Land Degradation and Opportunities for Sustainable

Land Degradation and Opportunities for Sustainable

Management of Kagera River Basin-Tanzania

F. Baijukya, F. Kaihura and J. Thomas Kagera- TAMP, Tanzania

General characteristics of the basin

Natural features

• Hilly terrain – vulnerable to soil erosion

• Poor parent material (Sandstone, shales, quartzite) – soils have low nutrient contents

• High rainfall – erosion, leaching of nutrients

Socio-economic features

• Highly populated and diverse ethnic composition

• The majority of people live under poverty line

• Poor infrastructure- unavailability of inputs, market of agric. produces, supply of industrial products

• Poor social services (education, health)

• Inadequate trained personnel – extension services (remoteness)

Summary of findings on land resource degradation, their implications and opportunities for sustainable land management

Issues Findings Implications Opportunities

Land degradation

Extensive soil erosion (all sites) as a result of:

Deforestation Bush fires Over grazing Poor farming practices

• Loss of land productivity • Declining soil productivity • Siltation of springs, rivers and

lakes

• Promotion integrated land resource management (e.g. conservation agriculture, contouring, terracing, agro-forestry)

Lack of awareness on land use planning

Lack of awareness on soil conservation measures

Declining availability of good agricultural land (in the highland) due to:

Land fragmentation Expanded settlements Urbanization

Privatization of land

• Threat to food security as the

majority of people depend on land resources for their livelihoods

• Encroachment of wetlands, forest reserves and marginal lands (poor households)

• Awareness creation and sensitization of communities on soil erosion control

• Introduce participatory land use planning

• Forests and woodland

Disappearance natural forests due to:

Unsustainable agriculture Increased energy demand

(charcoal, brick making) Lack of technology for

forest and woodland conservation

Grazing

• Disappearance of biodiversity

(wildlife as well as useful plant species)

• High value indigenous tree species replaced by exotic species (eucalyptus)

• Loss of vegetation cover, loss of catchments value

• Reduced ground water recharge • Drought

• Promote aforestation • Promote agroforestry • Encourage use of renewable

energy technologies (e.g. biogas) • Promote commercialization of

forest products • Adopt forest policy and develop

bylaws to conserve forests and woodland

• Promote tourism • Empower local communities to

conserver forests and woodlands A B

Plate 1. Encroachments of natural forest (A), and tree panted in the farm (B) as observed in Kahanga transect, Karagwe district.


Wetlands • Siltation due to soil erosion

• Over exploitation (to farming activities) land shortage

Flooding Declining water quality Declining wetland biodiversity Declining water table and water recharge

• Control soil erosion on upland • Improve productivity on dry land • Strengthen policy for protection/

conservation of wetlands

Scarcity of is scarce for domestic use and livestock – particularly in upland areas

Loss of labour productivity (women walk long distances to

Introduction of water harvesting techniques

Plate 2. Encroachment of wetland a problem rural and urban areas

People and livestock have to move up

to 5km (?) to obtain water Wells and watering points mostly in

lowland areas

collect water Low productivity of livestock

Protect water sources


Pasture/ Range

Declining area for grazing -conflict between farmers and livestock keepers Pasture degradation (extinction of palatable due to overgrazing, overstocking bush fire Drying of watering points for animals

• Poor livestock productivity • Declining number of

livestock (highly populated areas)

Promote participatory land use planning Construct charco-dams De-stocking Enforce laws on pasture/ range management


Livestock

Declining cattle productivity due to Overstocking

Diseases – uncontrolled cattle movement (trans boundary)

Inadequate water Poor markets Poor genetic base

• Poor livestock productivity • Declining number of

livestock (highly populated areas)

• Increased

• Enforce laws on livestock movements (cross-border dialogue, livestock control points)

• Construct charco-dams

• De-stocking

ISSUE - CROPS Findings Implications Opportunities DECLINE PRODUCTION

a) Pest and diseases,

a) Extension of agriculture

Improved/crop management, building on the

b) Moisture stress (prolonged droughts)

c) Poor Knowledge on crop management

d) Declining soil fertility (leaching, nutrient mining)

e) Labor shortage

in of Opening up more land for cultivation = land degradation

b) disappearance of local varieties = loss of agro – biodiversity

c) Decline in household income – health, education, housing, clothes

IPM/SHM/CA FFS initiatives Improved inputs use and support to input

supply Training to extension staff on improved crop

husbandry and participatory techniques Increase soil fertility/health initiatives

building on KAEMP IPM/N, FAO SPI and CA initiatives

Introduce zero grazing animal keeping also small stocks also building on KALIDEP/KADADET initiatives and facilities

DISSAPEARANCE OF CULTIVARS Inter and intraspecies

a) Loss of agro-biodiversity b) Loss of indigenous knowledge on management of disappearing cultivars c) Dependence on introduced crops

Improve market for local crop cultivars Start up varietal gardens for disappearing

species and their propagation Up hold and conserve indigenous knowledge

for management of local species e.g. through FFS

KNOWLEDGE OF MODERN CROP MANAGEMENT Lack of knowledge in modern crop management

a) CA not comprehensively done – extensive tilling of the soil, burning of weeds, little or no knowledge on cover (leguminous) crops

b) No enough knowledge on EM – non also in primary schools

c) Lack of enough extension staff, wide coverage for

a. General production decline due to lack of knowledge on how to conserve soil moisture and nutrients restoration

b. Miss use of pesticides in some instances hence increased cost of production and environmental pollution

extension, staff working facilities e.g. Kirushya village have not seen extension staff since 1995

d) Little knowledge on improved cultivars

DISAPEARANCE OF INDEGENOUS KNOWLEDGE ON CROP MANAG.

No vertical movement of knowledge from elders to youngsters ( knowledge heritage

Increased dependence on external input technologies

Other issues: MARKETS AND MARKETING, PROCESSING

Biodiversity (Tanzania transects)

Major land use Findings/Problems Opportunities Challenges

Rivers and wetlands:

-Declining fish diversity in Ngono river; Uncontrolled fishing traps; Use of small size fishing nets.

High diversity of fish in lake Kitwe (6 types) threatened by mud build up by sediment as well as shortage of rains.

Small size fishing nets (3.5 in),

Small fish at the market

Turbid water flow for Ruvubu river; cattle grazing along river, cutting natural riverine forest to burn bricks and exploiting termite mount soils for brick making.

-Create awareness on the effects of uncontrolled fishing;

-Develop regulatory mechanisms for local traps e.g. by-laws;

Establish common interest groups on river banks and lake shore land management.

Community education on sustainable fishing.

Communities sensitization of impacts of forest and soil biodiversity mining and enforce existing by-laws,

Develop community based monitoring strategies and brick burning centres.

Village leaders as part of community, unwilling to implement by-laws.

Members of the community are part of the problem.

Fish may be the only quick, cheap and reliable source of protein,

Soils away from the river banks may not the best for brick making.

Intensive maize/beans/cassava/sweet potato system (Ngara).

Occupation of new land by Bugufi people without pre-land use plans to control observed erosion, pest and disease incidences affecting ecosystem diversity.

Limited attention to pest and disease control for banana as a secondary/tertiary crop.

Indigenous livestock being introduced by in coming people who do not have proper improvement and management technologies

Very few extension staff

Mobilize community participatory land use plans before allocating people to new land.

Develop banana value adding products to promote good banana husbandry and existing seed distribution partners to introduce improved seeds

Improve productive potential of newly introduced indigenous livestock and integrate them in the cropping system, Develop soil life enhancing and

Mobilization of resources for community based activities are expensive,

Local market for banana processed products limiting.

Facilitation of trained FFS graduates to do work (especially transport and accommodation) unreliable.

DDT use greatly influenced by level of infestation and absence of effective alternatives



Importing DDT from Burundi to control pests!!

promoting technologies in partly dealing with soil born pests and diseases, Promote initiated FFS approaches for more subject matter specialists to facilitate extension work in deficit areas.

Create awareness on DDT and related chemicals and promote biological control strategies



Intensive coffee /banana system

-Perennial

Production for selling of beer and cooking bananas affecting soil productivity and biodiversity.

Poor below ground biodiversity for farmers without livestock

Rich farmers occupying fertile land and poor farmers on poor soils!

Decrease in diversity of indigenous tree associations in bananas/coffee farms e.g. Mitoma (Ficus thonningii), Mimeshe (Borassus aethiopum), Mihumula (Maesopsis eminii), Minembe (Mangifera indica) and Mijuju (Ficus spp).

-Decrease in diversity of plants associations of economic, social and cultural value in the system e.g. medicinal plants, beverages, biological vermin baits, etc.).

Promote nutrient recycling and biodiversity enhancing technologies (Selling beer and recycling peels, instead of selling beer bananas)

Promote already developed interest of keeping pigs and easy to manage livestock for resource poor farmers

Develop poor farmers focused training/demonstration activities

Promote conservation of natural systems to balance natural and managed biodiversity.

Establish farmer field visits to farmers with indigenous trees agroforestry for training, also introduce improved agroforestry trees in banana.

Diversity of economic plants and beverages still abundant in poor farmers’ fields and the elderly interested to transfer indigenous knowledge of crops and plants to youths

Develop incentives for youths to be interested in agriculture;

Previous and current research has not been successful in reducing the problem.

Investment in pest/disease interactions may be expensive;

Youths many not be interested in agriculture.

Labour to prepare and process local beer may be limiting for many households;

Making beer may be contrary to strong believers in religion;

-Conflicts may arise between people of different religions when pigs become popular.

Custodians of indigenous knowledge currently few and fast disappearing.



-Annual Dominantly indigenous cultivation; Neither new varieties nor information; Extension services limiting; many varieties of crops (maize, beans, cassava, sweet potatoes, millet, coffee, pigeon peas, groundnuts and sorghum). Selection criteria include: high yielding, early maturity, size of grain in relation to planting requirements, filling the pot before or after cooking (kuvimba), market price, flavour when cooked or roasted, tolerance to heavy rains or drought, tolerant to low fertility and pests, multipurpose services (food and beer (Bananas), ugali, porridge and beer (sorghum) or firewood, food and vegetable (cassava) long storage after harvest or in the field for in-situ piece meal harvesting (cassava), cooking, roasting and chewing (cassava) food colour and taste (beans), food and income (bananas). New varieties include: Hybrid maize and Katumani. A few improved bean varieties by KAEMP (Rosekoko), Research (Lyamungo, Kaura, Kanada and Uyole 84). At the moment both indigenous and improved varieties mixed up. Names of different varieties and their characteristics including selection and elimination criteria not known by youths

Varieties from Burundi e.g. Magwabali, Mukwaralaye and Amasimbatala; Rwanda: Mlembegwa/Mshingilile. Other varieties exist by business people and government. Research varieties do not take account of

Facilitate annual supplies of improved seed for those who can buy and promote use of quality declared seed materials for the rest.

Organise field demonstrations and botanical gardens of indigenous economic, social and cultural plants, trees, fruits, crops and beverages with knowledgeable elderly as facilitators.

Initiate community based quality declared seed selection and dissemination procedures;

Develop incentives for safe entry of preferred varieties/breeds and their distribution with partnership e.g. RUDO,

Initiate indigenous knowledge transfer strategies (incentives to agricultural production for youths); Establish curricula for indigenous knowledge in primary and secondary schools;

Conduct demonstrations in nutrient demand and cycling using existing and new FFS on soil health and crop improvement and make effective use of graduating FFS farmers.

Collaboration between research and FFS and CIG to develop farmer desirable varieties observing farmers’ criteria.

Mainstreaming initiatives between ministries to be able to address

Few interested elderly people to conduct or manage demonstration/botanical gardens not available;

Predators to common pests and diseases not widely available.

Several ministries reluctant to adopt mainstreaming!!



Open grasslands Remnant ravine forest with diverse trees and plants with very fertile soils and reliable source of poles, firewood and medicine.

Sheet and rill erosion on hilltops and woodlots, frequent fire outbreaks n dry seasons; shallow soils with eroded steep slopes; exposed tree roots and pedestals

Hilltops acidic as evidenced by Acanthermonous spp but changing vegetation to Albizia gummifera, Acanthus pubescence and Vernonia amygadara dominance in middle and lower slopes as indicator of fertility as soil depth increases and topsoil from hilltops deposits with

Conduct training on the need to conserve natural forests in supporting livelihoods and modulating the environment.

Conservation of natural woodlots in extinction and establishment of planted ones.

Community based land use planning and rehabilitation of degraded lands

Develop strategies for control of fire outbreaks

Resource poor farmers (the majority) exploit nature to earn a living

Grazing, shifting cultivation

Subsurface hardpan due to overstocking and continued grazing;

Evidence of surface erosion with well developed pedestals, sheet and rill erosion;

Create awareness to overgrazing effects and introduce alternative grazing technologies (e.g. partitioning land to livestock keepers at acceptable carrying capacities, Ref. Rwanda).

Initiate and establish community based by-laws establishment and monitoring for fire, trees cutting, charcoal making etc;

Keeping many cows is tradition and sign of wealth;

Problems associated with village leader implementing by-laws as community members,



Woodlots (Planted and natural

Planted woodlots without firebreaks and vulnerable to bushfires;

Natural woodlot trees open to public uncontrolled harvesting.

Establishment of fire outbreaks for planted woodlots

Establish by-laws against uncontrolled tree cutting of woodlots.

Management of established firebreaks on long term basis,

Unwillingness to respect and implement by-laws.

Natural forest Uncontrolled tree cutting for timber, charcoal, sales and construction,

Decreasing number and types of wild animals.

Most valuable indigenous trees e.g. Podocarpus spp cut for timber without replanting,

Minziro forest had greatest diversity with 53 different species in a 20 x 20 m2 with indicators of high fertility e.g. Warbugia Ugandencis and Acacia albida. Soil biodiversity was greatest as well with loam and light soils not found elsewhere in the transect.

Transfer ownership and sharing of benefits of natural resources to communities and not government.

Promote pine woodlots as an existing current preference by farmers.

Poachers of resources may be from the same surrounding communities.

Monoculture of woodlots like pines may be interrupted by diseases

Traditional/ monocropping

Banana/coffee farms dominantly agroforestry with varying diversity of crops, medicinal plants, fruits and vegetables several of which have disappeared.

Traditional cultivation systems were mixed cropping involving combinations of banana/coffee /cassava/maize/beans; maize /beans; groundnuts/cowpeas but also monocrops of millet, sorghum and chickpeas.

Most annuals harvested as whole plans

Documentation and recovery of species in extinction

Develop alternative strategies of mulching including cover crops and agroforestry but also by-laws on fire outbreaks.

Develop community or landscape level land management strategies including intensification.

Develop improved inputs technologies of green manuring,

Knowledgeable people may not be easily found

Potential indigenous materials have disappeared or found in ecologies far away.

Many farmers still very sceptical on the use of inorganic fertilizers.

Farmers often do not disclose their ways of managing difficult situations.



and transported to the homesteads without returns of residues back to the support fields.

Immobilization of nutrients through incorporation of poor quality plant/crop residues inputs.

Many local varieties of bananas and no improved varieties

legume cover crops with and without inorganic fertilizers.

Develop existing potential user preferred banana varieties and improve crop husbandry practices.

Improve on farmer seed sourcing mechanisms and facilitate quick internal information exchange mechanisms.

Vegetation cover Declined as a result of low biomass production, drought, declining fertility, continuous cultivation on same pieces of land due to population pressure and fire outbreaks.

Surface cover ranging from 100% in Minziro natural forest, to 5-10% in eucalyptus woodlots on sloping lands with many exposed roots. Most grasslands affected by fire burning.

Grasslands moderately vegetated with cover ranging from 5-10% in burnt areas to 60 in fresh grasslands. There is evidence of sheet and rill erosion and in a few cases gullies due to overstocking (e.g. 2 million cattle in the area surrounding Minziro forest).

Subsurface compaction due to grazing affecting biomass production as well as surface sealing and crusting due to erosion.

Introduction of environmentally friendly woodlot species, sensitization and elimination of degrading eucalyptus gradually.

Develop by-laws to regulate/control fire burning.

Develop participatory community based grazing land management by-laws involving in-migrants and local people.

Introduce rotational grazing and allow in-situ rehabilitation of degraded pastures, Include beehives in area to repel cattle.

Create awareness to community on existence and effects of subsurface compaction and mitigation strategies.

Fast growing species to catch up with growing demands not easily available.

Community leaders hesitation to implement by-laws.

Some individuals afraid of working with bees.

Mitigation strategies are expensive without external support.



Biological control pests/diseases

Mechanical trapping of weevils on the banana stems, ashes on leaves, mixing squeezed juices of Mubilizi (Vernonia amygdalana), etc and spraying plant leaves. Treating beans with Msonobari leaves, treating beans with a paste of mixed red clay and silt soil, mixes of ashes and anthill soil, mix of harvest with Kaitamango ?? ; Application of soil on top of plants to control stalk borers; mruturutu + cattle urine mix for stalk borer control,

Farmers not conversant with predators as control measure against pests and diseases.

Storage: Hanging cobs on tree branches, seed coating with clay soil, bagging with banana leaves.

Banana weevil and nematodes, caterpillars, panama disease, coffee rust, whipping out sweet bananas, coffee, and potatoes as examples;

Continued education and evaluation of the performance of indigenous control measures by a wider community,

Field visits to successful coffee growers in controlling specific coffee pests

Develop improved storage facilities at bearable costs.

-Develop training programme on pest/ disease and fertility relations and control;

-Improved soil productivity technologies may reduce nematode and weevil incidences;

-Conduct studies to introduce panama tolerance traits to sweet varieties.

Field visits may be expensive if successful control measures cannot be found in the neighbourhood.

Soil & Water management

Limited improved technologies in SWC; Current technologies include: mulching coffee and bananas and shading with myopsis trees in bananas fields, incorporation of biomas, crop residues and weeds. composting during dry season and applying at planting, burning crop residues to get rid of snake hiding in compost heaps, bush clearing to facilitate hunting, construction of drainage channels but limited with

Capacity building in Soil and Water management using successful extension approaches including Farmer Field Schools in Land and water Management (FFS-LWM) and common interest groups (CIG).

Demonstrations in better use of locally available resources like coffee husks and proper use chemical fertilizers using integrated

Release of land by farmers for demonstration and learning purposes a problem.

Improving efficiency of coffee husks may require threshing fresh instead of dried coffee!



knowledge in SWM.

Mulch thickness and distribution declining due to labour shortage, bushfires.

Maize and beans planted on bare ploughed surfaces, poor utilization of coffee husks as mulch, reluctance of farmers applying chemical fertilizers in soils particularly kibanja soils.

nutrient management.

Disappearing biodiversity

Nitrogen fixing potential reduction (few legume nodules effectively fixing nitrogen, number and size of nodules are few and small) implicitly other processes of nutrient cycling of N, P, S, etc,

Crops: Simsim (Obwonza), millet (Oburoi), yams (ebirai), sunflower, bambaranuts, pigeon peas, sweet banana varieties of kanana, njoge. Reasons: drought, low prices, pests and diseases & declining fertility; Sweet beer bananas (Kainja, Kisubi, Enjoge due to panama, cassava due to batobato, sweet potatoes due to leaf pasts??). Sorghum var Ngweza due to high labour demand (no crop without repeated weeding); Cassava var Mijoha (Often stolen in the field). Six bean varieties in Ngara disappearing because of weather changes, declining soil fertility, population increase, rainfall unreliability and potential low yields. Trees: Mishambya (Markhamia lutea) for timber, Fito (Enkuraijo), emitongole,

Establishment of programme to conserve endangered species and establish alternative species e.g. in woodlots regeneration

Disseminate multipurpose banana varieties

Activities to improve soil conditions of N2 fixation or introduction of nitrogen fixing inoculums, and other nutrient cycling processes.

Alternative trees may not be a preference to users or buyers.

Most introduced banana varieties not well accepted as quality cooking and beer bananas.

Inoculums may not be easily available to farmers (not in the market)



eminyinya, enkukuru, obukagati, (making ntukuru) and emiziyo ?? Reasons: Extension of farms into open land due to population pressure, livestock pressure & drought. Medicinal plants: Entale yeirungu (Fagara chalybea), umugabagaba, umuziku, umubilizi, enyamashumi, kagulukandai, umukorokombe, omwamira, umukanza and umusheshe. Reasons: fire outbreaks, drought, livestock pressure, fertility decline. Forest ravines in Karagwe only reliable source of medicinal plants, social and economically valuable plants.

Wildlife: Has disappeared because of clearing bushes and forests and population pressure. Wildlife feeding on domestic livestock and foods like vimburu chimpanzee still exist. Landscape and ecology characteristics of most medicinal plants changing due to land degradation leading to extinction of such plants but also knowledge of the same only limited to few elderly

Pollinators Decreasing populations of small and ordinary bees, butterflies, beetles (ebitanda, ebijunjumira) due to due to spraying pesticides to kill birds, flies and mosquitoes; bees disappearing because less beehives are made, decreased diversity of insects due to clearing of forests, harvesting honey using fire,

Promotion of friendly biological control and management of pollinators.

Farmers realise the decrease in number but do not find it a problem yet.



chemicals or toxic/strong repelling chemicals, reduced flowers and flowering in the forests making insects miss their homes.

Land use and management

No land use plans. By-laws in land management exist, committees to settle land disputes and Community by-laws also exist (in many places) but not implemented.

Tenure is by inheritance through parents and greatly affects youths who cannot acquire land before they marry and full access and control before parents die.

Land more limiting in high rainfall than low rainfall areas.

Very few farmers and mostly the elderly conversant with local soil names and soil characteristics.

Introduction of village participatory land use plans,

Create incentives for executing established by-laws.

Continue and expand current programme on FFS-LWM with emphasis on intensive land management technologies

Review procedures for access and control of land to youths and incentives for investment in agriculture (credit services, high value crops, more processing and selling beer instead of beer bananas (Youths interested in selling beer as a quick way of getting income).

Participatory LUP may not be effective in banana/coffee based farming system.

Fertility status Dominantly poor and declining soil fertility due to soil nutrient mining, erosion, use of poor quality soil organic inputs (resulting in net immobilization of nutrients), reduced soil qualities of moisture retention and soil life supporting conditions.

Development of integrated soil quality improvement using existing FFS in Land and Water Management.

Soil quality degradation draws land users attention when crops get stunted and yields decline which is then too late.

Limited resources for investment

Risk of erosion Overall moderate sheet and rill erosion but serious on hilltops and slopes where gullies may be found. Brick making, overstocking, charcoal making, crop residues burning, fire burning, etc.

Develop appropriate land use plans, by-laws and incentives to implement them.

Capacity building of extension

In cases where causal factors are from neighbouring countries planning may not be respected.



accelerate erosion and deforestation.

Limited technologies to control erosion.

facilitators and communities in soil erosion factors and processes and its mitigation

Water flow in rivers

Drying up of permanent water springs and year round livestock drinking points. Claimed to be due to planting eucalyptus trees in the areas.

Drying of valley bottom pumped wells during the dry season instead of year round supply of domestic water,

Changes from permanent to seasonal water supplies e.g.Nyaburumbi and Mkajagali valley bottoms drying up gradually; Decreasing water depth of Ruvubu river at some points, making it possible to cross on foot for 8-10 months a year,

Delays in onset and early cessation of rains

Develop programme to gradually eliminate destructive eucalyptus and introduce new species.

Community conservation of water sources and monitoring of degradative practices

Periodicity Extended period of drought/famine in Karagwe since 2000 to 2005 causing increased expenditure on buying food; Incidences of floods on Ruvubu river without any adaptation mechanisms, extended period of change to low in price of coffee reducing/uprooting coffee farms or abandoning them/poorly managing them,

Introduction and good management of farmer quality declared seed materials tolerant to drought,

Introduction of alternative crops with high price and quick returns e.g. horticultural crops.

Livelihoods Labour very limiting and greatly Develop incentives for youths to Very few youths interested in



affecting women. Low prices of agricultural products, unreliable markets, delays for youths accessing land, poor soil productivity and crop yields are major factors pushing energetic youths to towns for selling labour to others.

HIV/AIDs affecting labour for agric production and diverts limited incomes into care and medicine, but little knowledge on HIV/AIDs.

Malaria affecting mostly children also frequent abortions;

Resource poor farmers unable to invest in agriculture. Request: Credit institutions with farmer friendly loans for investment in agriculture.

Indigenous knowledge in traditional medicine, soils and their characteristics declining;

Intellectual property rights not existing and external people and nations enjoying the benefits of community indigenous knowledge on plants, soils and their services leaving local people poor.

Majority very poor, lacking technologies, information as well as services e.g. dispensaries at distant places, high cost of medicines, land degrading very fast despite low populations at the moment, housing dominantly mud and grass

invest in agriculture and stop moving to urban areas.

Collaborate with HIV/AIDs and Malaria control programmes to reduce disease incidences

Develop land management technologies appropriate for different soil types and farmer categories.

Establish credit institutions geared towards enabling farmers invest in agriculture.

Linking FFS or CIG farmers with farmer friendly credit institutions to obtain loans.

Develop incentives for investing in traditional medicine and establish protective IPR against outsiders.

agriculture as a business but with high interest in dancing, acting and vendoring

Some credit institutions not flexible with loan conditions.

Willing elders to train youths decreasing very fast and for some diseases treatment remains a secret.

Collaborators sometimes demand staff facilitation from the host projects.

Documents

Land Degradation and Opportunities for Sustainable