LAND REHABILITATION WITH THE USE OF BIOLOGICAL GEOTEXTILES …

!"#$%&'!()*)+!+),"$-)+'$+'&$./&$,0$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/4$)"$+-,$#)00&%&"+$2,."+%)&/Antonio José Teixeira Guerra, José Fernando Rodrigues Bezerra, Luis Dias da Mota Lima, Jane Karina Silva Mendonça, Tatiana Teixeira Guerra, Christl Buhmann, David Garry Paterson, Gerry Pienaar, J. Piet Nell, Nthanyiseni Elvis Mulibana, Pieter Willem Van

Deventer, Michael Augustine Fullen

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LAND REHABILITATION WITH THE USE OF BIOLOGICAL GEOTEXTILES,

IN TWO DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Reabilitação de Solos com Uso de Geotêxteis Biodegradáveis em dois Países

Antonio José Teixeira GuerraF&G!%+H&"+$,0$I&,1%!G'J4$

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José Fernando Rodrigues BezerraF&G!%+H&"+$,0$I&,1%!G'J4$

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Luis Dias da Mota LimaF&G!%+H&"+$,0$I&,1%!G'J4$

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Pieter Willem Van Deventer7,%+'$U&/+$9")L&%/)+J4$

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Michael Augustine Fullen52',,*$,0$SGG*)&#$52)&"2&/4

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!"#$%&'!()*)+!+),"$-)+'$+'&$./&$,0$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/4$)"$+-,$#)00&%&"+$2,."+%)&/Antonio José Teixeira Guerra, José Fernando Rodrigues Bezerra, Luis Dias da Mota Lima, Jane Karina Silva Mendonça, Tatiana Teixeira Guerra, Christl Buhmann, David Garry Paterson, Gerry Pienaar, J. Piet Nell, Nthanyiseni Elvis Mulibana, Pieter Willem Van Deventer, Michael Augustine Fullen

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ABSTRACT: This paper assesses the role of biological geotextiles on non-agricultural erosion environments, based on

studies in the mine tailings Gauteng Province (South Africa) and urban area of São Luis City (Brazil).

Gauteng Province (South Africa) has suffered immense problems related to sustainable rehabilitation of

mine dumps. This is a huge challenge, as wastes are highly susceptible to both water and wind erosion.

Establishing a grass cover to reduce erosion is the dominant reclamation method. Covering the slopes

with biological geotextiles might constitute another option for mining companies to reduce erosion and

!"#$ %&' (#')*+),)% %!-$.#/0)#-12)3%!+)#-4#%0)#5 6%)#7 '%#-4#%0!6#6%&"8#5 6#%-#")%)'9!$)#%0)#1)$):3! (#

effect of palm mat cover on erosion control, using rainfall simulation. Results clearly illustrated that

application of palm-mats more than halved the sediment load in runoff, thereby having the potential

to effectively stabilize tailing dam slopes. Covering tailings with palm-mats did not reduce runoff or

!97'-+)#5 %)'#!$:(%' %!-$;#0-5)+)'.#<$#=>-#?&!6#@!%8;#1!-(-,!3 (#,)-%)A%!()#9 %6#5)')#3-$6%'&3%)"#4'-9#

palm leaves which are an effective, sustainable and economically-viable soil conservation technique. At

Sacavém Community biological geotextile mats were used in association with barriers of wooden stakes

and the construction of terraces along contour lines. The aim is to minimize soil erosion, by intercepting

rainfall, retarding runoff velocity and sediment loss.

keywords: Q),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&C$5./+!)"!(*&$#&L&*,GH&"+C$M&'!()*)+!+),"C$^)"&$+!)*)"1/C$Q.%)+)$H!+/C

RESUMO: O objetivo desse artigo é avaliar o papel dos geotêxteis biodegradáveis em áreas não-agrícolas, le-

vando em consideração os estudos desenvolvidos na Província de Gauteng (África do Sul) e na área

urbana do município de São Luis (Brasil). Nas ultimas décadas, a Província de Gauteng vem sofrendo

imensos problemas relacionados à reabilitação sustentável de áreas com rejeito de mineração. Este é

&9#,' $")#")6 :-;#7-!6#)66)6#')2)!%-6#6>-# (% 9)$%)#6&63)%B+)!6#C#)'-6>-;#% $%-#7)( #D,& ;#3-9-#7)(-#

vento. A proteção dessas superfícies por uma cobertura de gramíneas para reduzir a erosão é um método

sugerido por parte dos pesquisadores. A utilização de geotêxteis biodegradáveis constitui outra solução

7 ' # 6#3-97 $0! 6#")#9!$)' E>-;#7 ' # #"!9!$&!E>-#" #)'-6>-#6&7)':3! (#)# &AB(!-#7 ' #-#7'-3)66-#

de re-vegetação natural. Esse estudo teve como objetivo determinar os efeitos positivos da utilização

")#,)-%FA%)!6#3-$6%'&B" 6#3-9#:1' 6#")#7 (9)!' 6#$-#3-$%'-()#" #)'-6>-#6&7)':3! (;# #7 '%!'#"-#&6-#")#

um simulador de chuvas. Os resultados demonstraram claramente que a aplicação destas geotêxteis

')"&G!&#7)( #9)% ")# #3 ', #")#6)"!9)$%-6#$-#)63- 9)$%-#6&7)':3! (;#%)$"-#% 91H9#-#7-%)$3! (#7 ' #

estabilizar as encostas de rejeitos de mineração. A aplicação dos geotêxteis nos rejeitos não diminui o

)63- 9)$%-#6&7)':3! (;#$)9#9)(0-'-&# #!$:(%' E>-#" #D,& #$-#6-(-.#I #3!" ")#")#=>-#?&B6;#-6#,)-%FA-

%)!6#1!-"),' "D+)!6#4-' 9#3-$6%'&B"-6# #7 '%!'#")#4-(0 6#")#7 (9D3) 6;#J&)#6>-#):3!)$%)6;#6&6%)$%D+)!6#

e economicamente viáveis, como uma técnica de conservação do solo. Na comunidade de Sacavém os

geotêxteis foram usados em associação com paliçadas de madeira e foram feitos terraços, ao longo das

curvas de nível. O objetivo foi o de minimizar a erosão do solo, a partir da interceptação da chuva, que

')% '"-&# #+)(-3!" ")#"-#)63- 9)$%-#6&7)':3! (#);#3-$6)J&)$%)9)$%)#"!9!$&!&# #7)'" #")#6)"!9)$%-6.

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INTRODUCTION

5,)*$ #&1%!#!+),"$ (J$ &%,/),"$ )/$ ,"&$ ,0$ +'&$-,%*#j/$H,/+$/&%),./$&"L)%,"H&"+!*$G%,(*&H/4$2!./)"1$&3+&"/)L&$*,//$,0$2.*+)L!+&#$!"#$G,+&"+)!**J$G%,#.2+)AL&$/,)*$!"#$#&2%&!/&#$2%,G$J)&*#/$;K9 X7k$`STT4$DEE?k$^[MIS74$DEEB=C$]+$'!/$(&&"$&/+)H!+&#$+'!+$/,H&$?EEE$H)**),"$+,""&/$,0$/,)*$G&%$J&!%$'!L&$(&&"$&%,#&#$ 0%,H$ +'&$ 2,"+)"&"+!*$95S$ /)"2&$ +'&$ @g<E/$;K9 X7k$`STT4$DEE?=C$^!Z,%$2!./&/$,0$-!+&%$!"#$-)"#$&%,/),"$)"2*.#&$#&0,%&/+!+),"4$,L&%1%!8)"1$!"#$H)/H!"!1&H&"+$,0$!%!(*&$*!"#C$QJ$%&H,L)"1$L&1&A+!+),"$2,L&%$+'&$&%,/),"A%&/)/+)"1$2!G!2)+J$,0$+'&$/,)*$(&2,H&/$ #)/+.%(&#C$^,/+$ %&'!()*)+!+),"$ &00,%+/$ ,"$#&1%!#&#$ *!"#/$ )"L,*L&$ #)00&%&"+$ +&2'")l.&/$-')2'$2,.*#$ (&$ %&G%&/&"+&#$ (J$ +%!#)+),"!*$ &"1)"&&%)"1$ ,%$/,)*$(),&"1)"&&%)"1C

5,)*$(),&"1)"&&%)"1$'!/$(&&"$%&2,1")8&#$!/$!$+&2'")l.&$+,$G%,L)#&$/*,G&$/+!()*)8!+),"$!"#$&%,/),"$2,"+%,*4$+!d)"1$)"+,$!22,."+$(,+'$+%!#)+),"!*$&"1)"&&A%)"1$!"#$(),*,1)2!*$G%)"2)G*&/4$./)"1$*)L)"1$!"#$#&!#$L&1&+!+),"4$ !//,2)!+&#$-)+'$ 2,"/+%.2+),"$H!+&%)!*/C$7,%H!**J4$(),&"1)"&&%)"1$G%,Z&2+/$!%&$*&//$2,/+*J$+'!"$2,"L&"+),"!*$&"1)"&&%)"1$!"#$+'&J$'!L&$(&&"$!GG*)&#$)"$#)00&%&"+$/)+&/4$/.2'$!/$/+%&!H$(!"d$/+!()*)8!+),"4$%,!#/)#&$ /*,G&/4$ %)L&%$ %&/+,%!+),"4$ ')**/*,G&/4$H)"&$+!)*)"1/$!"#$1.**J$/*,G&/C$T'&/&$#)00&%&"+$&"L)%,"H&"+/$'!L&$#)/+)"2+$ 2'!%!2+&%)/+)2/4$(.+$2,HH,"$ *,2!+),"/$)"2*.#&$!1%)2.*+.%!*$!"#$","A!1%)2.*+.%!*$;&C$1C$H)"&$+!)*)"1/$!"#$.%(!"$!%&!/=$/)+&/C

K,%$+')/$G!G&%$-&$'!L&$2,"/)#&%&#$+-,$#)00&A%&"+$/)+.!+),"/4$)"$+&%H/$,0$","A!1%)2.*+.%!*$&%,/),"4$)"$ ,%#&%$ +,$ 2,"+%)(.+&$ +,-!%#/$ +'&$ !//&//H&"+$ !"#$%&'!()*)+!+),"$,0$#&1%!#&#$!%&!/C$T'&J$)"2*.#&>$H)"&$+!)*)"1$&%,/),"$)"$5,.+'$S0%)2!$!"#$.%(!"$1.**J$H,")A+,%)"1$!"#$*!"#$%&'!()*)+!+),"$)"$5c,$ .m/$̀ )+J4$Q%!8)*C

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,(Z&2+)L&$,0$ +'&$Q[MS5595$Y%,Z&2+$-!/$ +,$&L!*.A!+&$+'&$*,"1A+&%H$&00&2+)L&"&//$,0$+')/$+&2'",*,1J$)"$2,"+%,**)"1$ /,)*$ &%,/),"$!"#$ +'&)%$ /./+!)"!()*)+J$!"#$&2,",H)2$L)!()*)+J$)"$+'&/&$2,."+%)&/C

T'&$H!)"$,(Z&2+)L&$,0$+')/$G!G&%$)/$+,$!"!*J/&$+'&$%,*&$,0$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$,"$","A!1%)2.*+.%!*$&"L)%,"H&"+/4$ 2,"/)#&%)"1$ #)00&%&"+$H&+',#/$ !"#$+&2'")l.&/$!GG*)&#$,"$!$H)"&$+!)*)"1$;5,.+'$S0%)2!=$!"#$!"$.%(!"$!%&!$;5!,$ .)/$̀ )+J4$̂ !%!"'c,$5+!+&=C$]+$2,"/)#&%/$+'&$G%)"2)G*&/$,0$/,)*$(),&"1)"&&%)"1$%&*!+&#$+,$+'&$./&$,0$1&,+&3+)*&/$./)"1$#)00&%&"+$H&+',#/C$

STUDY AREAS

I!.+&"1$Y%,L)"2&$;5,.+'$S0%)2!=$!"#$5c,$ .m/$`)+J$;Q%!8)*=4$-&%&$/&*&2+&#$!/$2!/&$/+.#J$*,2!+),"/$0,%$+')/$ %&/&!%2'$ ;K)1.%&$@=4$ !/$ +'&J$-&%&$&3G&%)&"2)"1$#)00&%&"+$*!"#$#&1%!#!+),"$G%,(*&H/4$-)+'$+'&$G,+&"+)!*$,0$%&H&#)!*$./&$,0$(),&"1)"&&%)"1$+&2'")l.&/C

Gauteng (South Africa)

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São Luís City (Brazil)

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

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LocationMetal/mineralmined

Sand (

%)

Silt

(%)

Cla

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%)

pH

*

OC (

%)

ESP

CBD

Fe (%

)

Dominant clay minerals (%)

Ka MiTcPy

Sm Qz

Springs Gold 67 29 2 3.9 0.09 2.4 0.16 5 23 0 0 59

Northam Platinum 65 20 13 9.1 0.04 8.1 0.00 27 0 21 31 0

Cullinan Diamond 85 9 3 9.9 0.08 2.9 0.04 0 0 15 85 0

Rustenburg Chromium 91 6 3 8.9 0.01 1.2 0.02 4 0 13 80 2

Rustenburg Platinum 83 11 5 8.7 0.02 19.7 0.08 7 0 27 0 15

Witbank Coal 61 25 13 7.6 15.62 5.9 0.18 48 0 0 0 41

Rustenburg Silica 9 56 25 6.0 0.27 3.3 0.49 43 27 0 0 28

Stilfontein1 Gold 48 38 12 2.7 0.05 9.6 0.51 1 15 39 0 37

Stilfontein2 Gold 45 44 11 7.6 0.03 12.2 0.08 0 30 22 0 44

Brits Vanadium 92 6 0.3 9.1 0.07 9.1 0.31 39 0 0 0 27

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5+.#)&/$-&%&$ 2!%%)&#$ ,.+$ )"$ +'&$ *!(,%!+,%J$./)"1$ /,)*$ /!HG*&/$ 2,**&2+&#$ 0%,H$5!2!LpH$1.**J$-!**/$!"#$0%,H$+'&$1.**J$y,,%$+,$#&+&%H)"&$G!%+)2*&A

/)8&$#)/+%)(.+),"4$./)"1$X^QMSYS$;@ggf=$G%,+,2,*/C$V&1&+!+),"$2,L&%$)"#&3$-!/$H,")+,%&#$!"#$!//&//&#$,"$5!2!LpH$ %&'!()*)+!+),"$ /)+&4$ ./)"1$ G',+,1%!G'/$!"#$/.G&%L)/&#$2*!//)b2!+),"$+,,*/$!L!)*!(*&$)"$S%21)/$gC<4$-')2'$2!"$G&%0,%H$G)3&*A(!/&#$2*!//)b2!+),"C$T'&$G%,1%&//$,0$L&1&+!+),"$2,L&%$-!/$H,")+,%&#$-&&d*J$0%,H$^!%2'$DEEn$+,$^!J$DEEnC$T'&/&$G',+,/$-&%&$+!d&"$ !+$ +'&$ /!H&$G,)"+4$ ./)"1$-,,#$ /+!d&/$ ,"$ +'&$%&'!()*)+!+&#$/*,G&C

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Gauteng Province (South Africa)

[L&%$DEE4EEE$'!$,0$"!+.%!*$'!()+!+$'!L&$(&&"$#&1%!#&#$(J$H)")"1$!2+)L)+)&/$)"$5,.+'$S0%)2!C$T!)*)"1$#!H/$!%&$%&/G,"/)(*&$0,%$H!"J$,0$+'&/&$&"L)%,"H&"+!*$G%,(*&H/C$X/+!(*)/')"1$!$1%!//$2,L&%$+,$%&#.2&$&%,/),"$)/$+'&$#,H)"!"+$%&2*!H!+),"$H&+',#C$̀ '&H)2!*$H&+',A#/4$/.2'$!/$*)H&4$0&%+)*)8&%$!"#$2,HG,/+$!GG*)2!+),"/4$!%&$ 1&"&%!**J$ ./&#$ ;VS7$FXVX7TXMk$^SMS]54$DEE<=C$̀ ,L&%)"1$+'&$/*,G&/$-)+'$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$H)1'+$2,"/+)+.+&$!",+'&%$,G+),"$0,%$H)")"1$2,HG!")&/$+,$%&#.2&$&%,/),"$!"#$!)#$%&AL&1&+!+),"C$

K)1.%&$f>$`,"+)".,./$*)"&/>$!%&!/$%&'!()*)+!+&#$-)+'$Q.%)+)$G!*H$H!+/C$

o!+2'&#$*)"&/>$+'&$%&'!()*)+!+&#$!%&!$)"$5!2!LpH$`,HH.")+J4$5c,$ .m/4$Q%!8)*C$5,.%2&>$ SIX5[ [54$DEEnC

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�$Waste properties

T'&$-!/+&$/!HG*&/$L!%)&#$2,"/)#&%!(*J$-)+'$%&/G&2+$+,$+'&)%$+&3+.%!*4$2'&H)2!*$!"#$H)"&%!*,1)2!*$G%,G&%+)&/$;T!(*&$@=C$̂ ,/+$-&%&$/!"#A+&3+.%&#$!"#$+'&$2*!J$2,"+&"+$-!/$*,-C$T'&$Go$%!"1&#$0%,H$DCfAgCg4$-)+'$/&L&"$/!HG*&/$(&)"1$!*d!*)"&$!"#$+'%&&$!2)#)2C$U)+'$+'&$&32&G+),"$,0$+'&$2,!*$-!/+&$/!HG*&4$,%1!")2$2!%(,"$;[`=$2,"+&"+/$-&%&$*,-$;�ECDfs=C$F)+'),")+&A&3+%!2+!(*&$ )%,"$ ;`QFAK&=$ 2,"+&"+/$-&%&$ 1&"&%!**J$*,-4$G!%+)2.*!%*J$)"$+'&$+!)*)"1/4$!"#$+'&$&32'!"1&!(*&$2!+),"$G,G.*!+),"$-!/$#,H)"!+&#$(J$`!C$X32'!"1&A!(*&$7!$ G&%2&"+!1&/$ ;X5Y=$ %!"1&#$ 0%,H$@CDA@gCfC$5,H&$ 2*!J$ 0%!2+),"/$-&%&$ #,H)"!+&#$ (J$ d!,*)")+&4$/H&2+)+&4$H)2!4$GJ%,G'J**)+&$,%$l.!%+8C$T'&/&$%&/.*+/$!%&$2'!%!2+&%)/+)2$,0$+'&$(%,!#$%!"1&$,0$5,.+'$S0%)2!"$H)"&$-!/+&/C

�$Rainfall simulator results

S*+',.1'$&3G&%)H&"+!*$2,"#)+),"/$."#&%$+'&$%!)"0!**$-&%&$H!#&$!/$)#&"+)2!*$!/$G,//)(*&4$/)1")b2!"+$#)00&%&"2&/$&3)/+&#$)"$+'&$)"L&/+)1!+&#$&%,#)()*)+J$L!A%)!(*&/$;M[4$5 4$UXYY=$;T!(*&$D=C

�$Sediment load in runoff (SL)

5 $)"$%.",00$;1=$%!"1&#$0%,H$ECh$+,$Bgg4$-)+'$!$H&!"$,0$D?n$0,%$M."$@$!"#$DD<$0,%$M."$D$;T!(*&$D=C$["2&$ +'&$ +%!J/$-&%&$ 2,L&%&#$-)+'$ (),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/4$5 $#&2%&!/&#$2,"/)#&%!(*J$)"$!**$2!/&/$+,$!$H&!"$rhhs$,0$(!%&$+%&!+H&"+C$T')/$)"#)2!+&/$+'!+$G!*HAH!+/$'!L&$L&%J$(&"&b2)!*$&00&2+/$,"$&%,A/),"$%&#.2+),"C

�$ Runoff (RO)

M.",00$;2HA<=$%!"1&#$0%,H$<g@$+,$?Dgh$-)+'$!$H&!"$,0$DBhh$2H<$)"$M."$@$!"#$!*H,/+$)#&"+)2!*$L!*.&/$0,%$M."$DC$U'&"$+'&$/!HG*&/$-&%&$2,L&%&#$-)+'$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/4$H&!"$%.",00$L!*.&/$%&AH!)"&#$+'&$/!H&$0,%$M."$@$!"#$/*)1'+*J$#&2%&!/&#$0,%$M."$D$;T!(*&$D=C$T')/$)"#)2!+&/$+'!+$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$#,$",+$!*-!J/$%&#.2&$%.",00$L!*.&/C$T'&$0,**,-)"1$+%&"#/$(&+-&&"$/&*&2+&#$-!/+&$G!%!H&+&%/$!"#$ )"+&%%)**$ &%,#)()*)+J$ '!L&$ (&&"$ &/+!(*)/'&#>$ +'&$/)*+$ G&%2&"+!1&4$ 2,HH,"*J$ %&1!%#&#$ !/$ ,"&$ ,0$ +'&$H,/+$ )"y.&"+)!*$&%,/),"AG%,H,+)"1$G!%!H&+&%/$!"#$0&!+.%)"1$G%,H)"&"+*J$)"$W$&l.!+),"/4$-!/$!*/,$,"&$,0$+'&$H,/+$%&*&L!"+$&%,/),"$G!%!H&+&%/$)"$+'&$G%&/&"+$/+.#JC$`*!J$2,"+&"+$)"y.&"2&#$M[4$(.+$",+$5 C$T'&$)"y.&"2&$,0$+&3+.%&$(&2!H&$H,%&$G%,",."2&#$-'&"$+'&$+!)*)"1/$-&%&$2,L&%&#$-)+'$H!+/k$l.!%+8$!"#$H)2!$-&%&$+'&$#,H)"!"+$2*!J$G!%!H&+&%/$1,L&%")"1$)"+&%%)**$&%,#)()*)+Jk$+'&$X5Y4$,0+&"$!//,2)!+&#$-)+'$&%,/),"4$#)#$",+$/',-$!"J$#)/+)"2+$%&*!+),"/')G$+,$5 k$XYY$)"A2%&!/&#$-)+'>$!=$)"2%&!/)"1$/)*+$2,"+&"+; (=$)"2%&!/)"1$l.!%+8$!"#$H)2!$G%,G,%+),"/$)"$+'&$2*!J$0%!2+),"$!"#$2=$#&2%&!/)"1$/!"#$2,"+&"+$!"#$Gok$+'&$b"#)"1/$+'!+$H!+&%)!*/$-')2'$'!L&$+'&)%$2*!J$0%!2+),"/$#,H)"!+&#$(J$ l.!%+8$ !"#O,%$H)2!$ !%&$ 0!%$H,%&$ &%,#)(*&$ +'!"$/H&2+)+)2$,%$d!,*)")+)2$,"&/$!"#$+'!+$!$')1'$X5Y$#,&/$",+$"&2&//!%)*J$G%,H,+&$&%,/),"$!%&$",+&-,%+'JC

T!(*&$D>$^)")H.H4$H!3)H.H$!"#$H&!"$;)"$(%!2d&+/=$L!*.&/$,0$/&*&2+&#$&%,/),"$L!%)!(*&/C

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São Luis City (Brazil)

�$Rehabilitation work

F.&$+,$+'&$#)0b2.*+)&/$)"$#)L&%+)"1$+'&$y,-/4$-')2'$-,.*#$ %&l.)%&$H,%&$ &3+&"/)L&$ &"1)"&&%)"1$-,%d/4$+'&$2'!""&*$-!/$H!)"+!)"&#4$!"#$+'&$(!/&$,0$+'&$/*,G&/$-!/$/+%&"1+'&"&#$+,$/.GG,%+$+'&$y,-/$;K)1.%&$f>$!%%,-=C$]"$+'&$.GG&%$G!%+$,0$+')/$!%&!4$-')2'$'!#$rnx$/*,G&$!"1*&4$2,"+,.%$*)"&/$-&%&$/.%L&J&#$!"#$(!%%)&%/$,0$-,,#&"$/+!d&/$-&%&$./&#$+,$%&+!%#$%.",00$L&*,2)+J$0%,H$!#Z!2&"+$L&1&+!+&#$/*,G&/C$5,H&$/*,G&/$)"$+')/$G!%+$'!#$!$?hx$/*,G&$!"1*&$;K)1.%&$B>$G!%+$<=C$o,-&L&%4$+')/$!"1*&$)/$2,"/)#&%&#$+,,$/+&&G$0,%$+'&$!GG*)2!+),"$,0$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/C

]"$!%&!$D4$-,%d$-!/$2,HG*&+&#$+,$%&/'!G&$+'&$1.**)&/$!"#$2,"/+%.2+$+'&$r@D$H$')1'$+&%%!2&/$./)"1$+'&$1.**J$H!+&%)!*C$T%!2+,%$-,%d$-!/$)HG&#&#4$(&2!./&$,"$+'&$/&2,"#$+&%%!2&$+'&$+%!2+,%$'!#$#)0b2.*+J$)"$-,%d)"14$(&2!./&$+'&$')1'$/!"#$2,"+&"+$H!#&$+'&$/*,G&$."/+!(*&C$T'&/&$+&%%!2&/$!%&$2%,//&#$(J$!$y,-$2,"L&%1&"2&$!%&!4$-')2'$-!/$0,%H&#$(J$+'&$H&"$)"/&%+)"1$/!"#$(!1/4$#&2,HG,/)"1$G!*H$*&!L&/$!"#$1%!//$/&&#/4$+,$0,%H$!$L&1&+!+&#$2'!""&*$!0+&%$1%!//$1%,-+'C

Most erodible materials tend to be silts and

/!"#/4$-')2'$!%&$","A2,'&/)L&$!"#$/.0b2)&"+*J$/H!**$+,$(&$+%!"/G,%+&#$(J$+'&$y,-$%!+&/$2'!%!2+&%)/+)2$,0$%)**/$;K9 X7$!"#$`STT4$DEE?=C$]"$+'&$/+.#J$!%&!4$/,)*$+&3+.%!*$!"!*J/)/$2,"b%H/$+'&$2,!%/&$+&3+.%&$;T!A

T!(*&$<>$T'&$+&3+.%&$,0$/,)*$/!HG*&/$0%,H$5!2!LpH$1.**JC

Samples 5!"#$;s= 5)*+$;s= `*!J$;s=

@ gBCBf DCD< @C@E

D BnC?B D<CE? nChE

< n<CDh gCDh fChE

? gDCnh DCfh ?C?E

h g?CfB DC@? <C@E

B gBCBE @CBE @CnE

f g?C@h @CEh @CnE

n fnCgf @ECh< @EChE

g g?C@D <C<n DChE5!"#$�$DEEEAhE$~H4$/)*+$�$hEAD$~H$!"#$2*!J$�$�D$~HC

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K,%$,"&$H,"+'$!0+&%$ +'&$%&'!()*)+!+),"$-,%d$5c,$ .m/$̀ )+J$&3G&%)&"2&#$)"+&"/&$!"#$G%,*,"1&#$%!)"/$;T!(*&$?=4$-')2'$G%&/&"+&#$!++&"#!"+$G%,(*&H/$0,%$+'&$%&'!()*)+!+),"$-,%dC$o,-&L&%4$-&$ !1!)"$ &HG*,J&#$*,2!*$ G&,G*&$ +,$-,%d$ ,"$ /)+&$H!)"+&"!"2&$ ;K)1.%&$

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T&3+.%!*$#!+!$ /',-$ +'!+$ +'&$H!)"$2,HG,"&"+$H!+&%)!*/$,0$+'&$/*,G&/$!+$5!2!LpH$1.**J$!%&$/!"#/4$-)+'$H!"J$/!HG*&/$(&)"1$�gEs$/!"#$;T!(*&$<=C$T'./4$+'&$/,)*/$!%&$')1'*J$&%,#)(*&$!"#4$+'&%&0,%&4$+'&$./&$,0$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$)/$L&%J$)HG,%+!"+$+,$!%%&/+$+'&$&%,/),"$G%,2&//C

K)1.%&$g>$I%!//$#&L&*,GH&"+4$,"&AH,"+'$!0+&%$%&'!()*)+!+),"4$

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T!(*&$?>$F!)*J$H&+&,%,*,1)2!*$#!+!$0%,H$5c,$ .m/$`)+J$;@EOE<OEnAEgOE?OEn=C

Min. Temp. ;�`= Max. Temp. ;�`= Relative Humidity (%) Rain (mm) Date

D<C<$ <ECn$ fBCE hCE @EOE<ODEEn

D?C?$ <@Ch$ fnCE$ ECE @@OE<ODEEn

D?CD$ <EC?$ fnCE$ ECE @DOE<ODEEn

DDCn$ DgCn$ nECE$ DDCE @<OE<ODEEn

D<CD$ DBC?$ g@CE$ nCB @?OE<ODEEn

DDCn$ DgC?$ nhCE$ nCB @hOE<ODEEn



5,2)&#!#&$6$7!+.%&8!4$9(&%*:"#)!4$22$;<=>$?<@A??B4$#&8C$DE@E

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DDCg$ DnC?$ fECE$ n<CE @BOE<ODEEn

D<Cn$ DgC?$ fhCE$ @ECB @fOE<ODEEn

D<CE$ DBC<$ nDCE$ DnCB @nOE<ODEEn

D<C<$ DnCE$ n@CE$ DfC@ @gOE<ODEEn

DDCg$ <EC<$ f@CE$ EC? DEOE<ODEEn

D<CE$ DgCB$ f<CE$ <fC< D@OE<ODEEn

D<CD$ DgCD$ ffCE$ ECE DDOE<ODEEn

D<Cg$ <ECE$ f?CE$ DC< D<OE<ODEEn

D<Cg$ DfCB$ nECE$ <fCB D?OE<ODEEn

D?CE$ <ECE$ fnCE$ @Cn DhOE<ODEEn

D<C?$ DgC?$ n?CE$ <?CB DBOE<ODEEn

D<CB$ DfC?$ ngCE$ D?CD DfOE<ODEEn

D<CD$ <ECE$ f?CE$ <nCB DnOE<ODEEn

D?C<$ DgCE$ ffCE$ EC? DgOE<ODEEn

D<C?$ DfCB$ ghCE$ @ECB <EOE<ODEEn

D<Cn$ DnCg$ nBCE$ DnCB <@OE<ODEEn

D<CB$ DnCf$ nfCE$ @EDCD E@OE?ODEEn

D<CE$ DgCh$ BfCE$ gfCn EDOE?ODEEn

DDCf$ DgC?$ f?CE$ DgCB E<OE?ODEEn

D?C<$ <EC?$ fECE$ <C@ E?OE?ODEEn

D?CD$ DBCD$ gECE$ ECE EhOE?ODEEn

DDCE$ DfCE$ n@CE$ f@Cn EBOE?ODEEn

D<C<$ <@CD$ BnCE$ <Cf EfOE?ODEEn

D<Cn$ DgCf$ n<CE$ <hCB EnOE?ODEEn

D<Cn$ <@CD$ ffCE$ ECE EgOE?ODEEn

- - � 753.7 -

K)1.%&$@E>$^!)"+&"!"2&$-,%d$!+$+'&$%&'!()*)+!+&#$!%&!$,"&$H,"+'$!0+&%$%&'!()*)+!+),"4$5!2!LpH$2,HH.")+J4$5c,$ .m/4$Q%!8)*C$5,.%2&>$

SIX5[ [54$DEEnCV

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CONCLUSIONS

T'&$ 2,"2*./),"/$ 0,%$ +')/$ G!G&%$ +!d&$ )"+,$!22,."+$&!2'$G%&/&"+&#$/+.#J$!%&!C$]"$+')/$-!J4$-&$2!"$ !##%&//$ +'&$ %,*&$ ,0$ (),*,1)2!*$ 1&,+&3+)*&/$ ,"$+'&$ /+!()*)+J$ ,0$ ","A!1%)2.*+.%!*$ &"L)%,"H&"+/$ )"$+-,$#)00&%&"+$2,."+%)&/C$T'&$,(Z&2+)L&$-!/$%&!2'&#$(J$!$2,H()"!+),"$,0$b&*#4$&3G&%)H&"+!*$!"#$*!(,A%!+,%J$/+.#)&/4$-')2'$/.11&/+$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$2,"/+%.2+&#$0%,H$G!*H$*&!L&/$!%&$!"$&00&2+)L&4$/./A+!)"!(*&$!"#$&2,",H)2!**JAL)!(*&$/,)*$2,"/&%L!+),"$+&2'")l.&C$ ]+$ 2!"$ (&$ ./&#$ +,$ )HG%,L&$ &2,/J/+&H$H!"!1&H&"+4$#&2%&!/)"1$#&0,%&/+!+),"4$)HG%,L)"1$!1%,0,%&/+%J$!"#$2,/+A&00&2+)L&$!GG*)2!+),"/$)"$#)AL&%/&$&"L)%,"H&"+/C

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T'&$H!)"$G.%G,/&$,0$+')/$/+.#J$-!/$+,$!//&//$+'&$&00&2+/$,0$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$,"$+'&$/+!()*)+J$,0$","A!1%)2.*+.%!*$&"L)%,"H&"+/4$2,"/)#&%)"1$#)00&%&"+$/)+&/$ !"#$H&+',#/C$S*+',.1'$ #)00&%&"+$ +&2'")l.&/$-&%&$ ./&#4$ +'&$ %&/.*+/$ )"#)2!+&$ +'!+$ G,/)+)L&$ &00&2+/$,0$ (),*,1)2!*$ 1&,+&3+)*&/$ 2!"$ (&$ !2')&L&#C$ K)%/+4$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$,00&%$G,+&"+)!*$0,%$/./+!)"!(*&$#&L&*,GH&"+$!"#$/,)*$2,"/&%L!+),"C$5&2,"#4$+'&J$2!"$!*/,$(&$./&#$0,%$&2,",H)2$#&L&*,GH&"+4$2%&!+)"1$Z,(/$!"#$%&#.2)"1$G,L&%+J$)"$G,,%$%.%!*$!"#$.%(!"$%&1),"/C$K)"!**J4$+'&$%&'!()*)+!+),"$,0$#&1%!#&#$/,)*/$!+$+'&/&$/)+&/$./)"1$(),*,1)2!*$1&,+&3+)*&/$H!J$'&*G$+,$%&2,L&%$/+!(*&$2,"#)+),"/C

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T')/$%&/&!%2'$0,%H/$G!%+$,0$+'&$Q[MS5595$Y%,Z&2+$ vT'&$ &"L)%,"H&"+!*$ !"#$ /,2),A&2,",H)2$2,"+%)(.+),"/$,0$G!*HA*&!0$1&,+&3+)*&/$+,$/./+!)"!(*&$#&L&*,GH&"+$!"#$/,)*$2,"/&%L!+),"j$;2,"+%!2+$".H(&%>$]7`[A`TADEEhAh@Ef?h=4$ 0."#&#$ (J$ +'&$X.%,G&!"$`,HH)//),"$;X`=4$5G&2)b2$T!%1&+&#$M&/&!%2'$Y%,AZ&2+/$;KYBA5TMXY/=$0,%$F&L&*,G)"1$̀ ,."+%)&/$;]7`[AFXV=$Y%,1%!HH&C$T')/$Y%,Z&2+$ )/$ #&#)2!+&#$ +,$ +'&$H&H,%J$,0$F%$W!+'J$F!L)&/4$-',$-!/$+'&$)")+)!+,%$!"#$)"/G)%!+),"$0,%$G!*HA*&!0$1&,+&3+)*&$%&/&!%2'C$U&$!%&$1%!+&0.*$+,$Y%,0&//,%$^)d&$K.**&"$;9")L&%/)+J$,0$U,*L&%'!HG+,"=$0,%$'!L)"1$%&!#$+'&$b%/+$L&%/),"$,0$+')/$G!G&%$!"#$'!L)"1$H!#&$./&0.*$/.11&/+),"/C$



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XF]74$^Ck$ YXFXM5X74$WC$T'&$ &"L)%,"H&"+!*$)HG!2+$,0$H)"&$-!/+&/$ A$M,*&/$,0$H)2%,A,%1!")/H/$!"#$ +'&)%$ /)1")b2!"2&$ )"$ +%&!+H&"+$ ,0$H)"&$-!/+&/C$Earth-Science Reviews.$?@4$GC$BfA@EnC$@ggBC

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e dos municípios de Alcântara, Bacabeira, Rosário e São Luís. M&*!+�%),$+p2")2,C$@ggnC

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5STo XM4$MCk$I9XMMS4$SC$NC$TCk$Y[ ]VS7[V4$oCk$^SM�S 4$̂ C$X%,/)L&$G%,2&//&/$)"$.%(!"$!%&!/$)"$+'&$)/*!"#$,0$^!%!"'c,$P$Q%!8)*C$Sociedade & Natureza, 9(&%*:"#)!4$5G&2)!*$]//.&4$GC$@B@A@f<4$DEEhC

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VS X7T]74$ `Ck$SI954$ KCk$S S^QS74$ MCk$Q[[5S7XM4$SCk$ QM]`|9XT4$ NC$ YCk$ òSY [T4$VCk$I9q^S74$TC$FCk$M[9U4$SCk$ NS7XS94$ NC Ck$[MS7IX4$FCk$YoSò[^Yo[7o4$WCk$YoS]4$FCk$Y[FU[NXU5W]4$YCk$M]Q[ q]4$[Ck$5] VXMS4$7Ck$59QSIz[7[4$WCk$To]�QS9e4$NC$YCk$TMS7$FC$TCk$VSFSM4$TC$ ]C$oC$M.",00$!"#$/&#)H&"+$ *,//&/$ 0%,H$Df$.G*!"#$2!+2'H&"+/$ )"$5,.+'&!/+$S/)!>$ ]HG!2+$,0$%!G)#$ *!"#$./&$ 2'!"1&/$ !"#$ 2,"/&%L!+),"$G%!2+)2&/C$

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VS7$FXVX7TXM4$YCUCk$̂ SMS]54$̂ C$̀ ,"/,*)#!+&#$`*,/.%&$Y*!"$0,%$+'&$̀ '&H-&/$X"L)%,"H&"+!*$M&H&A#)!+),"$Y%,Z&2+C$Report submitted to the Dept. Min. Energy4$W*&%d/#,%GC$DEE<C

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