental structures that involve
”individual or collective ignorance, incompetence and corruption” (Eden, 1996, pp.14).
The performance of governments, relevant funding or non-governmental organizations is
critical, if not the only factor, to finding solutions to land degradation.
Policies aimed at landmine crisis have traditionally focused on demining, refugee
repatriation and, at times, reconstruction. The nature of landmine impacts and their
complexity call for incorporating environmental considerations in policies aimed at
managing the landmine situation or any kind of environmental conservation policies.
There is a critical need to go further for an inclusive approach of ecodevelopment (UNEP
1976), the concepts of which stress looking for a tangible development plan that
advocates ecologically sound recovery and management of resources in the biological
system.
A couple of the participants in this study indicated the potential of many international
humanitarian and environmental declarations and guidelines - although they have yet to
be employed and their enforceability is difficult – that have clauses that indicate or can
relate to environmental damage from landmines. They stated – in the survey, and
Ashtakala (2000) and Nachón (2000) – different declarations and principles including:
o The Stockholm Declaration – from the 1972 United Nations Conference on
the human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden – which in its 21st principle
makes states responsible for ensuring that activities within their jurisdiction
and control do not cause damage to other states and their environments;
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o The principle of Limitation – dictates that the right of human beings, be it states
or individuals, to endanger the environment is not unlimited. This principle can be
valuable in defining reasonable, proportional or militarily unavoidable/necessary
effects of warfare;
o Principle of Preventive Action – requires states to take proper actions to ensure
the protection of the environment during wartime, before any damage has
occurred;
o Polluter Pays – requires the polluter, in this case the producers and/or those who
laid the landmines, to bear the expenses of rehabilitating the environment after
damage and ensure that the environment is returned to an acceptable state.
It might not be possible to protect the direct and intended victims of landmines,
human beings and animals, by these principles, guidelines and protocols because the
mine is produced to serve that exact purpose. However, indirect victims of landmines,
such as agricultural land and development, can employ the above stated principles, rules
and jurisprudence of international environmental law to recover reparation against
landmine producers (Ashtakala, 2000 and Nachón, 2000).
In addition, decision makers at different levels have varying perceptions of land
degradation and the needed responses. This divergence and lack of coordination between
the different actors can encourage escalation of environmentally degrading activities and
prove to be a solemn hindrance to triumphant mitigation of the problem and the path of
sustainable development (Dejene et al., 1997)
By guiding development policies for landmine-affected regions with thoughts of
ecologically conscious development, one can produce a diverse array of policy
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alternatives that can realize the full potential of the natural endowment and maximize the
benefits that living things get from it (UNEP, 1976), without obliterating the natural
resource base upon which sustainable development depends.
Development policies for landmine affected regions need to be robust, comprehensive
and flexible to adapt to varying conditions in the ground (Harpviken, 1999a).
Management and conservation policies should have the important task of understanding
the special needs of landmine affected communities and environments (Harpviken,
1999c). The policies need to employ an integrated approach and adapt a global, holistic
viewpoint (Bruchhaus, 1999).
Biot et al. (1995) recommend a matrix for research, planning and policy formulation
for land degradation that accommodates for review of existing approaches and
development of a multi-dimensional and holistic model. The matrix, as modified to fit the
objectives and scope of this study (table 4.4), invites pluralistic interpretation – from the
viewpoints of all the actors (local, national and international) involved in the process –
and promotes understanding of the relationships between scales of study and elemental
components of decision-making processes.
The rows in the matrix represent stages in a decision-making process, while the
columns are the different levels where decisions are made. Perceptions of the symptoms
of problems are assessed from the viewpoints and concerns of the different actors, and
also accordingly diagnosed and prioritized to fit their needs. The search for solutions,
along with the technicalities and feasibilities of the proposed actions, including the cost-
benefit analysis and risk identification and acceptance are also considered at the three
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levels of analysis. Collaboration among the different actors is ensured before decisions
are made to adopt one alternative action or another.
Table 4.4 Levels and elements in decision-making.
Levels of Analysis
Elements in decision making
Local National/ Regional
International
1. Perception of symptoms
2. Diagnosis of causes
3. Prioritization of needs
4. Identification of solutions
5. Assess technical feasibility of solutions
6. Cost-benefit and risk solutions
7. Assess need for collaboration
8. Decide about adoption
(Source: Biot et al., 1995)
Assistance to mine affected populations and its guiding policies need to be able to
discover the gaps between local land users and policy makers, and also between relief
and development aid. After evaluation of the impacts, the required management and/or
conservation policies need to comprehend local realities, understand the needs of local
populations, and as much as possible, be able to finance and execute ventures in
accordance with the local communities’ priorities and mandates (Bruchhaus 1999 and
Dejene 1997).
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary: Regional Political Ecology and Landmines
Findings from this study emphasize the argument that impacts of landmines are
not only personal and localized, but also significant on a regional economic and
ecological scale that have serious implications regarding the developing world. This
research endeavors to demonstrate how landmine impacts that are primarily
environmental are results of a set of multifaceted and interconnected political, and socio-
economic factors that are also protracted. Landmine use, that is at best considered
unchivalrous, but a practical necessity, and at worst not a means of war but rather murder
(Croll, 1998), can threaten the fragility of the natural environment by changing the
quality and cover of land, and through abuse of biotic resources and habitat destruction
(Batterbury and Forsyth, 1999).
This research identified and characterized different ranges and assortments of
biophysical and socio-economic indicators for land degradation that results from
landmines, including:
o Biophysical – soil structure and texture, rate of soil loss/removal by erosion
per unit surface area, sediment loads into streams, nutrient levels in the land,
soil porosity, soil moisture holding capacity; proportion, diversity and
productivity of vegetative covers; habitat destruction; and flora and fauna
diversity per unit surface area
o Socio-economic – loss of income, food shortage, poverty, vulnerability,
change in population per unit surface area, increased social polarization,
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declining health care, migration/displacement, destruction of essential
infrastructures, arresting of development of regions, and socio-political
instability
Resource decrepitudes resulting from landmines provide an ideal illustration of
land degradation that is principally a product of human choices and decisions; they
exclusively make land less useful or not useful at all. Findings from this study illustrate
the relationships between land degradation and development that can be used as a basis to
promote integrated and sustainable policy initiatives. These findings emphasize the need
for recognizing the extensive environmental degradation that is caused by landmines and
adopting large-scale, inclusive approaches facilitating constructive ways to alleviate the
landmine crisis.
This study doesn’t allege there is a blueprint for development (Salomon and
Lebeau, 1993) in mine affected regions, but rather presents how impacts of landmines in
the developing world have transcended purely socio-economic and intrinsically
politicized debates to bring about ecocide. One needs to recognize the heterogeneity of
the problem variables and the environment (Dahlberg, 1994) in mine-affected regions.
Degradation of land resources, coupled with uneven allocation of renewable and non-
renewable raw materials (Westing, 1985), undermines not only agricultural productivity
but also livelihood, rehabilitation, sustainable development and security of many regions.
The inextricable nexus between protection of environmental resources from degradation
and development – sustainable development – has become difficult especially for areas
with mine degraded land resources, because of the continued environmental stress (Okidi,
1994).
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Findings of this study emphasize the need for broader planning consideration and
objective analysis of requirements of affected communities, and this research also
supports the principles of transfer of capacity to affected communities and avoidance of
inadequate quick-fix solutions (HRW, 1999). Interjurisdictional cooperation should be a
top priority because the problem is not likely to be confined to a locality; it spills over to
neighboring regions, in terms of natural resource abuse and migration. In addition;
consistency at all the necessary levels, cooperation and coordination need to be key to the
plan for the overall good – to decrease the amount of time and resources that are wasted.
It is very important that all stakeholders understand the choices the community and
governments face and reach some consensus about how these choices will be made. The
central goal of the national government should be to foster systemic and collaborative
planning processes at the state and local levels (Burby, 1998). The local
leadership/administration has to play very decisive roles in order to manage these
situations: guidance, help in cooperation, planning and implementation. Planning for and
managing land use enhances sustainability and reduces vulnerability to further
environmental catastrophes.
Depending on the findings of the study and approaches discussed in prior research
projects, this study reinforces the need for collaborative research and policy making51 that
includes:
o Identification and recognition of the carrying capacity of the resources;
o Articulation and detailed problem identification and ranking among public
and environmental agendas;
51 More detailed discussion on the practicalities of policy solutions to land degradation problems is available in Chisholm and Dumsday (1987:335)
113
o Enhancement of the ability of regional populations or states to address the
issue – including organization structure, resources, feasibility of policy
formulation and implementation – and external assistance and/or pressures
(Chisholm and Dumsday, 1987, pp.335).
Regional political ecology, as a conceptual framework, responds to the challenge
of landmines by offering a comprehensive and multi-dimensional reflection of the
complex crisis. This study demonstrates the capability of a regional political ecology
framework to create order in chaotic and complex environmental problems. The approach
allowed the study to reveal interconnections between the different sets of variables. It
exhibits potential to provide better understanding of multifaceted problems that elude
comprehension from unilateral, analytical approaches.
This study provides a better understanding of how environmental and
developmental policies for landmine affected regions need to foster a systemic and
collaborative planning process at different local, national and international levels (Burby,
1998) in order to promote, or enhance, sustainability. The successful policies need to
include a proper and balanced mix of local and comprehensive planning, citizen
participation and support, international and interjurisdictional cooperation, and
consistency – internal, horizontal and vertical.
The regional political ecology framework further enriched this study by
permitting the analyses to build-upon previously collected data and conceptual
frameworks.
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5.2 Challenges Ahead
This study is a next generation approach to the landmine crisis and shows promise
for the future. But despite the potential excellence of the regional political ecology
framework in helping to achieve the objectives of this research, there appears to be little
optimism that this problem will be solved anytime soon. The significant need for further
analytical refinement at micro- and macro-levels is recognized. The framework requires
that practitioners and researchers set standards that can be applied in different micro-level
case studies (Pires, 1999).
In order for a study to ascertain past, present and/or future land degradation, one
needs the utility of the land to be established for the different periods. There is need to
examine patterns before and during war to determine the specific, measurable ways in
which mines have degraded land and disrupted development. The challenge that faces all
land degradation studies is reliance on received information - the present is hardly ever
well-acknowledged while past and future forecast are likely to be inaccurate estimates
and may not give true indications of the potential productive abilities of the land (Barrow,
1990).
The foremost challenge in developing better policy responses to the crisis is scope
of planning – how to narrow the mind gaps between local and international agencies
involved in assistance in order to promote long-term, comprehensive planning horizons
that look beyond the humanitarian dangers of landmines and view them as developmental
challenges that need developmental responses. Other challenges include development of
standard indicators for the environmental and socio-economic dimensions of the
landmine crisis and more explicit use of comparative approaches – across regions, across
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countries, and across institutions and agencies (Harpviken et al., 1999). Moreover,
enlightenment of decision makers at all the different levels and finding appropriate ways
of aid provision are of great importance, because there are the issues of technical and
fiscal capability at local, regional and national levels, and willingness to accept and
implement such new policies.
5.3 Limitations of this Study
The unique nature of this study presents some limitation to the research process.
First, enlightenments and justifications in this kind of study are contingent upon
interpretations of the researchers. Second, the broad perspective of the study’s
framework, although one of its desirable and outstanding qualities, makes it challenging
for an individual researcher to tackle the issues alone – its interdisciplinary nature would
be best served by cooperative efforts of those in the natural and social sciences.
Qualitative research, with subsequent empirical follow-up, is best conducted over
extended periods of observation; the approach taken in this study has benefited by
tapping into the knowledge base of professionals while referring to previous studies for
data. By being a qualitative research, however, this investigation is not purely objective.
Subjectivity in compiling the research tools – although an essential element of the
approach – can predispose the study to certain levels of criticism.
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5.4 Recommendations for Future Study
This study has been a valuable learning experience that has potential to be a very
useful tool with which to demonstrate environmental problems of landmine affected
areas. The approach needs to be tested in specific case studies after key indicator
variables are identified and developed for specific regions. This could facilitate
development-oriented, better management practices in war-devastated countries facing
the aftermath of wars.
Mines are just one of the many environmental and socio-economic problems of
people in developing countries – along with such grave issues as poverty, environmental
degradation, population pressure, malnutrition and conflicts. Moreover, many
consequences similar to the aftereffects of landmines can arise due to other reasons too.
Future studies need to be management-oriented in their approach and also recognize the
ecological or socio-economic realities as they apply to their specific study sites. The
nature and continued existence of these massive problems make it essential to develop a
comprehensive understanding of the basic causes and potential remedies for these
problems (Murtaza, 1998). Effective planning and policy in these areas will require
thorough bio-physical and socio-economic investigations in order to scrutinize the
varying problems of different regions and countries. Moreover, continuous monitoring of
the impacts of landmines and ranking of the prevailing problems has to be an important
component of the management models – at micro and macro levels – in order to present
an accurate representation of the reality and help in the development of policies aimed at
reducing land degradation, while maintaining or enhancing the developmental potential
of the people and their resources.
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In the future, landmine studies that employ the framework of regional political
ecology can greatly benefit if they not only adopt interdisciplinary approaches from
individuals but also a team-oriented, collaborative approach involving professionals from
the natural and social sciences. The silence of environmental organizations has given the
impression that poor subsistence farmers and their families in developing countries do not
greatly matter as part of the environment. The collaborative involvement of scientists
from both the natural and social sciences in studies regarding landmines can help in
exposing the environmental atrociousness of these weapons and to push international
environmental organizations to take action against the growing threat of landmines with
the same dynamism with which they have pursued the fights to save the tropical
rainforest and whales from harm (McGrath, 1998), before the situation gets any worse
than it already is.
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5.5 Concluding Thoughts
The researcher’s experience in studying environmental and developmental
impacts of landmines has been a personal encounter with an emerging field of study from
which I have attempted to gain a better understanding of one of the worst problems
facing the world today, through this research process.
The environmental impacts of landmines represent a class of human-environment
problems that can be referred to as ‘no technical solution problems’52, which require
long-term strategies to sanction change in attitudes, education, and the institutional
foundation of the biological system (Hardin, 1968 and Singh, 1994). Complex and
difficult situations are bound to appear in the paths of development of landmine-affected,
war-devastated developing countries. And the success of regional political ecology in
helping to alleviate the landmine crisis remains to be seen in the future. However, the
perspective does show that the prospect is not all grim and hopeless; landmine affected
nations don’t have to be doomed for misery forever, but rather there is hope for the future
with properly planned and inclusive efforts.
No matter how small and localized, or massive and globally significant, the resources
that are affected by landmines are, the search for the best system of management should
embrace interdisciplinary, situation-specific, community based, long-term, collaborative
and comprehensive approaches to develop appropriate problem solving alternatives. The
institutional and cultural barriers between policy-makers, researchers and resource users
need to be narrowed. The management strategies need to be innovative to shift greater
52 A technical solution problem may be defined as one which requires a change in only the techniques of natural sciences, engineering and technology, demanding little or no change in human behaviors, values and morality; for instance, erecting fences to prevent overgrazing (Hardin 1968).
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management responsibility for development onto the end users53. An outstanding
attribute of comprehensive and collaborative systems of resource management and
development is that when they work, the self-imposed rules become shared norms that
most people adhere to because they believe they are doing the right thing. Moreover, the
suitability of the developed alternatives should be investigated and the appropriate
alternative chosen by including theoretical reasoning and empirical evidence.
Considerable revision is required to redirect the attention of planners and decision
makers, at all levels, towards the protection of the unmanaged commons of landmine-
affected regions, because they are governed with the implicit directive ‘help yourself’,
that can prove to be precarious for everyone involved (Gardner and Stern, 1996), both
nature and resource users. Whatever the management regime, planning framework or
policy decision, finding effective resolutions for even a few of the impacts of landmines
on land degradation and other environmental problems can relieve tremendous pressure
from the overworked, overtaxed local, national and/or international institutions to be
directed towards environmental protection and development efforts.
In order to tackle the landmine crisis in the most effective ways possible, we humans
will be required to employ such extensive studies of interdisciplinary nature in search for
approaches of better understanding, planning and construction of policy decisions. We
also need to continue learning how to better understand the relationships between human
actions, environment and development.
53 Bentley (1994) recommends this approach of promoting more respect and understanding between researchers and resource users in an effort to endorse shifting of development responsibility directly into the hands of the users.
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Appendix 1
121
Figure 6.1 The Most Common Types of Antipersonnel Landmines
Type 69 Type 72
M14
M16A1
M18A1
Valmara 69
VS-50
PP-MI-SR
MON-200 PMN POMZ-2
PMD-6
Source: Canete 1995. http://is7.pacific.net.hk/~asiabox/landmine/common.htm
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Appendix 2
123
Table 6.2 Descriptions of Blast and Fragmentation Mines
Types of mines Blast mine54s Fragmentation mines Laid at Surface or
subsurface Above ground, usually supported on stakes or attached by mounting brackets to man-made structures, trees and undergrowth.
Triggered by Direct pressure Tripwire Directional – hold pre-formed metal fragments located in an explosive charge that are projected in a pre-determined arc of about 50 meters.
Types
Bounding – rely on strewn fragments to be harmful. A propelling charge elevated the mine to stomach height before the main charge explodes, permitting a wide area to be covered by its contents. They are particularly lethal.
Popular models Soviet-made PMN, PMN-2 and United States made M14.
United States made M18, M18A1 claymore and Italian produced Valmara 69.
(Source: HRW 1993, and Lloyd, 1997).
54 In the case of blast mines, the blasting of the mine casting, dirt, gravel, surrounding vegetation and even the victim’s footwear usually cause secondary injury to the victim (HRW 1993).
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Appendix 3
125
Countries Worst Affected By Landmines
Under normal circumstances in the US, a country that does not have a landmines problem, the rate of amputation is 1 per 22,000 people.
Figure 6.2 (Source: One World 1999).
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Appendix 4
127
Landmines as Sources of Land Degradation: The Case of the Developing World
Dear Sir or Madam: Greetings, My name is Asmeret Asefaw Berhe. I am a graduate student at Michigan State University. I am conducting this survey as part of the research for my Masters research. I am studying the Environmental Impacts of Landmines, specifically how landmines can bring about land degradation and the potential effects that can have on regional development. You were selected to be a participant in this survey because of previous studies that you have conducted in relation to this issue or your professional background. I believe that your participation could greatly contribute to the knowledge base of the research and the understanding of this issue as a whole. I would like to ask you to help me conduct this research project by participating in this survey. It will only take less than 45 minutes. Please fill the questionnaire to your best knowledge and e-mail it back to me at this same address [[email protected]]. You may be assured of complete confidentiality. Your privacy will be protected to the maximum extent allowable by law. No identifying information will ever be associated with any of your answers in any reports. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary, you may choose not to participate at all, may refuse to answer specific questions or withdraw your participation at any time. If you come across any question that you don’t want to answer, please leave it blank and proceed to the next question. You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning this questionnaire. If you have any questions regarding your rights as a human subject in this research you may contact the chair of University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects, Dr. David Wright, at (517) 355-2180. During the course of this survey, you will encounter questions related to the environmental impacts of landmines, land use and sustainable development. If you find out that you can not answer some of the questions because they are outside your field you can leave that question and go to the next one. And if you have suggestions that deal with the already mentioned issues or if you think there are further issues that need to be included in this study please don’t hesitate to state them at the end of the survey. If for any reason you wish to contact me, you can reach me at [email protected], 1312A University Village Apts.; East Lansing, MI 48823 or by calling (517) 355-6172. If you would like to receive a summary of the report results, please send me a separate e-mail to the address given above and I will be delighted to provide you a copy. I know that your time is very valuable and therefore I would like to thank you very much for taking the time to be part of this research; your contribution is greatly appreciated. Sincerely, Asmeret Asefaw Berhe Graduate Student in Resource Development Michigan State University Respondent Code: _______________
128
Appendix 5
129
Questions Please answer the following questions to the best of your knowledge. 1. a. What are the different ways that landmine presence in an area can pose danger to the
environment? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ b. How can these dangers affect the lives of people that are living in the landmine-affected areas? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ c. How can these dangers affect the development of a landmine-affected area? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
2. a. What kinds of indicators of land degradation55 are observed in landmine affected areas? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ b. Please specify your replies for question (2) a., as they would apply to the following: Arable lands? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Pasture lands? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Forests? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Infrastructures (roads, bridges, electric and water supply structures, waterways [irrigation canals])?
55 What do we see in these areas that tells us that the productivity of land has decreases due to the introduction of landmines and impacts associated to them, these could be physical or social indicators? For example, in terms of decrease in the fertility and productivity of agricultural or range lands, destruction of soil structure, toxic contamination, loss of income, and others.
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___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Or other land uses [if applicable]? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ c. Are those effects felt only on the immediate locality, or also outside that area? (Do some of the impacts result in environmental or other related problems outside the immediate locality?) ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
3. Please list areas that you think landmines are usually found in. (if possible use the groupings
of arable land, pastures, forests, infrastructures [roads, pathways, bridges, electric and water supply structures, waterways [irrigation canals] ]. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
4. a. In terms of the groupings that are used in (3), which ones do you think pose the most threat
to the people in terms of their survival? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ b. Which ones do you think would have the most effect on development56 of the regions? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
c. Why do you think that is the case? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
5. a. What adaptations do people make in order to be able to live and develop in the presence of
landmines? [in terms of migration, use of marginal lands, change production patterns, use of forest products, taking risks to use the resources or others]
56 For the purposes of this research ‘Development’ is defined as expanding or realizing potentials to gradually bring to a fuller, greater or better state (Daly 1994).
131
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ b. What environmental impacts do you think would be associated with these adaptations? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ c. When people stay nearby, what adjustments do they make in their use of other resources? [for example, in terms of utilizing forests, marginal resources, etc.] ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ d. If they migrate, where do they usually tend to go? [For example, to other rural centers to engage in farming or other land based activities or to urban centers] ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
6. What environmental impacts of land being off-limits57 are observed? (in terms of land
quality degradation, productivity, income that was derived or depended on the land and the community that depends on those lands) ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
7. How are local communities usually involved in demining or other developmental efforts in
landmine affected regions [in terms of participation and contribution]. Please give examples. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
57 In the case of landmine presence, land being off-limits, means that people or animals cannot get access to the area because it is feared or known to be landmine-infested.
132
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
8. Do you know of any environmental effects of the activities of demining? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
9. How do you think correctional/ameliorating actions should be taken to reduce the impacts to
the land resource (reduce or at least slow down land degradation)? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
10. What advantages and disadvantages, as far as land is concerned, are associated with these
correctional and amelioration actions? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
11. How do you think these environmental impacts of landmines are exacerbated in the cases of developing countries?
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
12. What do you see as being the most prominent problem associated with environmental
degradation that is caused from the presence of landmines in an area/region? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
13. Suggestions or comments
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
~~~ The End ~~~
Thank you.
Please return completed questionnaire to [email protected]. [Preferably as a word document attachment] or mail it to 1312A University Village Apartments, Michigan State University East Lansing, Mi. 48823 USA
134
Appendix 6
135
Table 6.2 U
nprocessed Responses from
the Questionnaire
N
o. Q
uestion y to the question
Additional com
ment
or information
1.a LM
presence can pose danger to the environm
ent by
1. loss in w
ildlife … killing anim
als [livestock and wildlife], destruction
of their habitat 2.
micro-relief disruption from
explosion … destroy the flora/fauna
3. soil erosion…
can change the landscape and cause more erosion
4. decrease in productivity of agricultural areas
5. chem
ical residues,…. environm
ental pollution, soil contamination …
during self explosion or dem
ining (can cause severe soil, vegetation and hydrological degradation)…
Can be m
ade of toxic substances. 6.
denial of land use for a.
agriculture or other subsistence purposes ….
b. A
ccess to water or conservation m
easures c.
For technical teams engaged in pesticide control/spraying
7. overuse of non-affected areas …
overgrazing, over farming…
because m
ore people less land would add pressure to the environm
ent. Ex due to refugee com
ing 8.
the mine free areas people m
ove to avoid LMs m
ight be more fragile
and hasten environmental degradation
9. LM
s threaten/seem to m
ostly affect fauna that are big enough to trigger landm
ines …. These fauna m
ay have symbiotic relationship
with local flora, helping to keep certain plant species in check
10. when explosives and shells of m
ines are used for fishing, mining
[coal, gold…] or for land clearance they have bad environm
ental results/consequences
Landmines can pose a danger for the environm
ent in several fashions, depending only on methodological issues for research. B
roadly speaking landm
ines effect can be imm
ediate, prolonged, continued and/or cumulative. Landm
ines may affect som
e or all of an specific environment
components. Science can only provide w
ith insights on how to approach such im
pacts and how to evaluate its consequences. In general,
environmental im
pacts of landmines present researchers, or decision m
akers with an extrem
ely complex phenom
ena, which varies on intensity,
concentration, danger and toxicity in a case-by-case manner.
136
1.b LM
pose danger to people 1.
posing a threat to their lives … injury prevents them
from earning
money and living norm
al life .. LMs restrict the m
obility of people and anim
als 2.
loss of income
a. prevents people from
cultivating their land, therefore, decrease in food production leading to fam
ine … increased
rate of poverty b.
involution – natural resources are consumed but not replaced
c. killing of their livestock
3. flooding, desertification upset the ecological balances leading to disease of flora and fauna, and ultim
ately humans
4. negative socio-econom
ic impact
a. m
igration with no/little m
oney, no work
5. threat for w
ildlife 6.
injury/death to cattle and other beasts of burden, change in migration
patterns of animals they hunt for food or their prey that hum
ans use for
7. people living in the vicinity of m
ined forests face risk during harvest of forest products and loss of incom
e 8.
intensive agriculture 9.
denial of pest control measures results in outbreaks of locusts or birds
leading to famine and denial of access to w
ater resources
--cause a confidence deficiency on populations living on affected/suspected to be mine affected areas.
---deny opportunities for re development
--deny areas for cultivation—
creation of new pressures over forest resources, clearing of forest for new
agricultural land--- affecting social services which m
ay lead to a degeneration on life quality levels and disease
--liberation on the environment of toxic substances, som
e of which m
ay bioaccumulate and be persistent possibly show
ing negative impacts on
the health of future generations. Lead is a case in hand. Many landm
ines contain lead. High levels of lead on the hum
an body cause a decrease on IQ
therefore diminishing creativity, reasoning ability and lately productivity. A
ll of this can be measured w
ith proper studies.
137
1.c LM
affect development b/c
1. no one w
ould want to build or m
ake any kind of investment in m
ine affected areas
2. decrease or loss of productivity plus disablem
ent … becom
es hard to m
ake a living ex. contamination w
ith residues and waste
a. polluted agriculture, land can't be used for agricultural purposes due to dorm
ant mines
3. threat of landm
ines prevents people from com
ing back to their lands after they have escaped w
ar ….. abandonm
ent of resources 4.
changes brought about by the presence of LMs m
ay have detrimental
impacts on previous local developm
ent. Ex. a boundary minefield on a
national border crossed an elephant migration route. After quite a
large number of elephants perished in the m
inefield, others learned to avoid that area, instead m
oving into agricultural areas they previously avoided. C
ausing crop damage and has led to local people
hunting animals to prevent further dam
age 5.
loss of income
6. loss of access land use, forests, infrastructure – leads to poor farm
ing, poverty and affect trade and transportation in the region
retarded or abandoned developm
ent altogether
--no confidence on returning populations --som
etimes m
ine affected areas can not go back to their function prior to the conflict putting away prior efforts in capital and hum
an investm
ents --the obvious toxic effect on land quality
--sometim
es negative environmental im
pacts are accentuated with m
ine clearance (depending on the technique used) 2.a
Indicators of land degradation in LM
affected regions
1. destruction of soil structure
2. erosion: loss/rem
oval of top soil (most fertile)
3. toxic/soil contam
ination w/ toxic or hazardous chem
icals 4.
loss of income
5. loss of productivity
6. displacem
ent 7.
overgrowth of fly or pest com
munities
8. loss of flora, fauna …
biodiversity agricultural productivity per unit of surface/land hum
an population per unit of surface/land
Land degradation can occur indirectly from
activities w
hich take place to avoid areas w
hich are mined
138
biodiversity levels per unit surface area levels of toxics and heavy m
etals on land levels of toxic and heavy m
etals on irrigation 2.b.1
In arable lands 1.
fertility depletion (micro-level)
a. rem
oval of topsoil [erosion] 2.
all in 2.a 3.
lie fallow
In Central A
merica
arable lands have been im
proved by the presence of m
ines 2.b.2
Pasture lands 1.
deterioration of vegetation 2.
all in 2.a 3.
unable to be used
Pasture lands are protected and therefore im
proved by LM but
severe damage occurs
during demining
2.b.3 Forests
1. m
icro-relief disruption 2.
all in 2.a 3.
not harvested
Forests improved in LM
affected areas, ex. N
icaragua 2.b.4
Infrastructure [roads, bridges, w
ater supply structures, w
aterways(irrigation
canals)]
1. declination for all hum
an activities and development projects
2. destruction of structures ..
3. overgrow
th covers roads, canals etc. 4.
inside houses were m
ined in Kosovo
Therefore loss of incom
e and productivity
2.b.5 O
ther land uses D
eserts a.
destruction of fragile soil and plants
(2) Arable and pasture lands m
ay return to forest Forests m
ay remain undisturbed by hum
ans and some anim
als after the introduction of landmines
Any com
binations of these (2.b.15) can be observed … it depends on the political sources and circum
stances of the conflict and the purpose of m
ining in the region 2.c
Do these effects result in
environmental or other
related problems outside
the imm
ediate locality?
1. yes both on and off-site …
. Directly on site and indirectly offsite …
…
all impacts reverberate throughout w
orld, but most keenly felt locally
2. displacem
ent is a regional problem
3. toxic contam
ination is localized but can affect any number of people
living anywhere if they are exposed
4. degradation can have effects that are felt locally and outside the im
mediate locality
It depends on what
and where the m
ilitary purposes at the tim
e of m
ining was
if they affect m
igratory patterns or cause erosion
139
5. --yes, landm
ines may m
ove in space. Either by floods, wind,
downstream
. This is about direct effects. But w
hat about indirect effects as shortages of grains or other cultivars due to dim
inished areas for cultivation due to landm
ines?
and flooding that affect other areas
3 A
reas LMs are usually
found in 1.
Arable lands – Central A
merica, South Lebanon
2. pastures – Sinai, K
uwait, Iraq
3. forests – N
icaragua 4.
coasts, near wells or other w
ater bodies – Kuw
ait, Egypt 5.
border areas – Vietnam
, Zimbabw
e 6.
infrastructure [bridges, roads, electrical and water supply sources] –
Kuw
ait, Zimbabw
e 7.
desert areas,
All of them
, depending on w
hat the source of resource of the com
munity is
4.a A
reas that could pose the m
ost threat for people’s survival
Depends on m
odes of survival 1.
arable .. in agrarian comm
unities 2.
infrastructure [canals, roads, water sources ] …
in comm
ercial com
munities
3. forests
social infrastructure, roads, bridges hospitals, schools, playgrounds
Forests will probably
count less in economical
terms
4.b M
ost threat on developm
ent 1.
infrastructure, …roads, canals .. building of a new
major north-south
highway w
as hindered due to LMs in V
ietnam
2. arable
3. forest
4. pastures
it really would depend on the region affected. Is it an affluent society or a poor
comm
unity? Is it on the mountains or is it on flat land? It depends on the case.
Dem
ined roads couldn’t be used in M
ozambique
because there was no
money to restore them
4.c W
hy 1.
infrastructures are the base for development program
s and They have the heaviest concentration of people using them
2.
people’s lives and incomes depend on agriculture, forestry or fish
3. w
ater no longer available for many purposes: consum
ption, energy, irrigation of crops and livestock
People’s daily lives [m
eals] and income area
affected
140
All m
ines laid affect the people and their ability to survive or develop. Regardless of w
ho lays them for w
hat imm
ediate gain, their long-term
life ensures that they will be an im
pediment to survival and developm
ent for a long time.
All of them
can or can’t have impact for survival and developm
ent, it depends on the region …. If they can w
ork around the mine situation
[reroute activities] they do, unless that is difficult People tried their best not to let the dem
iners go because they lives became dependent on them
… M
ozambique and C
ambodia
5.a A
daptations C
an depend on factors other than mines, m
ines don’t operate independently C
hange in habits depends on the environment, the local options available and
local security conditions 1.
migration .. urban or rural areas, internal relocation sites
a. other previous unused lands,
b. other types of practices on other lands
2. m
igrate to urban centers for cheap and dangerous jobs in the city 3.
use of marginal lands and forests [they use the next available
resource] 4.
some prefer to stay and live w
ith mines .. risk loosing a lim
b for grass, firew
ood, hunting etc. 5.
demining is not a quick task [vapor is the one fast w
ay] people have to find w
ay to live with LM
s, accomm
odate them …
they are forced to find alternative lands, roads or activities depending on the area
6. M
ozambique had enough land so they m
oved to non-mined land
7. in C
ambodia land is relatively scarce and there w
as no land they could go to so they stayed
Some m
igrate but most
stay and take risks [in using affected land] because they have no choices
_for example it is know
n that in Afghanistan in order to clear landm
ine affected areas they may sacrifice their ow
n sheep. Some kind of anim
al m
ine clearance. Sadly, the need of the many is som
etimes used to enrich the few
via corruption over administration and expenditure of
humanitarian dem
ining international funding. Case at hand C
ambodia
5.b Env’tal im
pacts of adaptations
1. hum
an pressure on new areas w
hich in time leads to degradation
2. m
igration – increased pollution and waste
3. degradation of land due to use of m
ore pesticides that could be toxic in order to grow
more plants on sm
aller areas … soil erosion,
overgrazing,. Deforestation, overcultivation,
4. -soil use changes
-increased pressure over natural resources -increased social polarization w
hich may create conflict over such
Decreased land
productivity
141
resources and generate conflict 5.c
Adaptations of people that
stay near by try to adapt to the changed environm
ent 1.
optimal use of natural resources ..
a. clearing land or
b. change in production patterns
2. appropriate patterns of land use
3. find other w
ays of income generation ex. labor w
ork, small business
or local market place
4. deforestation of nearby unaffected areas, slash and burn agriculture of unaffected fields
5. people learn to live around landm
ines. A social adjustm
ent. Losing a fam
ily mem
ber to a landmine becom
es usual.
5.d M
igrate to where(usually)?
it depends on what is available, their capacity and opportunity but usually
1. other rural centers
2. people w
ant to go to a place where they feel safe. A
lthough in occasions, against popular belief, they stay
In general, people have lived in areas, which are m
ost environmentally friendly to them
. The areas they move to, w
hen necessary, are usually m
ore marginal and therefore m
ore fragile. If they move deeper into forest areas, it m
ay cause further forest loss and decrease habitat for other creatures. 6.
Env’tal impacts of land
being off-limits
1. environm
entally…. It w
ould eventually return to its natural state a.
enhancement of environm
ental quality b.
improvem
ent of natural resources [potential] c.
environmental recovery
d. degradation of non-m
ined areas because of increased/intensive production
e. decline or loss of land productivity
2. socio-econom
ically a.
loss of income – because of com
plete loss of productivity b.
poverty c.
crimes
decrease in agricultural output, decrease in incomes and consequently of
142
local economy, soil erosion
7 Local participation in dem
ining and development
efforts
1. as counselors, help in indicating location of landm
ines 2.
help with resettlem
ent ex. prioritization .. on cleared areas 3.
lead deminers to safe trucks or gaps in m
inefields 4.
maintain –fix fences around m
inefields and post warning signs
5. trained as dem
iners… they also dem
ine by themselves w
hen there are no resources for dem
ining teams to com
e to the areas [esp. if they have been com
batants before or if soldiers had thought them how
to
There have been cases w
here animals are used
as a system of
demining.
8 Environm
entally impacts
of demining
1. rem
oval of the armour protective layer protecting the underlying
fragile soils … cutting of all vegetation[at tim
e big old trees], som
etimes even burning it
2. soil degradation – com
paction, contamination, disturbance,
disturbance of soil structure during detonation .. . leading to erosion. D
etonation [explosion while the m
ines are in the ground] is harmful at
d/f physical and chemical levels
3. vegetation degradation
4. loss of biodiversity
5. increase of dusted sand in open desert areas
6. overuse of m
ined areas
There is no one perfect solution …
whether you
leave them in the land
or whether you detonate
them the productivity of
the land decreases
Yes, dem
ining activities can be equally bad for the environment, or even w
orst. But then again it would depend on the policy m
aker’s objectives. D
o you want to turn a m
inefield into a garbage dump? O
r into an industrial site? Or w
ant to return it to agro production? All these
factors should be taking into account. This is a matter of environm
ental costs. I doubt environmental costs are integrated into dem
ining costs as usual practice 9
Correctional/am
eliorating actions to reduce the im
pacts on land
1. environm
ental managem
ent – mgt of land resource, rehabilitation of
degraded areas, protection/conservation 2.
measures for proper land use, environm
ental awareness
3. m
onitoring resources, environmental changes application of advanced
technologies 4.
try to reduce cutting down forests [big trees] and aw
areness to make
the public and environmental activists understand
5. including tree planting, gardening or other environm
entally beneficial program
s with m
ine clearance and rehabilitation programs
6. optim
al use of demined areas
143
7. C
omply w
ith local environmental norm
ativity, if any. Otherw
ise go for international norm
ativity. Be creative w
hile planning demining
operations. 10
Advantages and
disadvantages of correctional and am
elioration actions
1. enhancem
ent of land resource potential 2.
improvem
ent of environmental quality
3. sustainable developm
ent 4.
reforestation keeps land away from
agricultural production
These actions can make
access to land possible again, i.e. increase productivity but at the sam
e time they slow
dow
n demining
operations and prolong land degradation
11 Im
pacts exacerbated in developing countries because
they become m
ore severe because 1.
there are more m
ines but less means and resources for dem
ining 2.
economy usually based on agriculture…
mines laid on the soil that is
necessary for cultivation 3.
increased competition or need to use the available resources leading to
faster degradation with associated harm
by any development practice
4. further degradation [loss of productivity] and loss of incom
e 5.
conflicts [social or other] over shortage of resources … ex. land that is
at a premium
in countries like Vietnam
6.
the structures are already weak/fragile and further im
pact with
sophisticated weapons and violence becom
e debilitating 7.
post conflict developing countries have many problem
s [social, econom
ic, political and environmental] including infrastructure
destruction, health care, politics [flaky governments, contradictory
conservation policies] ….. environm
ent is way dow
n in the list even in the U
S/1st w
ord let along 3rd w
orld 8.
They don’t have the tools or know-how
to identify or demine…
thus m
ore death and destruction…
9. increased dependence in South on agriculture and subsistence living, w
ater in desert regions comes m
ainly from w
ells 10. B
y poverty, lack of an environmental perspective w
hile planning, corruption, short tim
e vision.
Can vary from
country to country these are just the m
ost comm
on points
144
12 M
ost prominent problem
associated w
ith environm
ental degradation due to LM
s
- restricting/denial of access to resources .. especially for returning ID
P or refugees
- loss of anim
als and livestock … especially for anim
als with m
igratory patterns, disruption in their pattern or the anim
als can learn of the dangers and avoid the area …
decrease in biodiversity -
Disruption of usual sustainable patterns by rural com
munities in
relation to their environment as a result of w
ar and landmines.
- Loss of land and crop productivity …
…food shortage and poverty
- Poor people pushed into lands and forced to subsist in crow
ded conditions in already degraded land
- Increased pressure over forest resources. D
estruction of habitat 1.
arable a.
fertility depletion during demining operations
2. pasture
a. degradation of vegetation
b. loss of biodiversity
c. soil disturbance during dem
ining 3.
forests a.
deterioration of grasses, shrubs b.
soil disturbance
145
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