Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Plan

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LAKE SIMCOE

BASIN WIDE REPORT

MARCH 20, 2008



Lake Simcoe Basin Wide ReportMarch 20, 2008

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................................3

1.0 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................4

1.1

LAKE SIMCOE AND THE LSEMS PROGRAM ..............................................................................................4

1.2

PURPOSE OF THE COMPREHENSIVE BASIN WIDE REPORT......................................................................11

2.0 WATER QUALITY .....................................................................................................................................13

2.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................13

2.1.2 Current Lake Conditions and Issues ...............................................................................................14

2.1.3 Current Tributary Conditions and Issues........................................................................................29

2.1.4 Emerging Issues Facing the Lake and Tributaries.........................................................................37 2.1.5 Tools and Actions to Improve Water Quality ..................................................................................50

3.0 WATER QUANTITY ..................................................................................................................................62

3.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................62

3.2 CURRENT CONDITIONS AND ISSUES..........................................................................................................63

3.3 EMERGING ISSUES FACING WATER QUANTITY .......................................................................................70

3.4

TOOLS AND ACTIONS TO IMPROVE WATER QUANTITY...........................................................................71

4.0 FISHERIES AND AQUATIC HABITAT..................................................................................................74

4.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................74


4.3 EMERGING ISSUES FACING FISHERIES AND AQUATIC HABITAT.............................................................87

4.4 TOOLS AND ACTIONS TO DATE TO IMPROVE FISHERIES AND AQUATIC HABITAT.................................88

5.0 NATURAL HERITAGE..............................................................................................................................90

5.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................90


5.2.1 Woodlands ........................................................................................................................................91

5.2.2 Wetlands..........................................................................................................................................100

5.2.3

Wildlife Habitat ..............................................................................................................................104

5.2.4 Endangered and Threatened Species Habitat ...............................................................................110

5.2.5 Valleylands......................................................................................................................................111

5 .2.6 Areas of Natural and Scientific Inte rest ........................................................................................112

5.3 EMERGING NATURAL HERITAGE ISSUES ...............................................................................................115

5.4 TOOLS AND ACTIONS TO DATE TO IMPROVE NATURAL HERITAGE ......................................................118

6.0 TOWARDS ACHIEVING LSEMS GOALS............................................................................................123

6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................123

6.2 WHAT THE LAKE AND ITS WATERSHED NEEDS .....................................................................................123

6.3 OPTIONS AND APPROACHES....................................................................................................................124

6.4 LOOKING TO THE FUTURE ......................................................................................................................126

REFERENCES:.......................................................................................................................................................128

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Executive Summary

For decades Lake Simcoe has served as a valuable natural and recreational resource. Fishing,tourism and other recreational activities generate an estimated $200 million annually to the localeconomy. The lake is a source of drinking water for seven intakes serving five communities and

is used to assimilate municipal waste from fourteen water pollution control facilities. The LakeSimcoe watershed also contains a number of important natural heritage features, includinghabitat to a wide range of flora and fauna.

The Lake Simcoe Basin Wide Report is the final document prepared under the partnership ofthe Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Strategy (LSEMS) and was completed to fulfilltwo key aspects. The first is to provide an updated report on the current state of the LakeSimcoe basin, describe specific actions to protect and restore the basin that have beenimplemented and bring forward emerging issues in the basin for consideration. The secondaspect was to look forward and identify what the Lake Simcoe basin needs and what are someof the options and approaches to satisfy those needs.

The awareness, recognition and calls for action to increase the protection and accelerate therestoration of the Lake Simcoe basin have increased over the past few years. This groundswellof increased interest has not gone unheard or unheeded. In the past year there have beenseveral key announcements in respect to protecting and restoring Lake Simcoe. The first beingthe announcement from the Provincial government intending on developing the Lake Simcoe Protection Act which is expected to be a key piece of legislation to protect Lake Simcoe. TheProvince has also proposed an interim regulation providing limits on sewage treatment andstormwater nutrient loads which will be in place during the completion and passing of the Lake Simcoe Protection Act . The federal government has also established the Lake Simcoe Clean UpFund; a targeted 5 year funding commitment of $30 million to accelerate the restoration of LakeSimcoe through nutrient reduction, fish habitat restoration and increased science andmonitoring.

The Lake Simcoe Basin Report provides a comprehensive overview of the state of the basinand identifies options moving forward. It is fitting that this report closes the final chapter of thehighly successful LSEMS program as it will become the benchmark document moving forwardfor all Lake Simcoe watershed stakeholders charged with the continued protection andrestoration of Lake Simcoe for both present and future generations.

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1.0 Introduction

1.1 Lake Simcoe and the LSEMS Program

Lake Simcoe is located in central, southern

Ontario within an hour’s drive of more than halfthe population of the province and aside from theGreat Lakes it is the largest inland lake insouthern Ontario with a surface area of 722 km2.The lake supports a thriving tourism industry,provides drinking water for municipalities,supports a prosperous agriculture community, isused to assimilate waste water, and providesmany opportunities for recreation activities as wellas being a significant natural heritage feature.The watershed, or the area of land which drains

into the lake, sweeps north from the Oak RidgesMoraine through parts of York and DurhamRegions, the Cities of Kawartha Lakes, Orillia andBarrie, and the County of Simcoe, crossing 23municipal boundaries. The watershed has a totalland area of approximately 2,857 km2. Settled inthe early 1800’s, the watershed is now home toover 350,000 residents and during the summermonths the population grows even larger as anestimated 50,000 cottagers descend on the watershed to enjoy the quality of life that thelake provides. It is the activities occurring within the watershed which largely defines the

condition of the health and quality of the lake and its tributaries. Therefore, it isimportant that we minimize the impact of our activities on the landscape as they have adirect and lasting affect on the lake and its tributaries.

The Lake….• Generates annual revenues in the

hundreds of millions of dollars for thelocal economy through recreationalactivities;

• Accommodates 15% of theprovince’s angling efforts whichaccounts for more than 50% of thetourism revenue;

• Is part of the Trent Severn Waterwayconnecting Lake Ontario to GeorgianBay;

• Is consider the “ice fishing capital ofCanada”;

• Is a source of safe drinking water for6 municipalities;

• Assimilates municipal waste from 14water pollution control facilities;

• Provides the habitat for 49 differentwarm and coldwater fish species;and

• Supports agricultural activities whichcontribute $500 million each year tolocal and provincial economies.

The watershed:• Includes important natural heritage

features which provide habitat to awide range of flora and fauna, 50different species of mammals, 141bird species, 36 reptilian/amphibianspecies and 65 species that aredesignated provincially rare;

• Contains 35 tributary rivers with over3,950 km of stream channel;

• 5 major tributaries draining northfrom the Oak Ridges Moraineaccount for over 60% of the totalarea;

• Forests, wetlands and scrub landsaccount for more than 40% of thetotal watershed area; and

• Includes an estimated 12,000cottages and 2,000 farms.

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Resource Issues Facing Lake Simcoe

Despite the social, economic and natural importance of Lake Simcoe and all thebenefits it provides, there are many serious environmental problems facing the lake andits watershed that necessitate immediate action. Phosphorus levels in the lake today,

while lower than historical levels, still need to be reduced especially in Cook’s andKempenfelt Bays. High phosphorus concentrations have led to the excessive growth ofaquatic plants and algae which impact the aquatic ecosystem, depleting oxygenconcentrations as they die and decompose. This loss of oxygen limits the ability ofsensitive cold water fish species such as Lake Trout and Lake Whitefish to functionproperly and as a result, Lake Simcoe no longer supports a self-sustaining coldwaterfishery.

Both aquatic and terrestrial systems in Lake Simcoe and its subwatersheds (see Figure1.1) have been impacted by the introduction of non-native invasive species. Thesespecies interfere with the natural ecological processes in the watershed, and can also

have impacts on recreational uses. For example, zebra mussels, which wereintroduced to the lake in 1995, out-compete native clams, cover boats and motors, andtheir shells can collect on beaches. In addition, their feeding increases water clarity,which enables further plant growth because sunlight is able to reach greater depths. Asthe watershed is constantly under threat from new introductions, planning and researchwill be necessary to ensure that their impacts are minimized.

There are many other resource issues facing the Lake Simcoe watershed. Otherchemicals of concern are being seen in routine monitoring, public access to the lake islimited, and natural habitats are continually under pressure from human activitiesincluding urbanization, agriculture, shoreline alteration and recreation.

Recreation activities are also impacted, as aquatic plants choke marinas, beaches, andprivate waterfronts. There are many sources of phosphorus, including sewagetreatment plant discharge, storm water runoff from both urban and agricultural areas,septic systems, and from the atmosphere. Progress has been made in reducing thesephosphorus loads through programs implemented by the partners of the Lake SimcoeEnvironmental Management Strategy. Projects including agricultural and urban bestmanagement practices, storm water detention ponds, and educational programs havehelped to limit the phosphorus loads entering the lake each year. Although someprogress has been made, there is much more that needs to be done.

With urban areas in and around the City of Toronto becoming increasingly built-up,areas further north in the Greater Toronto Area are being targeted to accommodate anincreasing population. This has placed pressure on the Lake Simcoe watershed, wheremany areas are being targeted for new development. Potential impacts are habitat lossand fragmentation, increased phosphorus loading, decreased infiltration, and the inputof harmful chemicals into the basin’s watercourses. Protection of our resources beforethey are depleted is preferable to their restoration after the fact – the features andfunctions of existing natural areas are already well established, and protection is morecost effective than restoration activities.

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Figure 1.1: Lake Simcoe and its subwatersheds

Relevant Policy and Legislation

The watershed population is expected to continue to grow. As such, strategicmanagement of the watershed is required to assure that the expected growth pressureresults in a positive impact to the health of the Lake. To assist with this management, anumber of Provincial Plans, Policy and legislation apply to lands within the Lake Simcoewatershed that together provide a comprehensive framework for land use planning

which includes: the Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan, 2001, Greenbelt Plan,2005, the Provincial Policy Statement, 2005, the Growth Plan for the Greater GoldenHorseshoe, 2006, and Planning Act reforms.

This new provincial land use planning framework sets a course for sustainabledevelopment in both urban and rural areas. Key pieces of this framework providedirection which:

• focuses growth to existing built-up areas with existing infrastructure in a transit-supportive land use pattern;

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• protects natural areas, drinking water and agricultural lands;• sets out clear population and employment targets capping development in

Simcoe County;• creates complete communities, which include a better mix of jobs and residential

uses to limit bedroom communities and long commutes;

• sets strict criteria on urban boundary expansions; and• sets out a process for planning within watersheds.

The Planning Act

The Planning Act was changed through both Bill 26 (the Strong Communities Planning Amendment Act, 2004 ) and Bill 51 (the Planning and Conservation Land Statute Law Amendment Act, 2006 ). The combined effects of these changes provide municipalitieswith numerous land use planning tools to support growth management objectives.

These new tools include:

• Removing appeal rights for non-municipally supported settlement expansions• Setting a higher standard for local decisions to now “be consistent with”

provincial planning policy as set out in the PPS• Requiring regular updates to municipal planning documents to ensure

consistency with provincial policy

The Provincial Policy Statement

The PPS was updated with enhanced policies supporting intensification in existingsettlement areas, promotion of transit supportive development, and promote theredevelopment of brownfield sites. These clearer, stronger planning rules will allow for

development only in areas where sustained and supported by infrastructure.

The Growth Plan

The Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe, 2006, has been prepared underthe Places to Grow Act, 2005. It is a framework for implementing the Government ofOntario’s vision for building stronger, prosperous communities by better managinggrowth in this region to 2031. This is a Plan that recognizes the realities facing our citiesand smaller communities, and that acknowledges what governments can and cannotinfluence. It demonstrates leadership for improving the ways in which our cities,suburbs, towns, and villages will grow over the long-term.

This Plan will guide decisions on a wide range of issues – transportation, infrastructureplanning, land-use planning, urban form, housing, natural heritage and resourceprotection – in the interest of promoting economic prosperity. It will create a clearerenvironment for investment decisions and will help secure the future prosperity of theGreater Golden Horseshoe (GGH).

This Plan builds on other key government initiatives including: the Greenbelt Plan,Planning Act reform and the Provincial Policy Statement, 2005. This Plan does not

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replace municipal official plans, but works within the existing planning framework toprovide growth management policy direction for the GGH.

This Plan reflects a shared vision amongst the Government of Ontario, themunicipalities of the GGH and its residents. Successful implementation of this Plan’s

vision will be dependent upon collaborative decision-making.

Greenbelt Plan

The Greenbelt Plan was established in response to the increasing pressures of urbansprawl and the loss and fragmentation of agricultural lands and important ecologicalfeatures. The Greenbelt covers 1.8 million acres of land in the Greater GoldenHorseshoe and encompasses the existing Niagara Escarpment Plan and Oak RidgesMoraine Conservation Plan as well as the new Protected Countryside. The ProtectedCountryside is comprised of an Agricultural System (specialty crop areas, primeagricultural areas and rural areas), a Natural System (water resource system and

natural heritage system) and Settlement Areas (existing Towns, Villages and Hamlets).The Greenbelt works in conjunction with the Growth Plan for the Greater GoldenHorseshoe, with the Growth Plan directing where appropriate future growth anddevelopment will occur outside of the Greenbelt.

Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan

The Oak Ridge Moraine Conservation Plan, released in 2002, is an ecologically basedplan that provides land use and resource management direction for the 190,000hectares of land and water within the Moraine. The Plan protects the natural heritageand water resource features and functions of the Moraine, preserves agricultural landand directs urban development to approved settlement areas.

Source Water Protection Plan

Source water is untreated water from streams, lakes, rivers or underground aquifersthat people use to for potable water supply. By stopping contaminants from getting intosources of drinking water — lakes, rivers and underground aquifers — and preventingoveruse of these water resources, we can provide the first line of defence in theprotection of our environment and the health of Ontarians. Source water protectioncomplements water treatment and monitoring by reducing water quality and quantityrisks to water supplies in the first place.

Source Water Protection is an initiative intended to protect Ontario’s drinking water fromoveruse and contamination. Recognizing one of Justice O’Connor’s keyrecommendations from the Walkerton inquiry, the province has organized source waterprotection on a watershed basis.

The Clean Water Act is the legislation recently passed to enable Source WaterProtection, which refers to ‘watershed regions’ as the units for which Source ProtectionPlans will be developed. The Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority has been

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The preservation or enhancement of natural features such as wetlands andwatercourses are important for the overall health of the watershed and significantlyaffects the quantity and quality of storm water runoff. Many wetlands act as giantsponges, absorbing precipitation and releasing it over long periods of time which helpsto preserve base flow in creeks during periods of drought. The natural water storage in

wetlands also serves to reduce peak creek flows in downstream areas. Naturalwatercourses with their vegetated flood plains and meandering channels help to slowthe rate of water flow and provide storage, dampening the impacts of water flows andvelocities in the creek.

Hazardous lands such as unstable slopes, flood plain, dynamic beaches, meander beltsand erosion prone areas are not suitable areas for new development. Many slopes inthe watershed are relatively unstable and triggers such as vegetation removal,concentrated surface drainage or the construction of a house near the top of the slopeis enough to cause slope failure. Flood plains can be dangerous areas. A number ofsignificant flood events occur in our watershed on a yearly basis and the Regulation

serves to tightly control the location and type of development in or around flood plains.Dynamic beaches are currently not a large issue in the Lake Simcoe watershed but ifsome are discovered in the future, the Regulation serves to restrict development inthese areas. Meander belts and erosion prone areas are naturally hazardous areasadjacent to watercourses and lakes that can also impact on land and structures. TheRegulation controls development within these areas and the Authority, through itsDevelopment Policies, ensures that the necessary studies are done to ensure that thedevelopment occurs in a safe location.

The LSEMS Partnership, Mission and Goals

Lake Simcoe is an invaluable natural and recreational resource. Lake Simcoe is part ofthe Trent-Severn Waterway connecting Lake Ontario to Georgian Bay and is southernOntario's largest body of water excluding the Great Lakes. Located less than an hourdrive from half the population in Ontario (Figure1.1), Lake Simcoe has been estimatedto generate more than $200 million annually to the local economy through recreationalactivities alone, though this number is a best estimate that was calculated in 1995 forthe LSEMS ‘Our Waters, Our Heritage’ report. It would be a benefit to stakeholders toupdate this estimation and determine the true value in today’s numbers. The lake alsoprovides a source of drinking water for five lake shore communities and is used toassimilate municipal waste from fourteen water pollution control facilities.

Unfortunately, as a result of the increase in human activities within the watershed thehealth of Lake Simcoe is in trouble. Impacts associated with continued urbanizationand rural land use activities within the watershed have been contributing an excessiveamount of sediment and nutrients (especially phosphorus) into the lake. Theseactivities combined with other stressors on the resource such as the introduction ofexotic species, climate change, increased fishing pressure, and atmospheric pollutionhave resulted in a significant change in ecosystem health. The lake no longer supportsa self-sustaining coldwater fishery, excessive amounts of aquatic plant and algae

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growth is choking beaches, marinas and private waterfronts, and the recreationalindustry is being threatened.

To address these concerns and ensure that future generations can continue to enjoythe quality of life provided by a healthy lake, a number of provincial agencies,

municipalities and the local conservation authority have been working together to cleanup or address the problems plaguing the lake. Known as the Lake SimcoeEnvironmental Management Strategy (LSEMS) a number of studies conducted in themid-eighties resulted in the launch of an implementation program in1990.

The goal and objectives of the Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Strategy are:

“To improve and protect the health of the Lake Simcoe watershed ecosystem andimprove associated recreational opportunities by:

• Restoring a self-sustaining coldwater fishery;•

Improving water quality;• Reducing phosphorus loads to Lake Simcoe; and• Protecting natural heritage features and functions.”

To date there has been three phases of the LSEMS Implementation Program (Phases I1990-1995, Phase II 1996 -2001 and Phase III 2002-2008). A significant amount ofprogress has been achieved during this period with the completion of more than 350environmental projects resulting in a phosphorus loading reduction of more than 16.5metric tonnes. This success was tempered by the fact that an additional 25 metricreduction in phosphorus loadings is necessary to restore the health of Lake Simcoe.

The LSEMS partnership grew in Phase III to include the Chippewas of Georgina IslandFirst Nation, all levels of government (the Federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans,the Provincial Ministries of Environment, Natural Resources, Agriculture, Food andRural Affairs and Municipal Affairs and Housing, Public Infrastructure Renewal, allRegional, County and local municipalities), the Lake Simcoe Region ConservationAuthority and the watershed community. The addition of a Citizens Advisory Committee(CAC) to the LSEMS governance model is one example of providing the public moreopportunities for involvement.

1.2 Purpose of the Comprehensive Basin Wide Report

The purpose of this document is to report on the current health and quality of LakeSimcoe and its watershed (collectively “the basin”), building on the scientificbenchmarks established in the 2003 State of the Watershed Report, and providing newinformation and data where science and monitoring have improved our understanding ofthe water chemistry and ecological processes within the basin. The report outlines whatthe lake needs in order to achieve the goals of Lake Simcoe EnvironmentalManagement Strategy and identifies new and emerging environmental issues that mustbe considered.

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The document discusses recent findings, watershed monitoring programs and projects,observed results from best management practices (BMPs), remedial works and pilotprojects, some of which are completed and some of which are ongoing.In addition to serving as a State of the Resource Report, this document is intended toassist and inform policy and to inform decision makers who may prepare and endorse

future plans for the basin by outlining potential areas of focus and options that wouldassist in achieving LSEMS’ stated goals

The Lake Simcoe Basin Wide Report was developed as required under the LSEMSPhase III Memorandum of Understanding. This report provides expanded and updatedinformation on the Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Strategy document “Stateof the Lake Simcoe Watershed, 2003” and goes further to provide a series of options toaddress the concerns raised in that report. The report does not includerecommendations related to policy and/or regulation development as these avenues arebeing examined through development of the proposed Lake Simcoe Protection Act .

Public consultation has been an extremely important component of the reportdevelopment with continuous input being sought throughout the process. Publicconsultation sessions were held early in the process, and additional comments from allstakeholders have been incorporated into the document. With the community’s help wehave been able to develop a vision of watershed residents’ expectations for a healthyLake Simcoe watershed.

With the completion of this report the real hard work remains. Implementing therecommendations and undertaking the remedial work necessary to restore and maintainthe health and quality of Lake Simcoe will not be easy and comes at a high price.However, the cost to do nothing both to the natural environment and the quality of lifefor the hundreds of thousands of watershed residents would be much, much higher.Our future direction is clear, all that remains is the willingness to act, move forward, andcomplete the works that need to be done.

Rationale for Change in Focus of the CBWR

In March 2007, the Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Strategy SteeringCommittee identified one of its objectives as the completion of the ComprehensiveBasin Wide Plan to provide key technical information for consideration in any futureLSEMS arrangement. In July 2007, the province announced its intention to create theproposed Lake Simcoe Protection Act, which may significantly change the context forfuture policy and governance for Lake Simcoe. This action resulted in the SteeringCommittee re-evaluating the scope from a plan to a report that articulates what the Lakeneeds and provides important information for the provincial process. The SteeringCommittee believes that this report provides an excellent foundation of science anddata on the current state of the basin, the identification and assessment of potential newtools, as well as an overview of emerging scientific practices and issues.

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2.0 Water Quality

The Water issues identified in the 2003 State of the Lake Simcoe Watershed reportcompleted by the partners of the Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Strategy(LSEMS) were:

• Water quality of the Lake and its tributaries is being degraded due topollution sources originating from atmospheric, urban, rural, recreational(cottages), and agricultural land use activities;

• Phosphorus pollution is the main water quality parameter of concernresulting in a reduction in dissolved oxygen concentrations of the lakesbottom waters and poor recruitment of cold water fish species;

• More monitoring data for both surface and groundwater is required toeffectively quantify and qualify the sources of pollutants, for surveillance(to assess any new sources of contamination), and the determination oflong term trends;

• Water use and the availability of aquatic habitats have been impacted bydecreases in streamflow;

• Areas of groundwater quality vulnerability need to be identified andprotected to ensure clean sources of private and municipal drinkingwater;

• Greater understanding of atmospheric deposition of Phosphorous andothers is required through a study of the source of airborne pollutantsand their relative significance in the airshed;

• Impact of increased population growth and resultant developmentrelated to an increase of impervious surfaces and associatedramifications

2.1 Introduction

The quality of water is extremely important to the health of Lake Simcoe and theactivities it supports. Three of the four LSEMS goals are directly related to water qualityin the watershed; while the fourth, which relates to natural heritage, can also have animpact on water quality. The lake is a source of drinking water for several communities.The health of aquatic species, including fish and invertebrates, is dependent on waterquality; many of these species are sensitive to changes in water quality such as waterchemistry and clarity. Changes in water quality can impact ecosystems, such as theimbalance of phosphorus and other nutrients encouraging the excessive growth of

aquatic plants and algae, which in turn leads to decreases in oxygen concentration asthese plants die and decompose. Deterioration of water quality also inhibits recreationalopportunities, either directly (an example would be the presence of bacteria such asEscherichia coli at a beach); or indirectly (such as the nuisance growth of plants andalgae interfering with activities including angling and fishing). It is important to addressdeclining water quality, as it can have considerable impacts on human and ecosystemhealth; and can also impact the economic viability of industries that depend on the lakeand water.

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There are several parameters that have contributed to the deterioration of water qualityin the Lake Simcoe watershed. The most significant of these is phosphorus; othernotable parameters include sediment, chlorides, and bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E. coli ). Dissolved oxygen levels in the lake are also an important parameter, as this isthe main parameter of concern in the lake for the sensitive fish species such as lake

trout.

Sources of pollutants to the lake are numerous and varied, and include direct-to-lakeatmospheric deposition, urban and agricultural runoff, septic systems, industrialdischarges and water pollution control plants (WPCP). The tributaries that dischargeinto the lake carry with them pollutants from the subwatersheds they drain, and areexamined in more detail in the tributary section of this plan. Much work has beencompleted by the LSEMS partners to better understand pollutant sources and the mosteffective ways to reduce them.

2.1.2 Current Lake Conditions and Issues

Monitoring Water Quality in the Lake Today

The Ontario Ministry of the Environment currently monitors water quality in Lake Simcoeat 8 in-lake sites and 3 municipal water intakes; although up to 12 in-lake sites and 4municipal water intakes have been monitored for varying period over the past 20+years. Water quality (untreated) at the 3 municipal drinking water intake stations(Beaverton, Keswick, Sutton) is assessed on an approximately weekly basis year round;municipal drinking water is obtained from Lake Simcoe via pipes located at varyingdepths and distances offshore. The 8 in-lake stations that are currently sampled – threein Cook’s Bay, three in Kempenfelt Bay, and two in the open lake - are visited

approximately twice monthly through the ice-free season (May to October), andcomposite water samples from the euphotic zone (the depth to which light can penetratethe water) are analyzed for phytoplankton biovolume and concentrations of totalphosphorus, chlorophyll ‘a ’ and other chemicals using standard methods. In addition,dissolved oxygen and temperature profiles and water clarity are measured at each siteconcurrent with water quality sampling. Water clarity is evaluated by lowering a blackand white Secchi disk through the water column and its visibility is recorded as thewater depth at which the disk is no longer visible to an observer at the water surface.Dissolved oxygen is measured with a probe at 1 metre depth intervals to the lakebottom in order to evaluate changes in oxygen with depth and over time (Scott et al.,2005).

Phosphorus in the Lake

While phosphorus and other nutrients are naturally present in the environment and arerequired by plants for growth, the phosphorus levels in Lake Simcoe have becomeunnaturally high due to human activities. Phosphorus originates from many sources inthe watershed including natural sources such as groundwater, organic material,sediment, and the weathering of phosphorus-containing rocks, and anthropogenicsources such as urban and agricultural runoff, discharges from WPCPs, faulty septic

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systems, industrial processes, and the atmosphere. The phosphorus over-fertilizes thelake, accelerating the growth of aquatic plants and algae. The increased plant growthalters fish and wildlife habitat, impedes recreation, and upsets the natural balance of thelake. When the plants and algae die off, the process of decomposition consumesoxygen in the water. This oxygen is critical for sensitive fish species such as lake trout,

lake whitefish and lake herring, and the decrease in the dissolved oxygen concentrationin the lake is a significant factor in the inability of the lake to support a self-sustainingcoldwater fishery.

It is estimated that the annual phosphorus load prior to settlement of the watershed byEuropeans was approximately 32 tonnes/year (Nicholls, 1997). With the initiation of theLSEMS program in 1990, a target for the annual phosphorus load was set at 75 tonnes;a level which scientists estimated would achieve a minimum end-of-summer dissolvedoxygen level of 5 mg/L in the deep waters of the lake. Achievement of thisconcentration of dissolved oxygen is a necessary step in the re-establishment of self-sustaining coldwater fish populations in the lake. The relationship between phosphorus

and dissolved oxygen is well established (Nicholls, 1995). The 75 tonne phosphorusloading and 5 mg/L dissolved oxygen targets were considered to be an interim,achievable targets; it was recognized that lake trout likely experience some stress atconcentrations as low as 5 mg/L in late summer. Additional activities to ensure that thephysical habitat required by these sensitive species is protected and/or restored, maybe necessary to meet the LSEMS goal of a self-sustaining coldwater fish population.

Annual contributions from the various sources of phosphorus, as well as the total annualload to the lake, can vary greatly between years. The loads are particularly affected byclimate and precipitation, but also by human activities. The relative load from each ofthe sources described below can be found in Figure 2.1. The average annual load tothe lake from the last period of record (1998-2004) was 67 tonnes from all sources,which is below the LSEMS target of 75 tonnes (Winter et al, 2007). This load is muchlower than the average annual load from the last period of record (1990-1998), whichwas approximately 102 tonnes (Scott et al, 2001). While this reduction in the annualload is seen as a very positive step, and a portion of the load reduction can certainly beattributed to the works of various agencies throughout the watershed, it is not expectedthat the annual load will continue to be lower than the target indefinitely. Becauseclimate influences phosphorus loading, changes in climate patterns in any year candramatically alter the phosphorus load. The ACS study concluded that continuedgrowth and ongoing development in the watershed will also cause an increase in thephosphorus load without the corresponding implementation of Best ManagementPractices.

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Figure 2.1: Sources of phosphorus loading (in average tonnes per year) in the LakeSimcoe watershed (total of 67 tonnes/yr, average loading from 1998-2004)

Phosphorus Sources: Tributaries and the Holland Marsh

The input referred to as the ‘tributary load’ is among the highest contributions ofphosphorus loads to the body of the lake. The tributary load represents the phosphorusinputs to surface water from rural and agricultural areas, and also runoff from urbanareas that lie upstream of monitoring stations. The agricultural component of thetributary load includes livestock, milkhouse waste, and fertilizer runoff. Tributariesaccounted for 25.8% in 1999-2000 to 45.7% in 2000-2001; total loads ranged from 18.3tons per year in 2001-2002 to 32.3 tons per year in 2000-2001 and averaged 24.7 tonsper year of total phosphorus for the period from 1998-2004 (Scott et al., 2005).

The watershed’s four vegetable polders (the Keswick, Colbar, Bradford, and Holland

marshes) are an additional source of phosphorus to the lake. A polder is an agriculturalarea which at one point was a wetland, but has been drained so that the rich soils canbe used for growing vegetables. Water levels in these polders are controlled by aseries of pumping systems and canals. Water is either pumped from the canals in thepolders onto the fields for irrigation, or pumped from the fields to the canals to drainexcess moisture. This pump-off water is then conveyed to the lake via a pumpingstation. The water that is pumped off of the fields is generally very high in nutrients, sothe load from this source is much higher in years with high precipitation levels whenmore water is pumped off of the fields. The phosphorus contained in the pump-off

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water is mainly from the fertilizers used on the crops, and is therefore the form ofphosphorus that is most available for the uptake of plants and algae.

In an effort to determine what the best methods for reducing the loads from the largestpolder are, the Holland Marsh, the Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority

(LSRCA) undertook an Environmental Assessment in 2003/2004. The preferredsolution found through this process was a combination of Best Management Practicesin the Holland Marsh to reduce the amount of phosphorus in the pump off water, andthe treatment of the polder water at a centralized treatment plant. While this solutionwould reduce the amount of phosphorus being released into the lake, both the capitalcosts and the operational costs to run and maintain the treatment facility would beextremely high, and would be difficult to justify in years with low levels of precipitationwhen there is little water being pumped from the fields, and thus a lower load to thelake. Alternative solutions, which are more cost effective, are currently beinginvestigated and range from the use of cover crops to minimized soil erosion to detailednutrient management of the soils reducing nutrient application.

One of the most promising of these is the application of Phoslock™ to canals in theinner marsh. Phoslock™ is a modified clay product which removes phosphorus from thewater column, and then settles in the sediment, where it will continue to removephosphorus from the water as long as it has active binding sites. This product isenvironmentally safe, and has been used in several countries, including Australia, theU.S., and the Netherlands to mitigate or reduce the process of eutrophication in lakes,rivers and drinking water impoundments. Laboratory tests of this product have beencompleted by the LSRCA. The LSRCA will be partnering with the Province to undertakea pilot project to examine the use of Phoslock™ in the Lake Simcoe basin including theHolland marsh.

Phosphorus Sources: Direct Urban Runoff and Septic Systems

i. Urban Runoff

Phosphorus loads from urban areas originate from point and non-point sources. Thepoint source inputs are discharges from WPCPs; these are discussed in the sectionbelow. Runoff of stormwater from urban areas is a non-point source of phosphorus.Urban runoff can carry with it phosphorus from lawn fertilizers, pet waste and detergents(e.g. from car washing). In older urban areas it was common practice to routestormwater directly to inflowing tributaries or to the lake. Over the last two decadesefforts have been made to intercept and treat stormwater before it enters thewatercourses. Urban areas that have stormwater quality control facilities that removephosphorus from the runoff have a significantly lower load than those without. Controlfacilities are now typically incorporated into new urban developments in the watershed.

Phosphorus loads in runoff from urban areas located upstream from monitoring stationswere included in the ‘Tributary Load’ discussed in the previous section. The averageannual load from urban areas downstream of the monitoring stations or discharging

17




directly to the lake was estimated at 9 tonnes for the period from 1998 to 2004 (Scott et al ., 2005).

ii. Septic Systems

Septic systems around the perimeter of the lake also contribute to the annual load. Thisload comes from septic systems that are located within 100 metres of the lake – it isestimated that there will be nutrient discharge from a certain number of septic systemseach year. Since the last phosphorus leading report (Scott et al ., 2005), a number ofhomes in the Town of Georgina previously utilizing private septic systems have beenconnected to the municipal waste water treatment plant, which will reduce the septicsystem load to the lake. There will be an increase in the WPCP load because of theincrease in material being treated from these homes, but a net reduction in phosphorusloads can be expected. It was estimated for the period from 1998-2004 that septicsystems contribute an average of 4 tonnes each year to the annual load.

Phosphorus Sources: Water Pollution Control Plants

There are 14 WPCPs that discharge into the Lake Simcoe watershed; 7 of thesedischarge directly into the lake. The WPCPs in the Lake Simcoe watershed are amongthe most efficient in Ontario at removing nutrients. Strict caps were placed on thesefacilities through the LSEMS program in order to protect the water quality of the lake.The average annual load from the WPCPs for the last period of record (1998-2004) was4.5 tonnes (Scott et al., 2005).

Phosphorus Sources: Atmospheric Deposition

The atmospheric load has been one of the most significant sources of phosphorus tothe lake, ranging from a low of 25% to a high of 49% of the annual load from 1998 to2004 (Scott et al ., 2005). Pollutants (including phosphorus in various forms) travel inthe atmosphere. These pollutants fall to the surface of the lake through wet or drydeposition. Gases or particles removed by wet deposition are deposited to the surfaceby rain, sleet, snow or fog. Dry deposition deposits particles and gases in the absenceof precipitation, namely by adsorption, impaction and settling (USGS-1, 2005). Itgenerally occurs when land is stripped of its vegetative cover for activities such asconstruction, aggregate operations, unpaved roads, or when fields are stripped bare onagricultural lands between crops, and the soil becomes exposed to the erosive forces ofwind. Soil-bound contaminants suspended in the atmosphere are deposited when thewind conditions are such that the particles settle out of the air flow.

The LSEMS partners have estimated atmospheric phosphorus loading for the yearsfrom 1990-2004 through the following steps:

1) The depth of precipitation over the lake was estimated by averaging themeasured rainfall depths from the available gauges, and multiplying the averagerainfall depth by the surface area of the lake.

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2) The nutrient concentrations in the rainfall were then determined by averaging thenutrient concentrations in the available rain quality stations (from 1995 to 2004;concentration prior to 1995 were estimated).

3) Atmospheric loads were calculated by multiplying the average rainfall nutrient

concentrations by the volume of rainfall over the lake.

A limitation of this method is that the spatial variability of rainfall across the lake is lost,as a relatively small number of monitoring stations are averaged across the entire lake,although precipitation rarely falls uniformly across the large area of the watershed. Thephosphorus concentration in the precipitation can vary considerably as well. Forexample, if a localized rain event falls only over a small area of the watershed, or movesacross the lake, one of two things can happen. The first is that the storm may not occurover and thus will not be registered on a rain gauge, which would result in anunderestimation of rainfall, and thus phosphorus loading. The second is that the eventis captured by a single rain gauge, and the rainfall depth registered by that gauge is

averaged with the other rain gauges, resulting in an average rainfall depth that ispresumed to have fallen over the entire surface of the lake and an overestimation of thevolume of rain, and thus of phosphorus loading. The phosphorus concentration of therain captured in the rain quality gauges can also have an impact. Because of the smallnumber of rain gauges across the lake, the rain depth and phosphorus concentration ateach gauge has a significant influence on calculations of average rain depth andloading. However, previous studies have found that even densely placed rain andquality gauges may not be capable of capturing heavy rainfall areas, so although adenser gauge network would certainly more accurately depict rainfall and precipitationphosphorus concentration over the lake, it still may under- or overestimate loading.

In order to capture the spatial variability of precipitation depth over the surface of thelake, researchers at the University of Guelph have undertaken a study that investigatesthe use of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) NextGeneration Radar (NEXRAD) to spatially represent rainfall data, as well as a method tocorrect radar-rainfall estimates to rainfall recorded by local rain gauges. NEXRAD isavailable online from 1997 to present from the Buffalo radar station, which covers theentire lake. The radar product used in the study was the Digital Precipitation Array(DPA) which presents one hour estimated rainfall accumulation in inches (NCDC 2005,Smith et al. 2004) for a grid of approximately 4 x 4 km over the lake (see Figure 2.2 ) below for a map of the spatial distribution of rainfall over the lake). Along with radar-estimates, rain quality data was spatially interpolated and both radar and interpolatedrain quality data was used in atmospheric deposition calculations.

The calculations of phosphorus loads over Lake Simcoe using the radar-based modeldiffer greatly from those calculated using the historical method. The difference rangedbetween 5 and 168%, with some estimates being above the historic loadingcalculations, and some below. While it was concluded that the radar-based estimateswere a powerful tool for helping to determine the spatial variability of precipitation overthe lake, there is also significant review required of the radar imagery to reducepotentials sources of error to ensure a high quality data set. Potential sources of error

19




items such as ground clutter, where radar beams reflect off of trees, buildings or hillsand this registers as precipitation; low hanging clouds can reflect absorb the radar beamsuch that far off storms are not registered, resulting in an underestimation ofprecipitation; precipitation that occurs aloft but does not hit the ground can be registeredas rain on the ground though none occurred; or the radar beam may overshoot low

hanging rain clouds and not register any precipitation. This review process (QA/QC)ensures that information being utilized to determine precipitation patterns is accurate.

The researchers found that there was a linear relationship between average rainfalldepth and total phosphorus loads, and that rainfall depth exerted a greater influenceover phosphorus loading than did phosphorus concentrations in the precipitation. Theresearchers found that the application of weather radar provided a method thatsignificantly improved the accuracy of calculation of rainfall depth and its spatialdistribution over the lake.

An important portion of the atmospheric load that the LSEMS partners had not been

able to estimate is what proportion of this load originates from local sources versusmore distant locations in the airshed. It may be possible to mitigate local sources,which could have a significant impact on this load if a high proportion originates fromlocal sources. To enhance our understanding of phosphorus loading from localsources, the researchers at the University of Guelph are currently undertaking a studyto calculate the dry deposition of phosphorus based on a detailed analysis of windvelocity and direction data and air quality data, giving special attention to local sourcesin the vicinity of the lake. A United States Environmental Protection Agency airshedmodel called CALPUFF will be utilized to estimate the contribution of various localsources (i.e. quarries, industrial sources, agriculture, and active developments) to dryatmospheric deposition of phosphorous to Lake Simcoe. This model will include theeffect of seasonal wind patterns and other factors such as land usage. The researcherswill be advising the LSEMS partners on an enhanced monitoring program that willcomplement the research, which will be undertaken in the summer of 2008. These newmonitoring stations will help the LSEMS partners to better estimate the precipitationvolume as well as the atmospheric loads across the basin.

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Figure 2.2: Spatial distribution of rainfall accumulation over the watershed from June 8 –June 21, 2005 (Gharabaghi and Ramkellewan, 2006)

Limiting Phosphorus Loading from Atmospheric Sources

In order to quantify the amount of phosphorus contributed to the Lake Simcoe fromatmospheric sources, precipitation monitoring has been conducted since 1995. Regularsamples taken from bulk precipitation collectors are analyzed for total phosphorus andphosphorus loads are calculated by multiplying the phosphorus concentration in thebulk precipitation by the recorded volume of precipitation. The total atmosphericphosphorus load for 1998 was 40.1 tonnes accounting for almost 40% of the totalestimated load to the lake that year. Recent research from the University of Guelph has

indicated that the bulk of atmospheric deposition comes from local sources contributingwindborne particulate containing both naturally occurring and derived phosphorus.

As with other air quality issues, the factors affecting atmospheric phosphorus loading tothe lake range beyond the Lake Simcoe watershed itself. Reductions can be achievedby implementing best management practices to control soil erosion and excess dust atwork sites. Some of these practices should include the adoption and enforcement of soilconservation by-laws, the planting of wind breaks, proper remediation of aggregateoperations, and the preservation of existing vegetation. In the agricultural sector

21




sustainable methods for increasing the organic content of soils such as the use of no-tilltechniques, retention of crop residue, and cover crop management practices which holdsoil in place need to be adopted.

Sources of dust from commercial operations such as construction sites and aggregate

pits can include: on-site traffic, drilling, loading and unloading of raw materials orfinished product, crushing, screening, transfer and stockpiling material. Wind erosion ordust control consists of applying water or chemical dust suppressants as necessary toprevent or alleviate dust generated by such activities. It should be noted that the use ofchemical dust suppressants can also pose a risk to the environment from otherchemicals contained in the suppressant and have been known to harm plants, wetlands,fish and other aquatic organisms. (Ministry of Transportation, 2007) Covering smallstockpiles or areas is an alternative to applying water or chemical suppressants. Othermethods could be as simple as controlling the speed of traffic on sites, installation ofwind fencing or the construction of berms to keep the length of time soils are exposed toa minimum.

Sediment

The presence of suspended sediment can be a significant concern in aquaticenvironments for several reasons. Chemical contaminants in the water can bind to thesurface of sediment particles. When the particles are filtered by aquatic organisms suchas mussels, the contaminants enter the food chain. Sediment in the water reduces theamount of sunlight that can penetrate the water to make it possible for plants to grow,clogs the gills of fish and aquatic insects, and blankets substrates that fish use forspawning and benthic invertebrates use for habitat. In the lake itself, sedimentationdegrades spawning habitat for fish including lake trout and has contributed to thedecline of some of the sensitive fish communities. Sources of sediment includestormwater runoff and wind erosion from urban and agricultural areas and constructionsites, roads, and the erosion of stream banks. In general, natural areas input very littlesediment into waterbodies – the roots of natural vegetation holds soil in place, and alsoslows the flow of stormwater, which causes the sediment to settle out of the runoffbefore it reaches a watercourse.

Water clarity is measured at the open lake stations maintained by the Ministry of theEnvironment. The measurement taken to determine water clarity is called a Secchidepth, which measures the point at which a black and white disk is no longer visible tothe naked eye. Suspended sediments and phytoplankton (floating, single-celled algae)decrease the depth to which the Secchi disk is visible. Higher Secchi diskmeasurements are an indication of clearer water. Secchi disk visibility has increasedmarkedly at the lake sampling sites beginning in the mid 1990s. This increase isthought to have been caused by the introduction of zebra mussels, that filter particulatematter from the water as they feed. There has also been a reduction in the volume ofphytoplankton in the water column, as has been measured by the Ministry of theEnvironment. Phytoplankton biomass is highly correlated with phosphorusconcentrations; therefore the recent reductions in phosphorus concentration at theopen-lake stations are likely also influencing water clarity. This increased water clarity,

22




in combination with the unique way that zebra mussels process nutrients in thenearshore environment, are hypothesized to be one of the major factors in theproliferation of aquatic plants and attached algae in the lake.

Chloride

Chloride levels have been consistently increasing in the waters of the lake over the past20 years, going up by 0.65 to 0.78 mg/L each year (see Figure 2.3). While currentchloride levels in the lake are unlikely to pose a biological threat, they demonstrate thatsubstantial runoff from urban surfaces is entering the lake, and it is likely that chloridelevels will continue to increase given the continued growth in the watershed. At highconcentrations, chloride can impact the health of fish and aquatic insects, and can alsohave a detrimental impact on both aquatic and terrestrial plants, which provide animportant food source and habitat for many species of aquatic life.

Figure 2.3: Increase in average annual chloride concentration (mg/L) at municipal waterintakes on Lake Simcoe (Eimers and Winter, 2005)

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen is measured by LSEMS partners in both the tributaries and in thebody of the lake. Dissolved oxygen levels are influenced by several factors, particularlywater temperature and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), or the amount ofoxygen required by the fish, plants, bacteria and other organisms in the water body to

23




perform their life cycle functions. Dissolved oxygen concentrations decline withincreasing water temperatures, and the decomposition of plant and animal matter alsouses dissolved oxygen. It is for this reason that the increased growth of plants andalgae associated with high levels of phosphorus are of particular concern – asphosphorus levels increase, plant growth is stimulated, resulting in more plant biomass.

Dissolved oxygen is consumed as this large amount of plant tissue is decomposed,resulting in decreased concentrations.

Low dissolved oxygen concentrations in the deep areas (hypolimnion) of the lake havebeen a concern for some time. Because the lake becomes stratified throughout thesummer months (the warmer surface water and the cool bottom waters separate), thedissolved oxygen in the depths of the lake is not replenished until late in the fall whenthe lake temperature equalizes and the lake becomes mixed again. It is in these cool,deep areas that the most sensitive species in the lake reside – species including laketrout, lake whitefish and lake herring. Toward the end of the summer, dissolved oxygenconcentrations are at their lowest, and often reach levels so low that these species are

not able to carry out the functions of their life cycles. This has led to the decline andnear disappearance of most of these fish species, the populations of which are nowmaintained through annual stocking efforts.

Efforts associated with reducing phosphorus loads to the lake will also help to restorethe dissolved oxygen conditions that these fish need in order for their populations torecover. Results from the latest period of record (2000-2003) indicate that there hasbeen an increase in end-of-summer dissolved oxygen concentrations in the bottomwaters of the lake (Fig. 2.4). Overall, deep water oxygen levels have been increasing inrecent years, and were higher than the LSEMS objective in 2005 to 2007 (JenniferWinter, MOE, personal communication).

Recent scientific research by Dr. David Evans (OMNR) has indicated that there issignificant connection between zebra mussels, nutrient cycling and dissolved oxygen inparticular in Kempenfelt Bay. This new information indicates the key habitat area for

juvenile lake trout is in Kempenfelt Bay due to both the physical habitat (deep) as wellas dissolved oxygen availability. This information raises concern that phosphorusloading into Kempenfelt Bay may require more stringent targets and action to ensurethat this critical habitat is maintained. Further study would be required to assess all thefactors involved as well as the interaction between the lake strata.

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Figure 2.4: Minimum (end-of-summer) volume-weighted DO concentration and averagetemperature in the 18 m-bottom zone of Lake Simcoe at station K42 in Kempenfelt Bay(Eimers and Winter, 2005)

Emerging Issues - Lake

Bacteria

The presence of bacteria in surface waters has become a significant concern in recentyears. Municipal health units monitor the health of local beaches at regular intervalsthroughout the summer to ensure that they are safe for human contact. The ProvincialWater Quality Objective for body-contact recreation has been defined by the Ministry ofthe Environment by using the relative numbers of Escherichia coli (E. coli ) bacteria asan indicator to assess the risk to human health. E. coli are faecal bacteria found in theintestines of mammals, and there are some strains that can cause serious illness inhumans. E. coli and other types of bacteria are naturally found in our waters; beachesare only designated as being unsafe for bathing activities when levels of E. coli exceedthan the PWQO.

Incidences of high levels of E. coli in the lake’s waters indicate contamination by humansewage or animal wastes. While there are other reasons for beach postings, includingwater turbidity, the presence of blue-green algae, or poor aesthetics, closures in LakeSimcoe are generally due to high levels of E. coli . The number of beach closures due tohigh concentrations of E. coli varies from year to year (see Figure 2.5 below for the2005 beach posting results for the lake), as they are heavily influenced by precipitationlevels. Storm water can carry with it animal waste from farms with livestock, as well asfrom pet and waterfowl waste; and saturated soils can transport waste leaking frommalfunctioning septic systems, resulting in high levels in the nearshore bathing areas.

25




There are many steps that can be taken to reduce the number and duration of beachclosures including stormwater management, proper storage of livestock waste andkeeping livestock away from watercourses to reduce contamination, picking up petwaste, and taking measures to deter waterfowl from shoreline areas.

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f P o s t i n g s

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Duration

No. of Postings

Figure 2.5: Number and duration of Beach Postings, Lake Simcoe Watershed, 2006(Simcoe County, Durham Region and York Region Health Departments)

Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants are a natural part of healthy aquatic ecosystems and are beneficial inmany ways. They produce oxygen through the process of photosynthesis, whichassists in overall lake functioning. Areas with plants support food for fish, such asinsect larvae, crustaceans, and snails. Aquatic plant beds offer shelter for fish, andprovide nursery and spawning grounds. Submerged plants provide food for waterfowland habitat for insects on which some water fowl feed. Aquatic plants also helpmaintain water quality by stabilizing sediment (LSEMS Technical Bulletin, 2003).

26




Although aquatic plants are an important part of the Lake Simcoe ecosystem, in largequantities plants can become a nuisance. The dense growth of aquatic plants,particularly in Cook’s Bay, has been one of the most significant issues identified bywatershed residents in recent years. The plants interfere with boating, particularly inshallow, still areas such as marinas and nearshore areas; get caught in anglers’ lines;

detract from recreational swimming experiences; and reduce lake front homeowners’enjoyment of their properties. Some municipalities incur significant costs in attemptingto harvest some of the plants in order mitigate some of the aforementioned impacts. Inorder to help us to better understand and address this issue, the LSRCA enlisted theservices of the consulting firm Stantec to study the macrophyte community in Cook’sBay.

An inventory of the aquatic plants of Cook’s Bay was conducted in August of 2006(Stantec, 2007), for contrast to data collected in 1984 and 1987, and to provide abaseline against which to assess future change. Samples were collected alongtransects radiating from near shore (1 m depth) to a depth of 9 m along the west, south

and east shorelines of Cook’s Bay. Routine water quality parameters (dissolvedoxygen, temperature, and pH) were measured where plant samples were collected. Aqualitative mapping inventory of emergent vegetation was also conducted.

While Cook’s Bay is naturally a shallow area that supports a healthy aquatic plant andwarmwater fish community, increases in phosphorus concentration over the pastseveral decades have stimulated enough growth to upset the natural balance in thisarea. Macrophyte growth in Cook’s Bay is dense enough to have had significant effectson water quality. Dissolved oxygen levels were observed to be significantly depressedin localized areas such as offshore from Gilford (west side of the bay) during earlymorning. This is due to the respiration of the plants that occurs at night. Associatedwith the low dissolved oxygen levels was lower pH. Super-saturation of dissolvedoxygen levels were also observed in Cook’s Bay in mid- to late-afternoon samplingperiods, due to plant photosynthesis.

Total macrophyte biomass of Cook’s Bay has increased between 1987 and 2006 and islikely attributed to zebra mussel colonization and their impact on water clarity andnearshore nutrient cycling. 1995. Neil et al . (1988) reported an average standing cropwet weight biomass of 1.2 kg/m2 for the survey in 1987, with plants limited to waterdepths of < 6 to 8 m. In this 2006 survey, average biomass (across all stations) was 1.4kg/m2, while plants were not found in water deeper than 8.5 m, and the greatestdensities were in water < 4 m deep, consistent with the 1987 survey.

The distributions of the various plant species varied with depth in a typical fashion. Thestonewort Chara , flat-stemmed pondweed and tapegrass were limited to shallowerwaters of about < 4 m in depth, whereas coontail and Elodea canadensis were lessrestricted, and abundant at up to a water depth of 7 m.

Current management options for the control of macrophytes include manual harvesting,nutrient reduction, biological control, and chemical treatment. Manual harvesting isongoing in Cook’s Bay along the eastern shoreline. The bay, however, is simply too

27




large to implement a largescale harvesting operation, though local control will providetemporary relief of unaesthetic buildups. The present harvesting is limited to thecollection of plants that have broken off or died and have washed along the shorelines;active harvesting of live weeds rooted to the bottom is discouraged as the plants aresignificant fish habitat. If large scale control options were to be considered they would

require significant investigation into the need, methods chosen, and impacts to theecology of the lake and fish habitat and also removal could cause a release ofphosphorus from exposed sediments.

Additional research is also being conducted by a research group from the University ofWaterloo, supported by the Ministry of the Environment (MOE), whose researchobjectives are to:

1) Establish the extent and composition of benthic biomass in the littoralzone of Lake Simcoe;

2) Establish the environmental factors that control benthic plants growth;

3) Define the interactions, both positive and negative, between benthic plantgrowth and zebra and quagga mussels;4) Develop and validate a model for benthic plant growth in Lake Simcoe for

management of the near shore environment;5) Determine whether increased benthic plant biomass is influencing the

composition and growth of phytoplankton in the open lake.

Preliminary results from this research indicate that the areal coverage and biomass ofmacrophytes in Cook’s Bay has increased compared to 1984 and 1987 surveys andthat phosphorus concentrations in plant tissue may be lower than the earlier surveys.This may suggest that the recent increase in macrophyte coverage and biomass ismainly attributed to increased light penetration as a result of the colonization of zebramussels.

Additional information (monitoring, analysis) is needed to better understand the linkagesand potentially negative interactions between aquatic macrophyte growth and thequality of habitat for benthic macroinvertebrates and fish in Cook’s Bay and other areasof Lake Simcoe. Cook’s Bay is the principal area of concern in Lake Simcoe but anincrease in resident complaints in other areas is requiring further investigation.Additional information is also needed to evaluate other areas of the lake that may be ofconcern, as well as to understand the factors influencing the growth of macrophytes,and the potential to reduce macrophyte growths through reduction in nutrient loads.Continued monitoring of the aquatic macrophytes in Cook’s Bay at two- to three-yearintervals in the long term would provide data that could be used to demonstratechanges in standing stock biomass, and the influence of any mitigation actions taken.

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2.1.3 Current Tributary Conditions and Issues

Monitoring Water Quality in the Tributaries Today

Water quality in rivers and streams is a function of both natural processes and

anthropogenic impacts. For example, natural processes such as weathering of mineralsand various kinds of erosion can affect the quality of groundwater and surface water.Anthropogenic influences on water quality are generally grouped into point source andnon-point source impacts. As can be seen from the figure on page 10, Lake Simcoe’stributaries contribute a significant portion of the annual phosphorus load to the lake.Point sources of pollution are direct inputs of contaminants to the surface water orgroundwater system, such as municipal and industrial wastewater discharges, rupturedunderground storage tanks, and landfills. Non-point sources include, but are notexclusive to, agricultural drainage, urban runoff, land clearing, construction activity andland application of waste that typically travel to waterways through surface runoff andinfiltration. Contaminants delivered by point and non-point sources can travel in

suspension and/or solution and are characterized by routine sampling of surface watersin the Lake Simcoe watershed.

Currently there are two programs that monitor water quality in Lake Simcoe watershedtributaries, the Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Strategy (LSEMS) and theProvincial Water Quality Monitoring Network (PWQMN) Figure 2.6. The LSEMSprogram focuses primarily on nutrients and samples at 14 locations bi-weekly. ThePWQMN program collects a wider suite of parameters on a monthly basis at 12locations. In some locations PWQMN data stretches back to 1965, allowing for longterm trends to be examined.

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Figure 2.6 – Monitoring stations in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

Phosphorus

Long term total phosphorus concentrations at select PWQMN stations show markedreductions in total phosphorus concentrations since the 1960’s and 1970’s. Thesestations include West Holland, Tannery Creek, Mt Albert Creek, Beaver River, PefferlawBrook, Lovers Creek and Schomberg River, as these stations have long term records.Reductions in total phosphorus concentrations are particularly evident in historic datafor the East Holland River where changes in waste water treatment and regulation show

30




dramatic reductions, and further reductions after 1984 when the WPCP was taken offline (see Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7 - East Holland -Phosphorus Concentrations 1965 - 1995 (mg/L)

mg/L

0 1 2 3 10 11

1965 - 1970

1971 - 1975

1976 - 1980

1981 - 1985

1986 - 1990

1991 - 1995

PWQO = 0.03mg/LMedian

While very little monitoring was conducted in the latter half of the 1990’s, decreasingtotal phosphorus concentrations are still evidenced in current data. A statistical test

(seasonal Kendall) found a decreasing trend in all the stations listed above except forLovers Creek. Figure 2.8 shows data for Beaver River from 1973 on, and Figure 2.9displays data from the Lovers Creek from 1975 on. Although the data describe adecreasing trend in phosphorus concentrations many stations still exceed the ProvincialWater Quality Objective (PWQO) of 0.03 mg/L as can be seen in Figure 2.10(Phosphorus Concentrations at all PWQMN stations 2002 – 2006). The data isdisplayed as box plots in 5 year data pools against the interim Provincial Water QualityObjective (PWQO) of 0.03 mg/L for total phosphorus in rivers.

Monitoring and reporting conducted by the LSEMS partners also describe a reduction intributary phosphorus loads and concentrations over the 1998 – 2004 reporting period.

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Figure 2.8 - Beaver River -Phosphorus Concentrations 1972 - 1993, 2002 - 2006 (mg/L)

mg/L

0.0 0.1 0.2

1972 - 1975

1976 - 1980

1981 - 1985

1986 - 1990

1991 - 1993

2002 - 2006


Figure 2.9 - Lovers Creek -Phosphorus Concentrations 1975 - 1998, 2002 - 2006 (mg/L)

mg/L

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

1975 - 1980

1981 - 1985

1986 - 1990

1991 - 1995

1996 - 1998

2002 - 2006


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Figure 2.10 - Phosphorus Concentrations at all PWQMN Stations2003 - 2006 (mg/L)

mg/L

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Beaver

Black

Hawkstone

Holland Landing

Lovers

Maskinonge

Mt. Albert

Pefferlaw

Schomberg

Tannery

UxbridgeW Holland

PWQO = 0.03mg/L

Chloride

Concentrations of chloride have been increasing in Lake Simcoe’s subwatersheds andin the lake itself, an indication of the increasing urbanization of the watershed. As wasdiscussed in the Lake Water Quality section, chloride levels have been consistently

increasing in the waters of the lake over the past 20 years. This increasing trend can beobserved in tributary samples from urban and rural areas (Figure 2.11 - PefferlawBrook) throughout the watershed and is further supported by statistical tests (seasonalKendall) at West Holland, Mt Albert Creek, Beaver River, Pefferlaw Brook, Lovers Creekand Schomberg River. Of the stations tested only Tannery Creek showed no strongtrend, either increasing or decreasing.

Instances of high concentrations of chloride in tributary samples are most common inwinter and early spring, which indicates the probable source of the chloride, is road saltuse. While current chloride levels in the lake, and the majority of those sampled intributaries, are unlikely to pose a biological threat, they demonstrate that substantial

runoff from urban surfaces is entering the lake. With growth continuing in many parts ofthe watershed it is likely that chloride levels will continue to increase.

Figure 2.12 displays the PWQMN data for all 12 stations from 2002 to 2006. The twostations with the highest proportion of urban area upstream are the Tannery andHolland Landing stations. These are also the stations occasionally exceed theCanadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) guideline of 210 mg/L for chloride inspring (Environment Canada, 2003). During winter LSEMS sampling, exceedances ofUnited States Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA) acute toxicity guideline of

33




860 mg/L (USEPA, 2006) have been recorded at Holland Landing. At theseconcentrations, chloride can not only impact the health of fish and aquatic insects, butcan also have a detrimental impact on both aquatic and terrestrial plants, which provideand important food source and habitat for many species of aquatic life.

Figure 2.11 - Pefferlaw Brook -Chloride Concentrations 1965 - 1995, 2002 - 2006 (mg/L)

mg/L

0 10 20 30 40 50 200

1965 - 1970

1971 - 1975

1976 - 1980

1981 - 1985

1986 - 1990

1991 - 1995

2002 - 2006

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FIgure 2.12 - Chloride Concentrations at all PWQMN Station2003 - 2006 (mg/L)

mg/L

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Beaver

Black

Hawkstone

Holland Landing

Lovers

Maskinonge

Mt. Albert

Pefferlaw

Schomberg

TanneryUxbridge

W Holland

CEPA = 210mg/L

Total Suspended Solids

The presence of sediment suspended in a watercourse can be a significant concern inaquatic environments for several reasons. Chemical contaminants in the water canbind to the surface of sediment particles. When the particles are filtered by aquaticorganisms such as mussels the contaminants enter the food chain. Suspended

sediments will also reduce the amount of sunlight that can penetrate the water to makeit possible for plants to grow, clogs the gills of fish and aquatic insects, and coverssubstrate that fish use for spawning and many aquatic insects use for habitat.

Total suspended solids are not generally a problem in Lake Simcoe tributaries as Figure2.13 shows with current PWQMN data. This is further supported by statistical tests runon stations with long term data which found either no significant trend or a decreasingtrend in total suspended solids concentrations. However, as suspended sediment canact as a transport mechanism for contaminants, high concentrations of suspendedsolids will typically be coupled with high concentrations of other contaminants. TheTannery and Holland Landing stations on the East Holland River have some of the

highest concentrations of suspended solids. These stations are also experiencingexceedances of other contaminants such as total aluminum as a result of suspendedsolids concentrations. Total aluminum concentrations are discussed in the followingsection.

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Figure 2.13 - TSS Concentrations at all PWQMN Stations -2003 - 2006 (mg/L)

mg/L

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1800 1900

Beaver

Black

Hawkstone

Holland Landing

Lovers

Maskinonge

Mt. Albert

Pefferlaw

Schomberg

TanneryUxbridge

W Holland

CWQG = 30mg/L

Sources of suspended solids include stormwater runoff and wind erosion from urbanand agricultural areas and construction sites, roads, and the erosion of stream banks.In general, natural areas input very little sediment into waterbodies – natural vegetationbinds soil and holds it in place, and also slows the flow of stormwater, which causes thesediment to settle out of the runoff before it reaches a watercourse. Where naturalareas are replaced with other land uses, the input of suspended sediment can be

reduced through the implementation of storm water controls and the planting ofvegetated buffers along watercourses. In an agricultural setting, conservation tillagepractices, wind breaks, and vegetated buffers can help to keep the soil on the field andprevent any eroding soil from reaching watercourses.

East Holland River

The station at Holland Landing was the most heavily impacted of all the stationssampled under the PWQMN program. Numerous exceedances of 12 of the 18parameters that have firm guidelines were recorded at this station. This includes 100%of phosphorus measurements, 97% of aluminum, 88% of iron measurements and 59%

of total suspended solids samples. Uniquely high readings of chloride, in excess of theUS EPA’s guidelines for acute toxicity, were also recorded. This is thought to be due tothe use of road salts. The station sits downstream of Aurora and Newmarket, one of themost urbanized areas of the watershed. It highlights the impact that human activitieshave on the ecosystem and the need for remediation efforts to be focused on the EastHolland Subwatershed.

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2.1.4 Emerging Issues Facing the Lake and Tributaries

Emerging Contaminants

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) & Endocrine Disrupting

Chemicals

Lake Simcoe assimilates treated sewage treatment effluent from 14 Water PollutionControl Plants (WPCPs) but also is the drinking water supply for 6 communities in theLake Simcoe basin which may represent a potential threat pending further research.Presently WPCPs do not treat their respective effluent specifically for the removal ofPPCPs and EDCs. The effluent may therefore still contains PPCPs and EDCs amongother potentially harmful chemicals. A cost effective technology to effectively removethese is presently not available. The release of treated sewage effluent that containsPPCPs has been identified by scientists as a potential risk to human health.

As a newly emerging area of research, there have not yet been standards proposed forpharmaceutical concentrations in sewage effluent or surface water. This createsdifficulty in developing management control mechanisms or treatment alternatives forpharmaceuticals in sewage effluent. There has also been ongoing debate on thesampling methodologies, laboratory analysis and reporting thresholds for theseparameters, further complicating an effective response to this issue at this time. Theagencies, municipalities and researchers must remain diligent and closely monitorprogress in this area and develop a strategy to respond, monitor and take action whennecessary.

Pesticides in the Holland Marsh

In 2004 the LSRCA initiated a Toxic Pollutant Screening Program to evaluate theconditions of rivers and streams with regard to the presence of selected organic andinorganic contaminants in surface water and sediments. (LSRCA, 2004)Organochlorine (OC) pesticides were included in the suite of parameters analyzed.

Initally OC pesticides were detected in one sediment sample collected from the WestHolland River in Bradford (north of the Holland Marsh). Concentrations of DDT andDDE were high enough to justify the collection of five sediment samples from upstreamlocations to examine the extent of the contamination. The same five locations weresampled again in 2005, with water samples being collected in addition to the sedimentsamples. The additional sampling revealed that the contaminants were mainly limited tothe downstream (north-east) portion of the Marsh, likely the result of transport throughthe canal system.

Sediment samples detected a number of OC pesticides including DDT and itsmetabolites, a-Chlorane, Dieldrin, a-Endosulfan and b-Endosulfan. All these pesticidesare now banned in Canada except for Endosulfan. Based on their known persistence inthe environment as well as the quantities of the metabolites detected these pesticideslikely represent historical use rather than current application.

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These parameters were not detected in surface water samples, with the exception ofEndosulfan Sulfate and DDD (a metabolite of DDT) at the furthest downstream stationin the Marsh. The PWQO for DDT, developed for the protection of aquatic life, includesits metabolite products (0.003 ug/L). This was exceeded by the sampled DDDconcentration of 0.011 ug/L. The concentration of Endosulfan Sulfate similarly exceeds

the PWQO for its parent product Endosulfan (0.003 ug/L PWQO, 0.013ug/L sampledconcentration). These water samples show that the OC Pesticides sampled in thesediments are mobile or are being released from the sediment into surface waters andmay be having a negative impact on aquatic life.

OC pesticides, which have largely been banned in Canada due to their environmentalpersistence, were detected in the 2004 marsh sediment samples at orders of magnitudehigher than the applicable aquatic guidelines. Due to the persistent nature of thesepesticides, the concentrations sampled likely indicate historic use; however, theirpresence in surface sediments represents a potential source of contamination to aquaticreceptors and may result in bioaccumulation.

To better gauge the impact and bioconcentration potential of these pesticides in thewater, experimental passive sampling devices called Semi-Permeable MembraneDevices (SPMDs) were deployed for a month in 2006. A second deployment wasundertaken in 2007. The intent of the SPMDs is to absorb the pesticides over thecourse of the month long deployment similar to the way a biologic organism in thesystem would. The SPMDs are then analyzed for the various parameters. The resultsof this work will be available at a future date.

Aluminum

Total aluminum concentrations were monitored briefly in the mid 1990s and not againuntil 2002. In the 2002 to 2006 data set, total aluminum regularly exceeded theCanadian Water Quality Guideline for the protection of aquatic life (CWQG) at a numberof stations (LSRCA:2005, 2006). Exceedances of the USEPA acute toxicity guidelinefor total aluminum were recorded at four stations in 2006 (from 2002 - 2005 only asingle exceedance of the EPA guideline was recorded at the Holland Landing station).The four stations included Holland Landing where 4 samples (50%) exceeded theguideline, 3 exceedances at Tannery Creek, two exceedances at Schomberg, and oneat Hwy 11. Aluminum concentrations were found to be highly correlated with totalsuspended solids (TSS) suggesting that the majority of sampled aluminum is associatedwith clay particles due to erosion or resuspension of bed load. When the samples arenot filtered, the clay minerals are comprised of aluminum silicate and particles less than2 micrograms in size can be found suspended in water and will enter the samplingcontainer. Total aluminum measured is likely associated with the clay particles, not atoxic dissolved form of aluminum. However, the increasing number of exceedances ofthe EPA acute guideline warrants further investigation. Filtered samples have beenundertaken and analyzed, and the majority of the aluminum has indeed been found tobe mainly sediment bound, not the dissolved form that can be toxic to the aquaticcommunity. Further monitoring of this type will be undertaken in the future to ensure

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that the dissolved form of aluminum is not the type being detected in the total aluminumsamples.

Chromium

Total chromium concentration as measured by the PWQMN is not directly comparableto the PWQO for hexavalent and trivalent Chromium, the two forms most common innatural waters. However, total chromium concentrations recorded at Holland Landingare chronically above expected levels for natural waters (MOE, 1981) as well as havingmultiple readings in excess of the objectives for both the trivalent and hexavalent forms.The range of chromium at this station is 0.95ug/L to 20ug/L with a median of 2.32ug/L.In sediment samples collected as part of the Toxic Pollutant Screening Programrecorded chromium concentrations exceeded applicable sediment guidelines in theTannery Creek (a tributary of the East Holland River) and the main branch of the EastHolland River.

Sources of chromium include cement, ferrochromium, chromium steel and metal platingindustries, burning of fossil fuels and leather tanneries. As tanneries have historicallyoperated near each of the locations recording high chromium levels it is possible thatthe measured chromium represents historic contamination. In order to quantify theseverity of chromium contamination and associated toxicity, trivalent, hexavalent andtotal chromium concentrations were analyzed in 2007, and it was found that the majorityof the total chromium is comprised of trivalent chromium, which is not thought to havethe detrimental impacts that hexavalent chromium has. Monitoring of this type willcontinue in order to track the type of chromium, and ensure that there are not highlevels of hexavalent chromium at these stations.

Atmospheric Gases or Particles

Ground Level Ozone

As with the rest of Ontario, the parameter responsible for most of the moderate to poorair quality readings in the Lake Simcoe watershed is ground level ozone. Ozone, whichis the prime ingredient in smog, is produced when nitrogen oxides and volatile organiccompounds (VOCs) react in sunlight. Automobiles and other methods of transportationare a major source of both parameters.

Ozone irritates the respiratory tract and eyes. Exposure to ozone in sensitive peoplecan result in chest tightness, coughing and wheezing. Ground level ozone is also linkedto increased hospital admissions and premature deaths. Ozone also causes agriculturalcrop loss each year in Ontario, with visible leaf damage in many crops, garden plantsand trees, especially during the summer months (Ministry of the Environment, 2006).

Fine Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 )

A second parameter of concern to air quality in the Lake Simcoe watershed isparticulate matter. Particulate matter is emitted into the air through burning fossil fuels

39




in cars and trucks, industrial processes such as incineration, construction and metalprocessing, as well as from natural sources such as wind erosion and forest fires.Particles (aerosols) may also be or formed indirectly in the atmosphere through a seriesof complex chemical reactions.

Fine Particulate Matter is a particle capable of penetrating deep into the respiratorysystem. Exposure is associated with hospital admissions and several serious healtheffects, including premature death. Effects have been noted during short term (a singleday) and long term exposures (a year or more). Fine particulate matter may also beresponsible for environmental impacts such as corrosion, soiling, damage to vegetation,and reduced visibility (Ministry of the Environment, 2006).

Smog

Smog is a mixture of air pollutants, primarily ground level ozone, fine particulate matter,and NOx. It is typified by that brown haze often seen over our communities on a warm

sunny day. Ground level ozone is formed when VOCs and nitrogen oxides react insunlight. PM2.5 is a mixture of microscopic particles that are 2.5 micrometres or less insize. These may be particles of soot, ash, dirt, dust and metals in the air. Thetraditional summer smog season is generally defined as the period between May 1 andSeptember 30. Smog is generally associated with distinct weather patterns causingsmog to move up from highly industrialized areas in the United States. On average50% of our smog comes from south of the border each year (Ministry of theEnvironment, 2000). Such weather conditions are generally associated with slowmoving high pressure systems south of the lower Great Lakes (Yap et al , 2005).

Overall, smog is harmful to both the respiratory (lungs) and cardiovascular (heart)systems. It aggravates heart problems, bronchitis, asthma, and other lung problems.Smog reduces lung function even in healthy people. Even at low levels, ground levelozone and fine particulate matter are harmful. There are no "safe" levels of smog(Ministry of the Environment, 2007). Recent reports conclude that in 2005 more than 29million minor illnesses, 59,000 emergency room visits, 16,000 hospital admissions andmore than 5,800 premature deaths in Ontario were caused by smog. It is estimated thatin Ontario the environmental, health care and societal costs of smog are $10.8 billionannually. If the current trend continues, these figures would rise to more than 38 millionminor illnesses, 87,000 emergency room visits, 24,000 hospital admissions and 10,000premature deaths by 2015 (Ministry of the Environment, 2007).

Other Airborne Contaminants

Nitrogen dioxide plays a major role in atmospheric reactions that produce ground-levelozone and smog. It reacts in the atmosphere to form fine particulate matter and formsnitric acid which contributes to acid rain. Nitrogen dioxide is known to irritate the lungsand lower the resistance to respiratory infection. All combustion in air produces nitrogendioxide with the transportation sector, utilities and industrial processes being majorsources.

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Sulphur dioxide also reacts to form fine particulate matter and components of acid rain.The major source of sulphur dioxide in Ontario is from smelters and utilities. Healtheffects caused by exposure to high levels of sulphur dioxide include breathing problems,respiratory illness and the worsening of respiratory and cardiovascular disease.

Air Quality Monitoring

The Province monitors ambient air quality through its 40 air quality index (AQI)monitoring sites across the province, two of which are in the Lake Simcoe watershed;one in the Town of Newmarket, and one in the City of Barrie. Parameters measured atthese two sites are ground level ozone (O3), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and nitrogendioxide (NO2).

Table 2.1: (source: Table 1-1 “Air Quality Ontario 2005 Report.” Ministry of theEnvironment, 2006)

The AQI network provides the public with air quality information, in near real time, fromacross the province. The AQI is based on pollutants that have adverse effects onhuman health and the environment. The pollutants are ozone, fine particulate matter,PM2.5, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and total reduced sulphurcompounds. At the end of each hour, the concentration of each pollutant measured ateach site is converted into a number ranging from zero upwards using a common scaleor index. The calculated number for each pollutant is referred to as a sub-index. At a

given site, the highest sub-index for any given hour becomes the AQI reading for thatlocation. The index is a relative scale, in that, the lower the index, the better the airquality.

Figures 2.14 and 2.15 below, show maximum daily AQI values at the two monitoringstations located within the Lake Simcoe watershed. Ozone is by far the predominantAQI reading with fine particulate matter making up the rest. For 2006, eight poor days (6due to ozone; 2 due to fine particulate matter) were recorded for Newmarket while nodays in the poor category were found for Barrie. Elevated levels are seen throughout

41




spring and summer and are associated with the same weather patterns that bring moisthot air up from the south.

Figure 2.14: Daily Maximum AQI Values for Newmarket (data source: MOE, 2007)

42




Figure 2.15: Daily Maximum AQI Values for Barrie (data source: MOE, 2007)

A look at smog advisories from 1995 – 2005 (Figure 2.16) does not provide as muchdetail as the AQI. It does however show the variability in air quality year to year and thegrowing extent of some smog advisories. Fine particulate matter was not added to thenetwork until August 2002 and was expected to increase smog advisory days by asmuch as 10%. This may be responsible for a large part of the increase seen in thegraph below.

One element to note is that the worst year in this record is 2005 with by far the mostAdvisory Days. While there is not enough supporting information to indicate a temporaltrend, it does reiterate that parameters such as ozone and fine particulate matter (mainingredients in smog) need to be continually monitored and efforts to reduce emissionsneed to continue and expand.

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Figure 2.16: Number and duration of smog advisories (1995-2005)

Smog Advisories (1995 - 2005)

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

number of advisoriesnumber of days

Climate Change

Background

Climate change refers to changes in the climate of the earth or of regional climates overtime. It describes changes in the average state of the atmosphere or the averageweather over various long- and short-term time scales. Changes in climate may arisefrom natural processes, such as the internal processes of the earth; external processes(such as variation in levels of sunlight); or from anthropogenic processes (Solomon et al , 2007). In recent years, discussion of climate change has mainly referred to thechanges in modern climate, including global warming. It is now generally accepted thathuman activities have played a significant role in these recent changes.

For thousands of years, there has been a natural balance of greenhouse gases in theatmosphere – carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are naturally produced insome processes, and consumed in others. However, since the industrial era, thisbalance has been disrupted. Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels,deforestation, and intensive land uses have added huge quantities of greenhouse gaseswhich natural processes are unable to consume, thus upsetting the natural balance(Houghton et al , 2001). Increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are illustrated inFigure 2.17.

In recent years we have seen some of the impacts of climate change, both locally andglobally. Average annual temperatures in southern Ontario have increased by 0.5°

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Celsius over the past century and are expected to rise by an additional 3.5° C to 4°C(see Figure 2.18) in this region over the next century, with winter temperatures expectedto rise as much as 4° C to 5° C (Christensen et al , 2007); the frequency of extremeweather events has been steadily increasing (Field et al , 2007); many of the earth’sglaciers have been melting at unexpectedly high rates (Anisimov et al , 2007); and many

ecosystems are exhibiting changes. These changes are expected to continue andbecome more pronounced into the future as the amount of greenhouse gases in theatmosphere increases.

While the precise impacts of climate change in the Lake Simcoe watershed are difficultto accurately predict because of the many factors that influence global and regionalclimates, scientists have determined some of the likely effects. Climate change willhave impacts on our activities and on the environment – water quantity and quality;agriculture; the integrity of the lake’s ecosystems; tourism; and community infrastructureand human health may all be impacted. Watershed agencies must be prepared tomanage the watershed in light of the changes that are expected into the future.

Figure 2.17: Atmospheric carbon dioxide and temperature change (source: David Peltier,February 2007)

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Figure 2.18: Predictions of future warming for three modelled emissions scenarios(Source: David Peltier, Feb 2007)

Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming

Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have

been increasing as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-industrial values. The global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarilyto fossil fuel use and land use change, while those of methane and nitrous oxide areprimarily due to agriculture (IPCC, 2007).

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Figure 2.19: (source: “Summary for Policy Makers” IPCC Working Group 1, 2007)Measurements are shown from different studies and are represented by a change incolor. Radiative forcing is used to represent the effect each element has on the climate’senergy balance.

The effects of these elevated levels in carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides arewidespread with evidence of:

• warming of lakes and rivers in many regions, with effects on thermalstructure and water quality

• earlier timing of spring events and the poleward shift in ranges in plant

and animal species• range changes and earlier migrations of fish in rivers• trend in many regions towards earlier ‘greening’ of vegetation in the

spring linked to longer thermal growing seasons due to recent warming

In the future, heavy precipitation events will increase flood risk. Cities that currentlyexperience heat waves are expected to be further challenged by an increased number,intensity and duration of these events (IPCC, 2007).

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Water Quantity and Quality: Predicted Impacts from Climate Change

Water levels are expected to decline in inland lakes throughout Ontario (Warren et al ,2004). A reduction in summer water levels combined with land use changes is likely toreduce the recharge of groundwater. This has implications for human uses and will

have numerous environmental impacts (IPCC, 2007). Humans rely on both surface andgroundwater as a source of drinking water and for irrigation and industrial activities.Environmental impacts include the drying up of small streams, degradation of aquatichabitat, deterioration of water quality, and a reduction in wetland area. Fish that inhabitthe small streams or rely on them for part of their life cycle, or species that requirespecific habitat features that have the potential to become degraded may have tomigrate or will become extirpated. A reduction in wetland area will result in impacts forthe diversity of plants and wildlife, and also a decline in water quality, as the filteringcapacity of the wetlands is compromised (Warren et al , 2004). The competition forwater resources for all of these uses that already occurs during dry summers will beexacerbated as water levels decrease and there is less ground and surface water to

meet the demands. The challenge for water managers will be to determine how tobalance these conflicting uses to ensure that the most pressing needs are met and thatthere is water remaining to carry out ecological functions.

As mentioned briefly above, water quality will also be impacted by climate change(IPCC, 2007). In addition to the reduced filtering capacity of wetlands; other factors willreduce the water quality in Lake Simcoe’s watercourses. Low water levels will result inreduced dilution of pollutants. In addition, the anticipated increase in frequency andintensity of rainfall (Meehl et al , 2007) will produce higher levels of pollution andsedimentation due to runoff. These more intense rainfall patterns will likely also result inmore floods – runoff from the large volumes of flood water will transport contaminantsinto water bodies, and high volumes will overwhelm storm and wastewater controlsystems. An increase in the frequency of mid-winter melts may result in more flooding,potentially resulting in more erosion and sediment contribution to the tributaries andsubsequently the lake.

Aquatic Habitat: Predicted Impacts from Climate Change

The low water levels expected as a result of climate change will likely impact thewatershed’s aquatic ecosystems. Low water levels will result in the disappearance ofsmall streams and a reduction in the area and quality of wetlands. Wetlands providebreeding and nursery habitat for many fish species, and a reduction in wetland area willimpact populations of these fish. If streams dry up, the fish and other aquatic animalsthat live there will either have to migrate to locations which may have less than idealhabitat, or they may become extirpated. If flow in streams is reduced, water quality isalso likely to deteriorate, as the capacity of a watercourse to dilute pollutants is reducedwith lower inputs of water, and high flows during intense rain events will carry pollutantsto water bodies (Warren et al , 2004).

Increased air temperatures will also result in rising water temperatures. This will impactsensitive species of fish and aquatic invertebrates, as the capacity of the water to carry

48




dissolved oxygen decreases as the temperature increases. The result will be changesin fish and aquatic insect communities and the northward migration of species (providedbarriers to migration do not exist), as well as the potential for local extinctions of themore sensitive species. The ability of a species to migrate will depend on the presenceof physical or thermal barriers, and on the presence of appropriate habitat conditions.

The potential negative impact to coldwater fish communities within the tributaries isprevalent if flows are reduced and water temperatures are increased and potentiallycould lead to extirpation.

The lake ecosystem could be impacted in several ways by sustained climate change;both in immediate future and long-term. Shifts in seasonal ice cover would affect thelake’s productivity – ice cover controls the availability of light and affects dissolvedoxygen concentrations. Since the concentration of dissolved oxygen declines duringthe ice cover period, a decrease in ice cover could reduce winter mortality due to lowoxygen conditions Evidence of impacts from a reduced ice cover period of time isbeginning to emerge through recent work from Dr David Evans whose research is

indicating the trend of reduced ice cover that the lake has been experiencing isillustrating potential impacts on juvenile lake trout survivability (Evans, 2007).

However, the stratification period will be affected, as the characteristics are heavilyinfluenced by climate. A report by the International Joint Commission (IJC) indicatesthat climate change could result in the earlier onset of stratification, an extendedsummer stratification period, and changes in the volume of the thermal layers, or it mayreduce the frequency and regularity of lake turnovers (IJC, 2003). Some species arealready under pressure due to the small size of the hypolimnion during the lake’sstratified period, so any decrease in size or dissolved oxygen concentrations could bedevastating to their populations (Evans, 2007). These changes could alter the dominantspecies found in the lake and may cause extirpation of some fish species.

Agriculture: Predicted Impacts from Climate Change

Climate change is likely to have both positive and negative impacts on agriculture insouthern Ontario. Although there is a great deal of uncertainty, a number of benefitsare anticipated, including an extended growing season, an extension of the range ofmore southern crop species that are currently grown in the northern United States intothis region, and a potential decrease in cold stress during the winter months. However,negative impacts are also anticipated. Soil moisture deficiencies could reduce cropyield; the benefits expected from reduced cold stress could be offset by the potential fordamaging winter thaws as a result of a reduction in the amount of protective snowcover; extreme heat could have impacts on crop yield, particularly if it occurs duringcrucial points of the life cycle of the plant; and the incidence of pests and diseases isexpected to increase.

Warren et al ., (2004), state climate change may also have positive and negativeimpacts on livestock operations in Canada, although little research has been conductedto determine how warmer temperatures will affect this economically important sector.However, the limited research to date suggests that positive impacts could include lower

49




feed requirements, increased survival of the young, and reduced energy costs (Rötterand van de Geijn, 1999). Climate change, through heat stress, could affect milkproduction, dairy cow reproduction, and animal weight grain (Rosenzweig and Hillel,1998).

Recreation: Predicted Impacts from Climate Change

It will be important to manage those impacts of climate change that we are able to, asLake Simcoe’s recreation industry, which is estimated to generate revenue in thehundreds of millions of dollars for the economies of watershed municipalities, could beseverely impacted by the changes that could arise from climate change. To managethese impacts, watershed managers will need to take science based local actions aswell as recognize opportunities to support work to reduce climate change where theseopportunities may exist.

Ice conditions in southern Ontario are expected to deteriorate in the coming years, a

trend that has already recently been observed to an extent. The ice season will becomeshorter, and it is likely that there will be years without ice cover (Lemke et al , 2007).These changing conditions will deal a serious blow to the businesses and communitiesthat rely on ice fishing and other ice-related activities. Possible changes in the fishcommunity could impact the lake’s reputation as a fishing destination. Climate changeimpacts may also include a decrease in the amount of expected snow cover (Trenberthet al , 2007), which will affect activities such as snowmobiling, skiing, and snowshoeing,which could also result in lost revenues.

With warmer summer temperatures, it is expected that the interest in swimming andother water-related activities will increase. However, low water levels, warmer airtemperatures and warmer water combined with increased concentrations of nutrientsand pollutants could deter people from undertaking in-water recreation. Boatingactivities may also be impacted by low water and weeds, and marina operators mayneed to dredge their harbours and channels to be able to continue to operate becauseof low water levels.

2.1.5 Tools and Actions to Improve Water Quality

Assimilative Capacity Study (ACS)

Background

Throughout the implementation of the LSEMS programs it was apparent that in someyears, the annual reductions in phosphorus loading being achieved through theimplementation of Best Management Practices (BMPs) were to varying degrees beingoffset by new sources generated by population growth and land use changes within thebasin. The primary increases in phosphorus loading were associated with non-pointurban runoff, atmospheric deposition and inputs from sewage treatment plants (Scott et al ., 2005). With the advent of new management technologies for both stormwater runoff

50




and sewage treatment future impacts of growth can be minimized but not entirelyeliminated.

Recognizing that a significant amount of work remains to reduce existing phosphorusloadings it was critical that a holistic strategy for phosphorus management be

developed. The strategy would need to predict future impacts that land use changesmight have on the annual total phosphorus load to the lake to ensure that the LSEMSphosphorus target could not only be achieved, but maintained in light of future growth.To this end in 2005, the Ministry of the Environment approached and funded the LakeSimcoe Region Conservation Authority to develop an Assimilative Capacity study forLake Simcoe which would provide the information necessary to complete a phosphorusmanagement strategy.

Assimilative Capacity and Land Use Changes

Assimilative capacity is defined as: “the relationship between water quality/quantity and

land use and the capability of the watercourse or lake to resist the effects of landscapedisturbance without impairment of water quality.” The assimilative capacity of awatercourse or lake therefore represents the environmentally sustainable threshold ofthe resource.

The purpose behind the Assimilative Capacity Study (ACS) was to help the LSEMSpartners to determine how much development can be accommodated in the LakeSimcoe watershed and the management practices necessary to minimize futurephosphorus loading from the watershed or to reduce current loadings, to meet theLSEMS remedial target for Lake Simcoe.

The estimation of the assimilative capacity of the Lake Simcoe watershed required thecompletion of several steps. These included:

• Estimating the current contribution of phosphorus entering Lake Simcoefrom all existing point and non-point sources.

• Evaluating the potential reduction in phosphorus loading resulting from theimplementation of BMPs throughout the watershed on the current load.

• Estimating the impact of the future Official Plan designated population andurban area growth on phosphorus loading within the watershed with andwithout the implementations of BMPs.

• Establishing phosphorus targets in the form of Total Maximum Monthly

Loads (TMMLs) for individual subwatersheds within the basin which are inturn linked to the LSEMS current lake phosphorus target load of 75 T/y.• Assessing whether the TMMLs can be achieved and maintained under the

future growth scenario.• Recommending options for future growth based on the results.

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The Tools

To complete these tasks two water qualitymodels were developed with private sectorconsultants, a watershed water quality

model known as the Canadian ArcViewNutrient and Water Evaluation Tool(CANWET) and a hydrodynamic lake waterquality model developed by the DanishHydraulic Institute and referred to asMIKE3\ECO Labs model. The CANWET™model is used to predict changes in waterquality of rivers and streams associatedwith changes in land use. This tool wasused to evaluate the change in waterquality based on future population and

urban growth scenarios and the outputused as input into the MIKE3\ECO Labmodel. This model is used to predict thelake response to the change in phosphorusloading and can reflect the consequence offuture growth in relation to the health ofLake Simcoe.

Specific information regarding the LakeSimcoe Assimilative Capacity Studyand to download or view reports youcan visit a web site by viewing….

http://www.assimilativecapacity.info/

The site contains a description of thestudy, work plans, final reports,partners in the process, results of themedia centre and opportunities forfurther consultation.

For more detailed informationon the Assimilative Capacity

Study….

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Figure 2.20: Phosphorus loading by source for each of the lake’s subwatersheds as

determined through CANWET modelling

Phosphorus Targets: Developing Total Maximum Monthly Loads (TMMLs)

TMMLs were developed for the LSRCA by the Louis Berger Group Inc. (Assimilative Capacity Studies June 2006 Pollutant Target Loads: Lake Simcoe and Nottawasaga River Basins , Washington, D.C.; http://www.assimilativecapacity.info/fin_rprt.htm).

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http://www.assimilativecapacity.info/fin_rprt.htm

http://www.assimilativecapacity.info/fin_rprt.htm




The practice of developing total maximum loads was first initiated by the USEPA toregulate and protect degraded water resources. Once a water quality indicator isidentified, in this case total phosphorus, a target value for that indicator is determinedthat will allow for the attainment of water quality objectives. This target condition isestablished to provide measurable environmental management goals and a clear

linkage to attaining water quality objectives (i.e. PWQOs). Target values for someindicators can be established simply by adopting numerical criteria in water qualitystandards or objective (such as the PWQOs). However, in those cases where nonumerical standard is available, or where additional water quality objectives must beconsidered, additional mechanisms can be employed in target development.

The development of TMMLs in the Lake Simcoe watershed represents the first time thismethod has been proposed for use in protecting water resources in Canada. The initialportion of this process, the characterization of nutrient and sediment loads within thesubwatersheds for the growth scenarios, was completed by Greenland Internationalthrough the CANWET model. The Louis Berger Group used this information to

determine the maximum load that could be allocated to each of the subwatersheds toensure that concentrations remained below the framework set in accordance with thePWQO set by the Ministry of the Environment; concentrations above this indicateimpairment of the watercourse.

The TMMLs include the pollutant load attributed to land uses from the CANWETscenarios and a margin of safety (MOS = 10% of the total pollutant load). Theconsultants also looked at the BMPs that would need to be implemented in order toreach or maintain the targets. While there are subwatersheds that will not be able toreach a target at which the concentration in the watercourse that meets the PWQO,results indicate that this will be possible in the majority of subwatersheds with acombination of strict controls on phosphorus loads from new development and theimplementation of BMPs in both the urban and rural areas.

A Public Consultation component was also included in the TMML development process.Stakeholders representing a wide range of interests were invited to workshops (one washeld in each of the watersheds). The consultants outlined the process of thedevelopment of the TMMLs, and stakeholders were asked to outline their concerns. Atthe end of each of the two sessions, stakeholders were generally supportive withmoving forward with this process and developing TMMLs to be used as managementtools.

Two water quality objectives were necessary in the development of a Lake SimcoeTMML phosphorus target setting strategy. The first objective considered was theexisting LSEMS lake target of 75 (T/y). The second was the PWQO for total phosphorusconcentration guideline for the streams and rivers flowing into the lake (0.03 mg/L). ThePWQO for phosphorus was established by the MOE to ensure that water qualityconditions are maintained: “at a level which is protective of all forms of aquatic life andall aspects of the aquatic life cycles during indefinite exposure to the water”, and, in amanner that meets public health and aesthetic concerns to ensure recreational uses are

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preserved (MOE, 1994). It is important to understand that PWQO are not standardsthat must be met but rather objectives that are recommended to ensure healthy aquaticecosystems.

The following table (Table 2.2) is adapted from the June 2006, Assimilative Capacity

Studies Pollutant Target Loads: Lake Simcoe and Nottawasaga River Basins Report. Itoutlines the four target setting options with reference to the target methodologyproposed for each including a brief description of each category, the method forcalculation of a pollutant target for each, the rationale for the approach, and thepotential exceptions to the strategy..

Table 2.2 Target Setting Strategy Developed for the Lake Simcoe Watershed

TargetSettingOption

Impaired? PWQOMet?

Target Methodology

A No Yes Watersheds that are considered generally

unimpaired with respect to biologic communityquality, water aesthetics, and recreational uses thathave low current phosphorus loads are consideredto be in the preferred condition. Therefore, thephosphorus target for these subwatersheds wasset equal to the phosphorus load modeled underthe committed growth scenario (Greenland, 2006).

B Yes No

C No No

Watersheds that are considered impaired withrespect to biologic community quality, wateraesthetics, and/or recreational uses that have high modeled phosphorus loads require managementaction to improved water quality conditions. For

these subwatersheds, the phosphorus load targetwas set equal to a ‘reduced’ version of thephosphorus load modeled under the committedgrowth scenario to ensure improvement in waterquality conditions (Greenland, 2006).

D Yes Yes Watersheds that are considered impaired withrespect to biologic community quality, wateraesthetics, and/or recreational uses, but have low modeled phosphorus loads are likely impaired forreasons other than phosphorus. For thesesubwatersheds, phosphorus may not be theproblem, and therefore, applying a reduction to

current phosphorus load estimates would not beuseful. For these subwatersheds, the phosphorustarget is set equal to the phosphorus load modeledunder the committed growth scenario, and futureefforts should focus at identifying other potentialstressors of the water’s designated uses.

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Summary of the Assimilative Capacity Study Results

Current Conditions

Based on the modeling results presented from the CANWET model the current average

annual phosphorus load to the lake is 41.5 T/y from the lake’s tributaries. This total isbelow the 50 T/y ‘primary’ target load from the inflowing tributaries developed topreserve a late summer deep water dissolved oxygen concentration of 5 mg/L orgreater at the end of summer in the deep water (hypolimnion).. However, it is above the23.7 T/y ‘secondary’ target that is based on the PWQO concentration of 0.03 mg/L.

Review of the information presented shows that 16 of the 23 of the subwatersheds inthe Lake Simcoe watershed exceed a PWQO-based load target calculated at theindividual subwatershed level. Examination of the available ecological information,water quality monitoring data, and input from LSCRA staff suggests that aquaticcommunities, habitats, and recreational uses for at least 8 of these subwatersheds are

impaired as defined by the ACS. Seven of the eight watersheds considered impairedhave modeled phosphorus loads that exceeded the PWQO based target.

Committed Growth without Implementation of BMPs

Committed growth is the scenario involving population and urban expansion based onthe municipal Official Plan designations into the future. It does not includeimplementation of enhanced BMPs to offset the impact of growth and is therefore theworst case scenario option. Not surprisingly, phosphorus loads delivered to the lakeincrease under this scenario by 24% (from 41.5 to 51.6 T/y). The majority of thisincrease is based on assumed increased stormwater runoff and sewage treatment planteffluent from approved development proposed for watersheds that are alreadyconsidered impaired. Most notably these include; East Holland, West Holland, andBarrie subwatersheds. Additionally, two subwatersheds, the Oro North and Hawkestonesubwatershed, show a near doubling of the phosphorus load under the approved growthscenario.

Committed Growth with Full Implementation of BMPs

The last scenario modeled involves the population and urban expansion along with a fullimplementation of BMPs to offset the impacts associated with development. The resultsof this scenario indicate that an estimated total reduction of up to 28% (from 41.5 to37.2 T/y) could be achieved. This result suggests that the continued growth within thewatershed could occur without impacting negatively on water quality.

However, modeling results also suggest that even with BMP implementation, the Barrie,East Holland, Hawkestone, and North Oro subwatersheds would observe increases intheir estimated total phosphorus loads. Two of these subwatersheds, the Barrie andEast Holland subwatershed, showed 19% and 32% phosphorus increases (respectively)and are already considered impaired subwatersheds. Stream conditions in these

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subwatersheds may degrade further if all committed growth actions are implementedeven with BMP implementation efforts. For this reason, more detailed site specificanalyses of BMP opportunities should be assessed for these subwatersheds to helpinform the growth planning process.

It must be noted that municipalities are currently updating their Official Plans to conformwith the Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe by June, 2009. In certain areasthe Growth Plan has lower forecasts for population and employment than currentOfficial Plans and a longer time frame. This will help minimize the impact growth has onthe watershed.

Another extremely important factor is the cost associated with the full implementation ofBMPs associated with meeting the respective phosphorus loading targets andcontinuing with approved growth (approved Official Plan growth). The current estimatedcost is $163 million dollars. Failure to implement the BMPs before or concurrently withdevelopment would result in further degradation to the lake and the LSEMS goal and

objectives would not be achievable.

Implications for the Future

The results of the Assimilative Capacity Study conclude that Lake Simcoe and itssubwatersheds will only achieve their TMML targets with current (2004) municipallycommitted growth provided the BMPs are fully implemented across all sectors. TheACS should assist decision-makers on how to best manage such matters as well asfuture decisions involving growth (e.g. land use and infrastructure), land use activities aswell as the use of BMPs within specific areas to protect and restore the watershed in anenvironmentally sustainable manner.

Stormwater Management

Stormwater runoff represents a major source of pollution to Lake Simcoe and itstributaries. Currently, 16,508.7 hectares (6.3%) of the watershed is comprised of urbanland use. Old stormwater facilities, residing in urban areas, are mainly uncontrolled, andnegatively impact the lake. New stormwater facilities have less impact on the Lake asthey are built to much higher standards. Uncontrolled, stormwater can negatively effectwater quality, stream form and function, the biologic capacity of a stream, and increaseflooding potential. Interception of stormwater runoff through the use of StormwaterManagement Facilities (SMF) at the outlet of urban catchments can reduce the severityof these impacts. In order to properly site SMFs it is necessary to delineate urbandrainage catchments and identify outlets to watercourses or waterbodies.

To date delineation of urban catchments has been piecemeal across the Lake Simcoewatershed, captured either through Watershed Planning documents, municipalinfrastructure improvements or new development applications. This has excluded manyareas, particularly older urban cores, and the resulting data set, constructed over thelast 10 years, may not represent current conditions in some locations. The purpose of

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this study is to create a complete, consistent and contemporary data set of all urbancatchments, outlets, existing SMFs and locations of potential SMFs, and to calculate thephosphorus load associated with urban stormwater runoff in the Lake Simcoewatershed.

To address the need for better information the LSRCA in 2007 undertook a detailedassessment and review of stormwater management in all serviced areas in the LakeSimcoe Basin. The final report entitled “Lake Simcoe Basin Stormwater Managementand Retrofit Opportunities Report” (2008) provides 4 key deliverables:

• Delineation of stormwater catchments for all urban areas of the LakeSimcoe watershed.

• Identification of existing Stormwater Management Facilities and level oftreatment.

• Calculation of the total phosphorus load coming from urban areas andreduction achieved through existing controls.

•

Identification of potential retrofit opportunities and associated phosphorus

Interim Regulation on WPCP Effluent Limits and Stormwater

The Ministry of Environment has proposed an interim regulation would put interim limitson phosphorus loadings from existing municipal and industrial sewage treatmentfacilities, stop new ones that would discharge phosphorus and require new stormwaterfacilities to meet the highest design standards to increase phosphorus removal. Theregulation would impose an annual phosphorous loading limit on each of the 14 existingmunicipal sewage treatment facilities and the one industrial sewage treatment plantlocated in the Lake Simcoe basin. This limit would be in effect until March 31, 2009.

Collectively, the 15 existing sewage treatments plants within the Lake Simcoe Basin arelegally permitted to discharge up to 12.5 tonnes of phosphorus each year. The interimlimits would reduce this total permitted loading to the basin to 7.5 tonnes a year. In2006, the plants discharged a total of 5.9 tonnes of phosphorus. The Ministry of theEnvironment will work with the individual municipalities to set limits for each of theirfacilities.

The proposed interim regulation will prevent a new sewage treatment facility within theLake Simcoe basin if the discharge will result in the addition of phosphorous loadings.New facilities designed to manage stormwater from a new development within the Lake

Simcoe basin would have to be built to the highest protection level specified in theministry’s Stormwater Management Planning and Design Manual. This provision wouldnot apply to the construction of new stormwater facilities that service existingdevelopment or a new small infill development.

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Environmental Stewardship

Implementation of in-the-ground projects is the primary goal of the LSRCA WatershedStewardship Program, and each year staff work with a range of partners to complete avariety of projects across the watershed. These include the construction of manure

storage facilities on farms, removal of in-stream fish barriers, tree and shrub planting,and the retrofitting of municipal stormwater management ponds, to name a few. All ofthe projects are designed to improve water quality in the watershed by reducingphosphorus inputs to streams and rivers, while maintaining and enhancing biodiversity,increasing wildlife habitat, and improving watershed health.

Through all of the stewardship services offered, recommendations are made thatemploy scientifically tried and proven methods. These include the use of native plantmaterials, techniques that recognise and work with existing landscape features, andinnovative solutions that may be understood and maintained by the landowner. Forstewardship projects to be successful it is critical that the landowner be involved in the

project from the beginning, understand why the work is being completed, how it isbeneficial, and what their role is in the ongoing maintenance and monitoring.

Private Land Stewardship

Across southern Ontario, the majority of the land holdings are in private ownership. Thisis also the case in the Lake Simcoe watershed. Therefore, it is important to engagelandowners if any real progress is to be accomplished in addressing the water qualityissues identified in the Lake Simcoe watershed.

Often, due to historical practices or a lack of awareness, landowners may beundertaking activities on their property that are detrimental to the environment. Thesemay include the improper storage of manure on a cattle farm, the failure of a septicsystem on a residential property, or soil erosion caused by wind or rain. ThroughStewardship programs, staff provide technical assistance and advice to landowners,and help them to implement solutions that are cost-effective and environmentallybeneficial.

Stewardship services have been available for watershed residents for a number ofdecades, and over that period hundreds of projects have been implemented. The focusof these efforts has largely been on rural farm properties, where landowners areaddressing concerns that include controlling runoff, soil erosion, or livestock access towatercourses. With recent trends in population growth, however, there has been anincrease in the amount of land converted from agricultural or seasonal residential uses,to permanent residential dwellings. The result has been the need for stewardshipactivities to make an adjustment in the programs offered and information available, toassist these new landowners in becoming good stewards of their land and watershedcitizens.

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Urban Stewardship

Stewardship programs have historically been targeted towards rural properties, whereprojects such as manure storage facilities or septic system upgrades have beenundertaken to address sources of phosphorus. Recently, it has been recognized that

storm runoff from urban centres across the watershed represents a significant source ofphosphorus loading for Lake Simcoe. To that end, the Lake Simcoe Water Quality andImprovement Program (LSWQIP) has been adapted to also provide financial incentivesfor municipalities to retrofit existing storm water management ponds, and implementnew-in-science technologies that assist in treating urban runoff before it enters intowatercourses.

Storm water pond retrofits have taken the form of redesigning existing facilities toconvert them from quantity ponds to quantity and quality ponds, where water passesmore slowly through a series of cells, depositing sediments where they can be removedthrough dredging at a later date, or uptake by plants. In some situations, new storm

water management ponds have been added to storm sewer systems where they havenot existed before.

Stream bank erosion in urban areas also represents a problem for water quality, assedimentation downstream can adversely impact aquatic habitats and add tophosphorus loads in the lake. Increased bank erosion is often caused by rapidincreases in flows following precipitation events, a result of old infrastructure that wasdesigned to rapidly drain urban areas. Stewardship staff work with municipalities andprivate landowners to assist them with the design and implementation of ‘soft solutions’,such as bioengineering, to establish erosion control solutions that will adapt to changesin the river with time and provide a multitude of benefits. These include slopestabilization, increases in wildlife habitat, and reduced sediment inputs from soil erosion.

Lake Simcoe Water Quality Improvement Program

For landowners who show a keen interest in implementing environmental restorationprojects, the associated costs often represent a barrier to completion. To address this,LSRCA staff work with municipal partners and other agencies to develop fundingpartnerships designed to provide landowners with the funding support they need tocomplete their project. This funding is provided through a number of programs, withLSRCA staff providing the leadership and technical assistance to assist with thedevelopment of required application details.

The primary stewardship funding program offered by LSRCA is the Lake Simcoe WaterQuality Improvement Program (LSWQIP). This program represents a continuing effortby the Authority to improve the water quality of Lake Simcoe and is linked to the LSEMSprogram. The primary goal of LSWQIP is to eliminate contamination of surface watersdraining into Lake Simcoe from indirect and direct discharges of nutrients and sewagefrom both urban and rural sources. Further, the protection of our groundwater has beenrecognized with the addition of well decommissioning services. Funded annually by our

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municipal partners and the Lake Simcoe Conservation Foundation, LSWQIP providestechnical and financial assistance for the completion of environmental projects.

Sustainable Development

Smart Growth or sustainable development represents an adaptive response to howurban development has occurred in the past. It is the concept of making moresustainable development choices in order to create socially desirable urban areas withstrong economies, while ensuring a healthy environment and combating urban sprawl.The Ontario Smart Growth Network (OSGN) defines smart growth as the “return to urban villages” which they go on to further define as "a place that has almost everything you need on a daily basis and you can walk to get there". Smart growth implies thedevelopment of complete communities with adequate shops, service industries, schoolsand opportunities for recreation within walking distance. These types of developmentby their nature are compact, and leave small ecological footprints respecting the naturalenvironment and reducing the need to transform other land uses. The Growth Plan for

the Greater Golden Horseshoe will help to ensure the development of these completecommunities.

Chloride Reduction

Some municipalities are taking steps to reduce chloride impacts as a result of winteroperations by utilizing Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS), which consist of anetwork of roadway sensors to assess pavement conditions, and using anti-icingtechnology such as salt brine to reduce the quantity of applied material to the roadway.

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3.0 Water Quantity

The key issues identified in the State of the Lake Simcoe Watershed report (LSEMS,2003) with respect to Water Quantity were:

• Water use and the availability of aquatic habitats have been impacted bydecreases in streamflow results in loss of recreational opportunities andimpacts the local economy;

• Areas of groundwater quality vulnerability need to be identified andprotected to ensure clean sources of private and municipal drinking water;

• More information concerning water quantity for both surface andgroundwater is required to ensure adequate protection of baseflow to thetributaries and Lake Simcoe, and as a source of private and municipaldrinking water;

3.1 Introduction

The availability of water is a key aspect of human and ecological health everywhere inthe world. Water is the key requirement to sustain the basic functions of any ecosystemand is critical in consideration of social needs, which can potentially cause conflictbetween the two. All four of the LSEMS goals are linked to water quantity within theLake Simcoe basin:

• Without a consistent water supply the ability to restore a self-sustaining coldwater fishery would be constrained,

• Water quality is directly influenced by water quantity and the two areintrinsically linked,

• The majority of the phosphorus load to Lake Simcoe is delivered viawater (rain, sewage, streams). Water is a key pathway that requiresto be considered in almost every reduction strategy, and

• Natural heritage features have significant influence on thehydrologic cycle which is critical in managing water quantity andquality.

Negative impacts to water quantity can reap significant impacts across the basin. Lossof groundwater can impact on drinking water supplies or reduce flow in streams,reduced rainfall or stream flow can have significant impacts on agriculture and naturalheritage features. The awareness on the availability of water now and into the future ischanging and is being recognized by the various LSEMS partners through newinitiatives and programs such as Source Water Protection.

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3.2 Current Conditions and Issues

Water Budget – Lake and Tributaries

Water budgets describe the movement of water through the hydrologic cycle and

quantify the volumes of water within and moving between each reservoir. As a result ofcontinually changing land use and water use, water budgets are not static calculationsbut can be thought of as a comprehensive understanding of the flow system. Waterbudgets are a major component of watershed assessment and are required to helpidentify and manage water quantity issues across the province.

A water budget allows the practitioner to develop an understanding of the inter-relationships among the primary components of the hydrologic cycle in order to providea background against which the impacts of land use changes can be assessed andmitigated. At a minimum, a water budget should satisfy the following requirements:

i. identify and characterise all of the key components of the hydrologiccycle;ii. quantify the components of the water balance equation;iii. identify:

a) key hydrologic processes and functions,b) the availability and quantity of water sources, andc) water uses and needs, d) seasonal trends and potential impacts

to seasonal resources;

Anticipated Uses of Water Budgets

Water budgets are tools that can be used:

1. to set quantitative hydrologic zones (eg. water allocation, recharge rates,etc.) within the context of the watershed plans;

2. as a decision making tool to evaluate, relative to established targets, theimplications of existing and proposed land and water uses within thewatersheds;

3. to evaluate the cumulative effects of land and water uses withinwatersheds;

4. to provide (sub)watershed scale framework within site-scale studies, suchas a hydrological evaluation or how a sewage and water system plan willbe conducted;

5. to help assess potential changes in the distribution and availability of waterin different forms, locations and times due to global changes or regionalclimate variations on a short or long-term basis;

6. to help make informed decisions regarding the design of environmentalmonitoring programs;

7. to assist in setting targets for water conservation and,8. to assist in establishing long term water supply plans.

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Assessment Scale

Based on Provincial guidance (MOE 2006, 2007), Tier 1 water budget efforts are to bescoped based on the level of stress that exists in an area. The identification ofsubwatersheds that are experiencing some form of water quantity stress (Tier 1) will be

studied in further detail in the near future. The detailed investigation (Tier 2 Water budget)will focus on the causes of the stress, supply issues and consider measures for stressreduction and mitigation. Stress has been defined through the following general equation;

Where;

Water Taking = the amount of water (surface water or groundwater) consumed,Available Supply = Recharge for groundwater uses and streamflow for surface watertakingsReserve = the proportion of available surface water or groundwater that is to bemaintained for needs such as navigation, assimilative capacity, ecosystem health etc. (tobe estimated as a proportion of baseflow and a low-flow statistic for groundwater andsurface water respectively).

The spatial and temporal scales at which water budget estimates are made, then, canexaggerate or mask water quantity stress. For example, significant seasonal water users(e.g. agricultural irrigation) may represent moderate or significant stress if the extraction is

compared to monthly or seasonal supply values. If stress calculations are based uponannual average values, however, the few months of extraction is compared to annualavailability, and the resultant stress results are lower. Similarly, a significant extractionfrom a specific site (e.g. a municipal well-field) may represent a moderate or significantproportion of recharge (supply) for the immediate sub-catchment. The larger the areaconsidered however (i.e. if you ‘zoom out’ to a watershed scale), the lower the calculatedstress of that same taking becomes because it is compared to a much larger supply term.In addition to the above mentioned criteria, consumptive use groundwater factors havenot been applied, and therefore, results that reflect water balances for each watershed aredeemed as preliminary. The intent of this report and subsequent water budgetcalculations is to define an overall assessment of stress in the broadest sense.Consumptive use factors will be applied in the next stage of reporting, the Tier 1assessments, for each watershed.

Basic Water Budget

For the conceptual water budget, estimates of water movement through the watershedwere completed using the following equations:

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Precipitation -Evapotranspiration = Runoff + Recharge

Precipitation -Evapotranspiration - Runoff = Recharge

Runoff = StreamFlow - BaseFlow

Precipitation -Evapotranspiration –StreamFlow + BaseFlow = Recharge.

Resulting in equation:

SWI + GWI + P + Import = SWO + GWO + ET + Extraction + Export

Equation Inputs

SWI: Surface water fluxes into primary watersheds (i.e., across surface water divides)does occur in the Lake Simcoe watershed, as the Talbot River delivers water form theTrent-Severn waterway to the Lake Simcoe basin.

GWI: Groundwater fluxes into primary watersheds (across surface water divides) arelikely based upon the comparison of potentiometric surfaces against watershedboundaries. These fluxes are considered to be equivalent to outflows for the purposesof this exercise, but will be considered in future iterations of water budgets for stressedsubwatersheds.

P: Precipitation onto the watershed was estimated from interpolation of the climatestation data from within and surrounding the watershed.

Import: Water is piped into the watershed for municipal water supply; York Regionreceives water from Lake Ontario to supplement Aurora and Newmarket groundwatersupplies.

Equation Outputs:

SWO: Lake Simcoe discharges directly to the Black-Severn watershed. This flow is notgauged but was pro-rated based upon a gauge at the outflow of Lake Couchiching.

GWO: Groundwater fluxes out of primary watersheds (across surface water divides) arelikely based upon the comparison of potentiometric surfaces against watershedboundaries. These fluxes are considered to be equivalent to inflows for the purposes ofthis exercise, but will be considered in future iterations of water budgets for stressedsubwatersheds.

ET: Mean annual actual evapotranspiration was estimated. Open water evaporationfrom Lake Simcoe was taken from the LSEMS A6 (2006) report, and the evaporationrates estimated in that report were applied to Lake Couchiching.

Extraction: Water taking within the watersheds was estimated from the PTTWdatabase for non-municipal taking. Municipal groundwater taking was taken from

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66

available 2002 groundwater studies (average actual pump rates). While extraction mayhave increased since 2002 to accommodate growth, this value was considered morereasonable than the PTTW maximum. Surface water extraction from Lake Simcoe formunicipal supplies was not considered.

Export: Information on water diverted from the watershed (e.g., wastewater pipeline)was provided by the municipality (York Region).

Preliminary Results Table 3.1 details the gross water budget for the Lake Simcoe watershed.






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Stress Indications

Potential water quantity stress was estimated at a subwatershed scale using annualdata and the following equations. This assessment will be refined to consider monthlytime steps, and incorporate additional information per the most recent guidance

document. The following table outlines the process and assumptions behind the currentestimations.

Process, data sources and assumptions Potential refinementWater Use Municipal Municipal groundwater extraction was taken

from the 2002 groundwater study reports(2002 actual taking used). Surface watertaking was estimated from the PTTWdatabase

Extraction to be refinedusing actual pumping datafrom municipalities (recentGW values and Little LakeSW values)

Agricultural Taken from PTTW database as maximumallowable.

Non-permitted takings tobe estimated and

consumptive factors to beapplied

Other Industrial, commercial and all otherremaining extractions were taken fromPTTW database as maximum allowable.

Consumptive factors to beapplied and knownseasonal uses (e.g.,snowmaking) to treated assuch

Available Supply Groundwater Estimated as recharge (precipitation -

evapotranspiration - streamflow + baseflow)Surface water Annual mean streamflow pro-rated to

include entire stream/subwatershed

Reserve Not considered To be considered in Tier 1work

The preliminary findings related to water quantity stresses are summarized below inTable 3.2. These findings are deemed as will be revised to reflect the suggestions notedabove and the provincial guidance document (MOE, 2007). The last columns in eachtable represent extraction from surface and as a proportion (%) of available supply.




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Table 3.2: Stress Analysis- Lake Simcoe Watershed

Subwatershed Name Area Precipitation ETc

AnnualFlow Baseflow

AvailableGW Supply

AvailableSW Supply

km2

mm/year mm/year mm/yr mm/yr

(Recharge=

P-ET-Streamflow+Baseflow)mm/yr

(Meanannualstreamflow)mm/yr

Gauged

West Holland 354.1 828.27 558.21 267 141 144 267

East Holland 247.83 842.6 560.94 256 132 158 256

Black River 375.36 871.69 556.07 273 152 195 273

Pefferlaw Brook 459.77 879.12 558.87 275 142 187 275

Uxbridge Brook 174.95 877.48 560.05 234 106 189 234

Beaver River 327.24 908.2 558.28 255 131 226 255

Ungauged

Talbot River 357.92 965.59 551.94 263 132 283 263

Whites Creek 105.20 965.02 551.52 234 114 294 234

Barrie Creeks 37.81 933.99 561.38 225 100 248 225

Georgina Creeks 49.33 893.67 556.52 217 51 171 217

Lovers Creek 59.95 909.66 559.6 205 53 198 205

Innisfil Creeks 107.57 898.9 558.57 252 59 147 252

Hewitts Creek 17.51 925.14 559.4 72 0 294 72

Hawkstone 47.88 974.28 557.28 191 0 226 191

Maskinonge 63.19 883.6 554.12 220 95 205 220

Oro North Creeks 75.27 1008.01 559.16 239 63 273 239

Oro South Creeks 57.69 952.11 557.66 224 0 170 224

Ramara Creeks 143.49 994.64 556.13 266 202 375 266

5-9% of available supply beingextracted

10% or more of available supply being extracted




3.3 Emerging Issues Facing Water Quantity

Reduced Streamflow in Tributaries

Over the past few years there have been several tributaries of Lake Simcoe

experiencing reduced or complete loss of flow. In 2007, both the Maskinonge River andWhites Creek had complete loss of flow for extensive periods of time in the latersummer period (several weeks consecutively). This is primarily attributed to poorclimatic and precipitation conditions but is raising significant concern both in thecommunity and government agencies. Further investigation into these systems as wellas others is beginning to identify other areas of concern in respect to the loss ofStreamflow. Areas potentially impacted streamflow being identified include illegal watertakings, loss of natural heritage cover impacting hydrologic cycle, historical streamalterations and others. Reduced or complete loss of streamflow represents significantpotential ecological, social and agricultural threat.

Illegal Water Taking

The reduction of streamflow in several tributaries raises concern of water use and watertaking. The MOE administers the Permit To Take Water (PTTWs) regulation in theprovince which is the principal tool for managing water quantity. Demands for increasedwater for irrigation or other commercial operations has increased due to the reducedavailability of water from certain systems as well as changes in their respectiveoperations. The MOE issues PTTWs to users after an evaluation of their requireddemand and then assessed against the environmental requirements of the system toensure the ecological health of the system is not threatened. Illegal water taking fromsystems (stressed or not) does not recognize ecological requirements and represents a

significant threat to the integrity of the system. Over the past few years, complaints tothe MOE and/or LSRCA from the community on illegal water takings have increasedsignificantly.

Sustainable Water Supply

The typical assumption is that there is no issue with water supply whether in the LakeSimcoe basin, the province or otherwise. While we may not be seeing significant issueswith sustainable water supply within the Lake Simcoe basin we are seeing anemergence of the issue with an increasing amount of personal wells going dry and anincreasing amount of water restrictions being imposed at the municipal level. Thedemand for water is expected to increase in the basin with increased growth anddevelopment and the emerging impacts associated with climate change.

Consumptive Withdrawals

Consumptive water use has been an emerging issue not only in the Lake Simcoe basinbut province wide. In 2006, the MOE issued a series of changes to the PTTW regulationand recognized the issue of consumptive withdrawals (i.e. water bottling, concreteslurries). Consumptive withdrawals pose a potential threat to both surface and ground

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water systems as the water withdrawn is not allowed to re-enter the hydrologic cycleand thus could create a stress condition. Future consumptive use commercialenterprises represent a potential threat in respect their respective amount of extractionand the location of the extraction (aquifer, surface water or recharge area).

3.4 Tools and Actions to Improve Water Quantity

Low Water Response Program

The Low Water Response Network was developed in response to the recognition ofchanging climatic conditions in Southern Ontario, the specific trigger being lowprecipitation levels in 1999 which led to some of the lowest surface water flows anddriest soil conditions in several decades. The Network provides a framework for theexchange of information, science and support between Provincial Ministries, localConservation Authorities and local government. The Network also provides thedefinition of drought and the conditions and mitigative measures leading up to a

drought, those being Level 1 (conservation), Level 2 (conservation and restriction) andLevel 3 (conservation, restriction and regulation). As environmental conditions dictate,a working group evaluates precipitation and stream flow data, declares a Low WaterCondition, if warranted, by watershed area (i.e. Lake Simcoe watershed as a whole)and disseminates the information to local Government. The Low Water Responsedocument (which can be found at: http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/mnr/water/p774.html) canbe used by the local Government to understand the significance of the Low WaterCondition and pass this information, along with recommended actions, to the public.Current conditions for the Lake Simcoe watershed are updated monthly and posted onthe LSRCA web page (http://www.lsrca.on.ca/Monitoring/lowwater.html). The Low Water Levels are determined based on benchmarks against which monthlyprecipitation and stream flow are evaluated against. The Levels refer to increasinglysevere low water conditions that would precede a drought as well as the potential threatto the minimum flow requirements in rivers to support a river ecosystem. These Levelsare most relevant to the conservation of water-taking from surface water streams andrivers as these typically act as the source, or recharge, of many other water resources.Reductions in precipitation or stream flow may not be immediately apparent in lake orgroundwater levels, however, prolonged reductions will have an impact.

Municipal Water Conservation Programs

Water For Tomorrow: York Region’s Water Use Efficiency Program

Water for Tomorrow is York Region's Water-Use Efficiency Program and includes thefollowing activities:

1. Residential/commercial retrofits2. Industrial, commercial and institutional water audits for larger users3. Leakage reduction in all nine area municipalities4. Broad-scale public and youth education5. Summer water use reduction

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6. York Children’s Water Festival

York Region’s Water for Tomorrow program has been in place for 10 years and hassaved approximately 20.3 million litres of water per day, enough water to supply acommunity of approximately 77,000 people. The program has also contributed positively

to York Region’s objective to reduce greenhouse gases. Over 3,809 tonnes per year ofcarbon particulates and 14,375 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide are reduced as theresult of Water for Tomorrow .

Water for Tomorrow has been recognized for excellence by numerous organizationsincluding the Ontario Water Works Association, Water Environmental Federation,FCM’s Sustainable Communities Awards and the World Water Forum in Kyoto, Japan.Many of the components of Water for Tomorrow have been adopted by neighbouringmunicipalities and overseas in the United Kingdom and Eastern Europe.

Some of the major accomplishments of the strategy include:

• Over 106,000 low-flow showerheads installed• Over 245,000 early-closing toilet flappers installed• Reduction of 14,375 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide emissions• Over 1,800 km of municipal watermains tested for leakage utilizing

the District Meter Areas (DMAs) methodology• Currently 20.33 million litres of sustained water savings per average

day.

Water Conservation – City of Barrie

One of the most effective ways to promote water conservation is through waterefficiency programs. The City of Barrie has been very successful in implementing waterefficiency programs. Water use statistics indicate this by the fact that water use percapita has fallen by 100L/capita/day since 1995 (at least 20% attributable to WaterEfficiency programs). Some of the proactive examples include:

1. Even\Odd Lawn Watering Restrictions – Lawn watering isrestricted by municipal address, even municipal addresses canwater on even calendar days and odd municipal addresses canwater on odd calendar days. Additionally, lawn watering may onlyoccur between the hours of 6:00 P.M and 8:00 A.M on theapplicable day.

2. Increasing Water Rate Block Structure – The water rate structureincreases the cost of water as water consumption increases. Thisgives everyone a financial incentive to reduce water consumption.

3. Rebate Programs – The City of Barrie current provides rebates forreplacing toilets in older home with new low flow fixtures. In the

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past, the City has had programs for such items as water efficientshowerheads, aerators and washing machines.

4. Active Promotion and Education Programs – The City of Barriepromotes public education through local newspapers and

television and attending local events. The City also conductsworkshops to assist residents in implementing gardens with nativeand low water using plants.

Durham Region Water Efficiency Program

Durham Region’s Water Efficiency Program, known as Water Efficient Durham, waslaunched in 1996 to implement the Regional Water Use Efficiency Strategy adopted byRegional Council. Water Efficient Durham's mandate is to encourage efficient use ofwater among all water users. The Strategy includes universal metering of all users,water efficient fixtures/equipment/technology, leak detection/loss prevention/control

program, public/employee information/education/outreach, landscaping techniques/siteand urban design principles and economic incentives/cost-share/full costing recovery/ tax credits/rebate programs.

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4.0 Fisheries and Aquatic Habitat

The Fisheries and Aquatic Habitat issues identified in the 2003 State of the LakeSimcoe Watershed report completed by the partners of the Lake Simcoe EnvironmentalManagement Strategy (LSEMS) were:

• Aquatic habitats both in Lake Simcoe and its tributaries are beingdegraded or in some instances destroyed due to poor water quality,increased water temperature, hardening of the shoreline, stream channelalterations, in-stream obstructions, changes in stream hydrology, removalof streambank vegetation, introduction of exotic species, sedimentationand reductions in baseflow; and

• Changes in aquatic habitats are influencing the composition, diversity andabundance of aquatic communities and threatening some species.

• Decrease in fish habitat results in a decrease of associated recreationalopportunities and subsequently impacts the local economy.

4.1 Introduction

The health of Lake Simcoe’s aquatic community and the environmental conditions in thewatershed are closely related, as the aquatic environment is directly impacted byactivities that occur on the landscape. At the initiation of the LSEMS program, thepartners identified the restoration of the coldwater fishery as one of the goals of theprogram, given that lake trout are an important indicator of ecosystem health as anestablished sensitive top predator (Ryder, 1990). Achieving this goal depends largelyon improving water quality conditions, primarily by reducing phosphorus loads to thelake.

In addition to its ecological value, a healthy fish community and fishery in Lake Simcoeand its watershed is also economically important. The lake supports a recreationalindustry with an estimated value in the hundreds of millions of dollars (LSEMS, 1995); asignificant portion of this is derived from the fishery alone. Lake Simcoe is the mostintensively fished inland lake in the province of Ontario with approximately 1 millionangler hours per year of angling effort. Ice fishing is extremely popular with anglers andaccounts for a significant portion of the angling effort targeting lake trout, whitefish andperch. The bass and pike fisheries are also important for the lake.


Aquatic Habitat

Unfortunately, as a result of the increase in human activities within the watershed thehealth of Lake Simcoe has declined. Impacts associated with continued urban,agricultural, recreational and rural land use activities within the watershed arecontributing to an excessive amount of sediment and nutrients (specifically phosphorus)into Lake Simcoe. These activities combined with other stressors on the resource, suchas the introduction of invasive species, increased fishing pressure, and eutrophication,

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The mean volume-weighted hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen (MVWHDO) concentrationof a lake during the critical end of summer period (August 15 - September 15) providesan easily measured field metric that closely approximates the ambient dissolved oxygenconditions of the summer habitat of juvenile lake trout. A dissolved oxygen level below3mg/L corresponds to the incipient lethal threshold for lake trout and a level of 5mg/L

causes a 50% reduction in maximum power available for critical activities. (Evans,2006).

A survey of the effects of hypoxia on lake trout recruitment in central Ontario lake troutlakes indicated highly variable recruitment success among lakes. Recruitment was ratedgood to very good in lakes with MVWHDO above 7-8 mg/L, but dropped off quickly forlakes with MVWHDO <7 mg/L, and was rated very poor below 4 mg/L, and extinctbelow 3.0 mg/L (Evans, 2005). This is consistent with recruitment failure of lake troutobserved following experimental fertilization of a small lake in Alaska. (Lienesch et al .,2005).

OMNR has recently confirmed that Lake Simcoe is designated as a natural lake troutlake (OMNR, 2006) and will be managed to restore its natural lake trout population.‘Natural’ lakes have been defined to include those lakes that may have lost their self-sustaining native populations, but that have excellent potential for rehabilitation (OMNR,2006). Pre-settlement, end-of-summer hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen concentration forLake Simcoe has been modeled at approximately 8 mg/L, indicating that, historically,the summer habitat for juvenile lake trout in Lake Simcoe would have supported strongnatural recruitment (Evans et al ., 1996). Lake Simcoe late summer hypolimneticdissolved oxygen concentrations declined from about 4.5 mg/L in 1975 to 2.0 mg/L by1993 (Evans et al ., 1996), hence passed through the critical threshold for survival oflake trout.

In essence, Lake Simcoe is comprised of three distinct areas defined primarily by lakedepth: Cook’s Bay a shallow eutrophic bay, the main lake basin being a mid-depthmesotrophic lake and Kempenfelt Bay a deep, cold oligotrophic arm of Lake Simcoe.Kempenfelt Bay is a critical area with respect to rearing and juvenile habitat of coldwaterfish and especially lake trout in Lake Simcoe. Kempenfelt Bay is a deep (fjord like) bayof Lake Simcoe and has very dramatic shoreline drop-offs into deep water. Thesephysical characteristics provide the highest volume and area of suitable hypolimnetichabitat in Lake Simcoe and are particularly suitable for the rearing of juvenile lake trout.

The primary factor for lake trout restoration in Lake Simcoe is a healthy environmentand abundant suitable habitat; however, other factors could influence recovery.Changes in the status of other components of the native biota or introduced speciescould alter fish community dynamics with unpredictable positive or negative impacts onlake trout population recovery (McMurtry and Amtstaetter, 1999).

Lake Trout Habitat

As discussed, lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush ) and other coldwater fish speciesrequire relatively cold, well oxygenated water for their survival; and also require clean

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spawning shoals for egg incubation and reproduction. Agricultural activity andurbanization within the Lake Simcoe watershed has increased phosphorous inputs andresulted in accelerated eutrophication. The process of eutrophication also contributesto the sedimentation of spawning shoals, which can impair natural reproduction.Excess growth of filamentous algae on spawning beds can prevent fish eggs from

falling into protective crevices among the rocks, thus making them available topredators. Together, it is believed that degradation of hypolimnetic dissolved oxygenlevels and spawning habitat has resulted in recruitment failure of cold-water species inLake Simcoe.

Shoreline Hardening

Shoreline “hardening” refers to both lake and river shoreline erosion protection utilizingunnatural practices such as concrete and sheet steel. Hardening tends to rid theshoreline of interstitial spaces, organic material and shading that fish need to carry outtheir life processes, and is often associated with the removal of riparian vegetation.

Changing permitting policies and combined efforts of approval agencies (DFO, MNR,LSRCA) have begun to reverse this trend. Since 2003, through both changes to LSRCApolicy and a Level III fish habitat agreement with the Department of Fisheries andOceans (DFO), LSRCA review staff have had the opportunity to reduce the “hard-armouring” of shorelines in favour of “soft-armouring” or natural erosion control throughthe use of rounded boulders and plantings that follow the natural contours of thewaterbody. Between 2004 and 2006 it is estimated that 1.3% of the lake perimeter wasnaturalized through these efforts.

Tributary Habitat

Water Temperatures

Increased water temperature within tributaries has been and continues to be a potentialthreat to the aquatic ecosystems within watercourses across the Lake Simcoe basin.Loss of coldwater streams across southern Ontario over the past century hassignificantly reduced the number and extent of coldwater systems. Water temperaturesare principally affected by lack of riparian shade, groundwater discharge reduction,increased stormwater runoff and climate change. Land clearing for urban developmentand agricultural practices (in absence of riparian buffers), pumping groundwater forbottling and irrigation purposes and increased impermeable surfaces from urban growth(e.g. parking lots) all contribute to increases in stream water temperatures.

Looking forward, the protection of existing coldwater systems is a key issue in light ofincreased growth challenges and climate change. To assist in protecting andunderstanding the status of watercourses within the Lake Simcoe basin the LSRCA hasproduced a map in consultation with the MNR (Figure 4.1) of the relative thermal statusof watercourses. This map clearly displays the distribution of warm and cold watersystems within the basin. The thermal status of a system determines the in waterconstruction timing window and the level of protection the system will receive.

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Maintaining coldwater systems is a key factor in the protection of the ecosystem andmaintaining ecological function.

Figure 4.1: Thermal mapping of the Lake Simcoe watershed

LSRCA utilizes electronic water temperature loggers at the mouths of most of the majorwatersheds, at each fishery site and at other strategic locations such as headwatersand confluences. Temperature loggers are programmed to collect water temperaturesat hourly intervals allowing for the analysis of seasonal and diurnal temperaturechanges. When combined with air temperature, a system can be described as stable orunstable depending on the influence of air temperature on the water temperature. If thewater “heats-up” during heat waves, the water is considered unstable or warmwater

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habitat. If the water temperature is not or is only slightly affected during a heat wave,the temperature is considered stable or coldwater habitat. Some fish, such as mottledsculpin (Cottus bairdi ) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis ) are excellent indicators ofcoldwater as groundwater upwellings are a key requirement in their life cycle. Thus, thepresence of these species can indicate coldwater temperatures in the absence of

temperature data.

Cold water streams require a higher degree of vegetated buffer adjacent to thewatercourse to protect them compared to warmwater systems. The primary form ofprotection, as required through LSRCA Policy and some municipal planning documents,is the maintenance of a vegetated buffer between any development and a watercourse.These are 30 metres and 15 metres for cold and warmwater habitats, respectively.

Reductions in Baseflow

Baseflow is principally comprised of groundwater discharge within a stream system. The

Authority has been investigating and collecting detailed baseflow information for severalyears to properly assess and understand the state of baseflow across the basin. Thethree principal constraints on baseflow supply are climate change (which is difficult toaddress on a local scale); water withdrawal and pumping for domestic, industrial andagriculture use; and land use change through growth, which increases the amount ofimpervious area, thus decreasing the amount of groundwater recharge and results in amodified hydrologic cycle.

On a site by site basis the LSRCA will continue to address groundwaterrecharge/discharge through the development submission review process which requiresthat each development match its pre-development water budget condition with itspredicted post-development water budget. The intent is to ensure that a system’sground and surface water budget is not impacted, especially in sensitive areas such asthe headwaters of tributaries.

Water taking for various uses represents the largest threat to ensuring the ability tomaintain baseflow for stream systems. The Ontario Ministry of the Environment isresponsible for evaluating and issuing Permits to Take Water (PTTW). This is a criticalarea for serious consideration and evaluation because the demand for ground andsurface water from residential, recreational and industrial users is ever increasing; thisin turn significantly increases the threat to aquatic ecosystems.

Changing climatic conditions across Ontario and beyond represent a significantpotential threat to maintaining baseflow in systems under stress. Section 3 (WaterQuantity) outlines in more details the issues of climate change on flow and streams aswell as recommendations for expanded water conservation programs.

Sedimentation

Sedimentation results from exposed soils within the floodplain and table lands of awatercourse. Rain or snow melt carries the unstable soil particles into nearby streams,

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which can cause significant damage to fish and fish habitat. When suspended in thewater column, excess sediment can cause gill erosion and disorient fish, making themvulnerable to predators and unable to find food. As the sediment deposits onto the bedof the watercourse, it can bury important spawning substrates and aquaticinvertebrates, smother eggs in their nests, and fill in deep pools used for shelter and

rest.

Through LSRCA and Provincial Policy and regulations, properly installed sedimentcontrols are a requirement of any development or project. LSRCA Enforcement,Planning and Engineering staff closely monitors construction sites to ensurecompliance. Fisheries and Oceans Canada also enforces proper sediment controlpractices through the pollution prevention provisions of the federal Fisheries Act. Through these efforts, new sources of excessive sedimentation are minimized;however, there are still older developments that continue to be a source of sediment.Retrofitting these areas with stormwater management would address both excessivesedimentation and impaired water quality. Options for stormwater mitigation are

outlined for each municipality in the LSRCA’s Lake Simcoe Basin StormwaterManagement and Retrofit Opportunities 2007 report. Stream Channel Alterations

Through LSRCA Policy, the Conservation Authorities Act and the Fisheries Act , harmfulstream alterations such as straightening or the creation of on-line ponds are no longerconsidered for approval. Any contemporary stream alteration projects must bedesigned in such a way that harmful impacts are mitigated, using the principles andpractices of natural channel design and bio-engineering. The maintenance of anappropriate buffer is also a requirement.

In-Stream Obstructions

In-stream obstructions such as man-made dams, weirs and perched culverts not onlycreate a barrier to the movement of fishes but also typically result in impoundments thatincrease water temperatures and disrupt the natural flow of water and transport ofsediment and nutrients. Removal of these on-line structures is, in most cases, ofutmost importance to the health of our watershed. .To this end, financial and consultingassistance to remove on-line structures and barriers is offered through variousProvincial, LSRCA and non-profit organizations’ programs.

Stream Hydrology

Stream hydrology is constantly being assessed and addressed across the basin througha variety of means. Ongoing assessment and modeling of the hydrologic ability ofsystems is being done to better understand how each system responds to precipitationand land use changes. This information is key in developing flood and fill lines as wellas a key piece of the Authorities Regulation (O.Reg. 179/06) that addressesdevelopment and land use in regulated areas. Detailed understanding of hydrology isdynamic; any land use change, new bridge, or stormwater pond can potentially affect

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hydrology and therefore careful consideration is applied in the ongoing programs of theAuthority.

Hydrology is also considered in the CA’s review of development and planningsubmissions and permit applications. This is a principal function of the Authority and is

one of the reasons that Conservation Authorities were established in the wake ofHurricane Hazel. Protecting both property and people as well as ensuring the viablefunction of streams and watercourses in the Lake Simcoe basin is a core business areaof the Authority.

Removal of Streambank Vegetation

As required through LSRCA Policy, a vegetated buffer is required between anydevelopment and a watercourse. The buffer must be at least 30 metres and 15 metresfor cold and warmwater habitats, respectively. Additional buffer requirements exist forspecified areas of the Oak Ridges Moraine and the Greenbelt under provincial

legislation. A number of public and private land stewardship programs are in place tohelp property owners re-vegetate riparian areas. These programs make every effort toeducate municipal and private partners as to the importance of leaving an un-maintained vegetated “buffer strip”. The presence of a buffer is directly linked to thepotential for stream temperatures to remain optimal and help to maintain ecologicalfunction along the stream and riparian corridor. Maintaining a riparian buffer on streamsand rivers is a key feature of the natural heritage fabric of the Lake Simcoe basin. Therecommendations for the protection of natural heritage features are detailed in Section5.

Lake Simcoe Fisheries

Fish Community Monitoring

Earliest written records of the Lake Simcoe fishery come from French explorers andmissionaries visiting the Huron in the early seventeenth century. A significant multispecies commercial fishery was established and documented on Lake Simcoe in the1800’s and early 1900’s. After law prohibited the sale of all game fish in 1903, the sportfishery increased significantly. The lake’s fishery has continued to expand and grow inpopularity. Long term monitoring is necessary to understand how stressors such aseutrophication, fishing pressure, habitat alteration, invasive species, and changes inwater quality affect the fish communities of Lake Simcoe and the fishery.

The Lake Simcoe Fisheries Assessment Unit (LSFAU) of the Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources conducts long term monitoring of fish species in Lake Simcoe and thestressors that affect them. The LSFAU continues its longstanding tracking of the LakeSimcoe fish community, including creel surveys, index netting programs, anddocumentation of invasive species. Similarly the LSRCA have an annual monitoringprogram in the tributaries. This monitoring consists of sampling of fish and benthicinvertebrates at several sites annually, to support LSRCA and LSEMS programs.

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The fish community of Lake Simcoe is a diverse assemblage of warm and cold waterspecies comprised of 49 species of fish, 5 of which are not native to the lake (LSFAU,2003). This does not include recent invaders to the lake such as the round goby oradditional species from the LSRCA’s tributary monitoring.

Status of the Coldwater Fish Community

Lake Trout (photo credit: The Wilderness Classroom)Lake Trout (photo credit: Dennis O’Hara, Northern Images [found on http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/fishing/lk_ont_lake _trout.html)

Due to the impact of eutrophication, cold water fishspecies in Lake Simcoe have undergone a dramaticdecline in abundance (Table 4.1). As early as the1970s, water quality in the lake was identified as oneof the possible causes of this decline. Generally, the1960’s, 70’s, 80’s and 90’s each saw a dramaticdecline of an important cold water species, first laketrout, then lake whitefish, followed by the lake herring,and rainbow smelt populations. Large scale stocking

programs were initiated to maintain the native stocks oflake trout and whitefish in Lake Simcoe and preventthem from disappearing altogether. The Lake Simcoelake whitefish was originally designated in 1987 asthreatened by COSEWIC; however, a recent statusreview by COSEWIC in 2005 found that the evidence regarding the distinctiveness ofthis population was inconclusive and its status was changed to data deficient. Thispopulation is not legally listed under federal or provincial species at risk legislation.

The lake trout population is predominantly comprised of stocked fish with <0.10% of no-clip (wild) fish recorded (MacRae, 2001) compared to wild whitefish comprising ~14-

30% of the population (Amstaetter, 2002). Since the 1960’s, the combined (wild andstocked) catch of lake trout has increased while the catch of whitefish declined.

Table 4.1: Status of cold-water fish species in Lake Simcoe.

Species Status Lake trout Juvenile wild fish present and a small number of wild fish

surviving to adulthood; 100 000 yearlings stocked each springLake whitefish Wild fish declining; 140 000 fingerlings stocked each fallLake herring Virtually absent

More recently, increased natural reproduction and survival of lake trout has recentlybeen detected by the LSFAU coincident with water quality improvements. Two young(<1 year old), wild lake trout were caught in 2001 during a bottom trawling program toindex the abundance of juvenile coldwater fish in their summer habitat, while previoussimilar surveys in 1991 and 1992 caught no wild lake trout (Willox, 2001). In addition tocontinued catches of young (1-5 year old), wild lake trout, multiple age classes of wild,naturally produced lake trout have been documented in a number of assessmentprograms since 2002, indicating that a small number of naturally reproduced fish are

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surviving to adulthood (La Rose and Willox, 2006). Most of the wild juvenile lake trouthave been captured in Kempenfelt Bay (LSFAU, unpublished data).

The traditional forage of lake trout in Lake Simcoe was lake herring which declinedsignificantly in the 1980’s. Unintentionally introduced to Lake Simcoe in the early

1960’s the rainbow smelt, whose population peaked in abundance in 1973, alsobecame an important prey fish for lake trout. However, presently both of these foragefish are in decline.

Status of the Warmwater Fish Community

Species that prefer warm water, such as yellow perch, northern pike, large andsmallmouth bass, and pumpkinseed, are generally less sensitive to the changes inwater chemistry that occur with eutrophication than are cold water species. The warmwater fish community of Lake Simcoe have therefore not shown the same decliningtrends as Lake Simcoe’s cold water species (McMurtry, 1999).

These warm water species generally fluctuate in abundance from year to year.Monitoring data do not suggest long term declining trends in any of the warm waterfishes of Lake Simcoe. Efforts continue to help restore the native population ofmuskellunge to Lake Simcoe which declined rapidly after the 1930’s due tooverexploitation, habitat loss and fish community changes.

Status of Lake Simcoe’s Tributary Fish Community

Lake Simcoe’s tributaries are important spawning and nursery habitats for a number ofthe lake’s fishes (i.e. walleye, etc.) and are also important habitats for sensitive coldwater species such as brook trout. Although a number of headwaters of Lake Simcoe’stributaries have been degraded to the point where brook trout have been extirpated,healthy populations of brook trout are present in quality habitats of the East and WestHolland Rivers, the Black River, Uxbridge Brook, Pefferlaw River, Lovers Creek, HewittsCreek, the Barrie Creeks, Oro Creeks and Hawkestone Creek.

Aquatic Species at Risk

A number of species in Canada have been threatened by human activity. There isfederal (Species at Risk Act) and new provincial (Endangered Species Act which comesinto affect on June 30, 2008) legislation to protect these vulnerable species in Canadaand Ontario, respectively. In the Lake Simcoe watershed we have two species of fishthat are recognized under federal and/or provincial species at risk legislation.

Lake Sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens)

Populations of this very large, prehistoric looking, fish range from the St. LawrenceRiver in eastern Canada, Hudson Bay in the North and to the North SaskatchewanRiver in Alberta (Scott and Crossman, 1973). Overexploitation, habitat loss andfragmentation have all played a role in the demise of several populations across its

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range. The Great Lakes – Upper St. Lawrence populations of lake sturgeon arepresently designated as threatened (a species that is likely to become endangered iflimiting factors are not reversed) by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlifein Canada (COSEWIC) and the federal government is currently considering whether ornot to legally list these populations under the federal Species at Risk Act. At the

provincial level lake sturgeon are designated as special concern (all populationscombined) and will be legally listed as such when the Endangered Species Act, 2007comes into force on June 30, 2008.

In the late 1800’s Lake Simcoe’s commercial fishery reported the sale of 136,500pounds of lake sturgeon from 1881 to 1898 (MacCrimmon and Skobe, 1970). The onlyother records of sturgeon in Lake Simcoe come from a 42” angler caught fish in 1956(MacCrimmon and Skobe, 1970) and a single sturgeon caught in a trapnet in 1962 bythe Lake Simcoe Fisheries Assessment Unit.

Redside Dace (Clinostomus elongatus)

In Canada, the redside dace is almost exclusively found inSouthern Ontario and is mainly concentrated in the GTA.This minnow species requires cool, clear flowing water withriffle-pool sequences and overhanging streamsidevegetation. Increased turbidity, declining water quality andloss of physical habitat have combined to threaten redsidedace populations. Based on observed declines andimminentthreats to remaining populations, Ontario designated thespecies as threatened in 2000 and it will be legally listedwhen the Endangered Species Act, 2007 comes into forceon June 30, 2008. COSEWIC upgraded the national status

designation for this species from special concern to endangered in 2007. The federalgovernment is currently considering whether or not to legally list this species under thefederal Species at Risk Act.

Redside dace (photo credit:

Jeff Andersen, LSRCA)

Redside dace populations have been consistently observed in Kettleby Creek in theWest Holland River watershed and have been historically reported in Sharon Creek inthe East Holland River watershed (Andersen, 2007 pers. comm.).

Aquatic Invasive Species

Lake Simcoe is similar to the Great Lakes in thatintroductions of invasive species have beenoccurring since European settlement. Invasivespecies can have profound impacts on the lake’secological balance as well as affect recreational,social and municipal activities. The introduction andsubsequent proliferation of certain invasive speciescan alter ecosystem processes and functions,disrupt trophic balance and ultimately result in the

Eurasian watermilfoil clogging a waterway (photo credit: Robert L.Johnson, Cornell University)

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loss of habitat. The most effective means of stopping the spread of invasives isprevention. Controlling the spread of invasive species, once established, is difficult andvaries with every species and situation. Rapid response options for control includechemical (the use of pesticides), biological (the introduction of species that prey on theinvader), or mechanical (the physical removal of specimens). Not all options are

available to control every invasive species, and each one much be carefully evaluatedto determine their own impacts to the environment.

Examples of aquatic invasive species in the Lake Simcoe basin are the zebra mussel(Dreissena polymorpha ), quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis ) spiny water flea(Bythotrephes cederstroemi), common carp (Cyprinus carpio ), black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus ) and Eurasian Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum ) (LSFAU, 2004).The most recent documented invader is the round goby (Neogobius melanostomus )which was first identified in the Pefferlaw River in 2004.

Invasive species can have substantial impacts on

the ecosystems that they invade. Their traitsenable them to outcompete native species for food,water, sunlight, nutrients and space. This mayresult in the eventual reduction in the number andabundance of native species. Replacement ofnative species with introduced species affects thebalance of the ecosystem. Once established,invasive species can facilitate subsequent invasionsof other species (i.e. the establishment of zebramussels facilitated the spread of round goby given that they are a native food source forgoby). Ecosystems that are already under stress are particularly vulnerable toinvasions. The process may happen more quickly in already disturbed systems than itwould in a healthy community.

Black Crappie (photo credit: Erling Holm, Royal Ontario Museum)

Species of Special Concern - Zebra Mussels

The initial introductions of zebra mussels into Lake Simcoewere recorded in 1991 and were fully colonized in the littoralzone (nearshore waters) by 1995. Zebra mussels haveincredible ability to filter water and subsequently filterparticulate matter and phytoplankton, resulting in significantincreases in water clarity. It is estimated that the populationof zebra mussels in Lake Simcoe can filter approximately24% of the total lake volume per day (Evans, 2007).

The result of the increased water clarity from zebra musselfiltering and its response in respect to ecological, chemical,physical and social parameters is just now beginning to beunderstood. There has been an increase in plant biomassand distribution in Cook’s Bay as a result of increased lightavailability for aquatic plant growth (Stantec 2006, Guildford,

Zebra mussels encrusting a boat anchor (photo credit: LSRCA )

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2007). Preliminary research is linking the establishment of zebra mussels in LakeSimcoe to changes in hypolimnetic oxygen levels (Evans, pers. comm.).

The long-term effects that zebra mussels will have on the ecology of Lake Simcoe arenot known and even more difficult to predict. Zebra mussels’ incredible ability to filter

water also results in an increase in bioavailable phosphorus into the bottom sedimentsthrough excretion. The extent of the impact that this bioavailable phosphorus may haveon the nearshore ecological community is not known but is being investigated.Continued monitoring and research is critical in continuing to understand the role ofmussels as well as assist in the development of management options andrecommendations.

Species of Special Concern – Round Goby

Round Goby (photo credit: Environment Canada

The Pefferlaw Brook, a tributary of Lake Simcoe,is the location of the second known invasion of

the round goby into inland waters of Ontario. Theinvading fish was first detected in the system in2004. Given the potential impacts round gobycould have on the biodiversity and fishery of LakeSimcoe, it was decided that action to control thespread of this species prior to its invasion of thelake was necessary. Information on theDistribution of the round goby and the siteconditions of the impacted system were collected.A number of options to deal with the imminentthreat were evaluated; however, after consultingwith several other agencies, experts, stakeholdersand the public, the application of rotenone was recognized as the only available optionthat could potentially accomplish the goal of eradication. Given the known distributionand rapid downstream spread of the round goby, the Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources (MNR) decided to treat a 5km section of the brook with a piscicide,Rotenone. This organic product extracted from a plant that targets gill breathers has along history of use in North America.

In October of 2005 a rotenone application was successfully implemented to try toeradicate goby and prevent them from invading Lake Simcoe. The application of thischemical piscicide was performed by licensed staff of the DFO’s Sea Lamprey Controlgroup by boat in the lower portions of the river and at the dam in the village of Pefferlaw.The treatment of the Pefferlaw Brook involved a large coordinated effort by a number offederal, provincial, and municipal agencies along with tremendous support from non-government organizations and the public. Initial results of the application were positivewith evidence of dead goby and the identification of no goby in areas where they werenot known to be prior to the treatment. Water quality sampling during the treatmentfound that there was no migration of rotenone into groundwater, that rotenone wasalmost completely detoxified one day after the treatment, and that no increase in volatile

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organic compounds (VOCs) occurred. Post treatment sampling found native fishreturning to the system in as little as two weeks after the treatment.

Continued sampling in 2006 showed that 33 of 37 native fish species originally found inthe river prior to the treatment have already returned. This does not include any

additional fish species that MNR and other agencies’ staff had not physically sampledand verified such as the walleye which according to local residents were very abundantduring the spring spawning run in 2006. Unfortunately, this monitoring also revealed thepresence of goby post treatment, catching progressively more goby as the summer of2006 progressed. On Friday July 28th 2006, MNR trawled off of the mouth of thePefferlaw and caught a goby in Lake Simcoe, in about 20 feet of water.

Now that the presence of goby has been verified in Lake Simcoe, MNR staff and itspartners agree that the goal of eradicating the goby from the Lake Simcoe watershed isno longer possible. Efforts have therefore shifted to monitoring their spread within LakeSimcoe and preventing their further spread to other waterbodies. As always, anglers

are asked to help stop the spread of Invasive Species and to keep and report anypossible goby captures from Lake Simcoe or its tributaries to the Ontario Federation ofAnglers and Hunters (OFAH)/MNR Invading Species Hotline at 1-800 563-7711.

4.3 Emerging Issues Facing Fisheries and Aquatic Habitat

Invasive Species

Pathways of Introduction

Many introduced aquatic species arrive via the Great Lakes, where they are dischargedwith the ballast water of ships arriving from Europe or Asia. From there, they can betransported to other inland watersheds through a number of means. Some attach toboats and trailers and other recreational equipment, while others will be present in bilgewater. Much of the spread of invasive aquatic species such as zebra mussels, spinywater flea, and invasive aquatic plants can be attributed to the movement of boats andother aquatic recreational vehicles from affected watersheds to those that have not yetbeen invaded. These organisms and their seeds, eggs and larvae can travel in water inthe boats and motors and can also attach themselves to boat hulls and trailers.

Anglers can further the spread of these species by moving bait from one watershed intothe waters of another. Bait transport is one of the pathways invasive fishes areintroduced to uninvaded waters. This was the likely method of introduction of the roundgoby into the Lake Simcoe watershed.

Other means by which non-native aquatic invasive species are introduced include theirrelease from aquariums (this can result in introductions of both plants and fish) and theaccidental escape/release from fish culture operations.

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Economic Impact

In addition to the impact that invasive species have on the ecosystems of the LakeSimcoe basin, they can also be detrimental to the local economy. Recreationalactivities such as angling, boating and swimming can all be affected by invasive

species. Some invasives become nuisances to anglers and in turn make the invadedlake less appealing to anglers. Dense stands of aquatic plants can make boating,swimming, and other pursuits in the water difficult and unpleasant. The recreationindustry in Lake Simcoe has a very significant socio-economic value, and there aremany recreation-based businesses that would not be able to survive without theseactivities.

4.4 Tools and Actions to Date to Improve Fisheries and Aquatic Habitat

Research into Coldwater Fish Requirements

A number of relationships within the coldwater fish community are presently beinginvestigated using long term monitoring data. For example, the limiting factors tonatural reproduction, in addition to low oxygen levels (i.e. habitat, predation,competition) are being looked at by researchers such as Dr. David Evans. Impacts onthe fish community and hypolimnetic oxygen levels by invasive species such as zebramussels are also being monitored and investigated.

Lake Simcoe Muskellunge Restoration Project

Over harvest, habitat loss and ecological change all contributed to the loss of the nativepopulation of muskellunge in Lake Simcoe. A study published in 2000 determined thatrestoring the muskellunge to Lake Simcoe was a feasible fisheries managementobjective. The goal of the Lake Simcoe Muskellunge Restoration Project is to restore aself sustaining muskellunge population to Lake Simcoe through a long term restorationproject including habitat enhancement and stocking efforts. Habitat surveys haveshown that the lake can support a muskellunge population and stocking of fingerlingmuskellunge has occurred annually since 2005. Future assessments will determine thesuccess of the stocking efforts.

Invasive Species: Monitoring and Control

Routine monitoring of Lake Simcoe and its tributaries is completed by both the LSRCAand the MNR. The fish and benthic invertebrate communities are tracked on a regularbasis through these monitoring activities, and non-native species are also detected.Once a non-native species has been detected, the information can be passed along tothe appropriate agencies so that the necessary actions, if they exist, can be undertaken.Enhanced understanding of how these species spread through the watershed will assistin the development of management strategies to control the impacts of these species.

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Invasive Species: Response

There is currently no formal framework for responding to the detection of an invasivespecies in the Lake Simcoe watershed. Significant new invasions have been dealt withon a case-by-case basis. The development of a framework would help ensure a

rigorous and systematic risk assessment and evaluation of response options whenaddressing new threats from invasive species.

Invasive Species: Awareness and Education

Preventing the spread of exotic species is key to reducing their impacts. Awareness ofthe impacts of invasive species and education about how to prevent their spread areimportant tools in preventing unknowing resource users from spreading these speciesbetween watersheds. Groups such as the OFAH and the MNR currently undertake asignificant effort to educate people about these issues – press releases, a website,attendance at trade shows, and education cards are some of the tools that they use to

make people aware of these issues. Collaboration between agencies and consistentmessaging targeting multiple audiences may enhance public knowledge of the threatsposed by invasive species on ecosystem health.

Partnerships

Partnerships are very important in the fight against the spread of invasive species.Because their spread has the potential to move across political and watershedboundaries, it is imperative that agencies work together to help prevent invasions and tokeep them from spreading when introductions do happen. Many agencies have a roleto play in preventing impacts related to invasive species. The federal government hasrecently passed legislation that requires ships arriving from Asia and Europe toexchange their ballast water in the open ocean before they enter our waters. This willhelp to prevent the discharge of non-native aquatic species into our watersheds.Provincial and local agencies work together by monitoring, sharing information aboutintroductions and spread of invasive species, educating residents about how to preventtheir spread, and, wherever possible, combining resources to control the establishmentof these species in our watersheds.

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5.0 Natural Heritage

The key issues identified in the State of the Lake Simcoe Watershed report (LSEMS,2003) with respect to Natural heritage were:

• There is a lack of the natural corridors required to maintain the ecologicalfunctions of many areas;

• Terrestrial habitats (wetlands and woodland) are being destroyed andfragmented by continued urbanization or conversion into farmland;

• Many existing habitat remnants (woodlands and wetlands) are too small tosupport viable populations;

• Invasive exotic species are becoming more widespread as urbanizationincreases;

• Available information is often inadequate to make appropriate land usedecisions;

• Impacts of improper or outdated farming practices;• Impacts of the large industry located in this watershed ; and• Policies and regulations meant to protect natural features not defined or

identified under the Provincial Policy Statement have been ineffective inprotecting these features.

• Loss of green space and natural heritage features contributing to a loss ofrecreational opportunities and the subsequent impact on the localeconomy.

5.1 Introduction

Natural Heritage is an inclusive term that refers generally to terrestrial, wetland andaquatic features (i.e., woodlands, marshes, streams, etc.) and functions (i.e., wildlifehabitat, etc) of the landscape. Natural heritage is often referred to within the context ofa ‘system’; the natural heritage system being generally comprised of core conservationlands and waters linked by natural corridors and are identified as landscape networksfor the conservation of biological diversity, natural processes and viable populations ofindigenous species and ecosystems (Riley and Mohr, 1994).

Protection of the natural heritage features and ecological functions not only protects theintrinsic value associated with flora and fauna, but also will aid in improving air quality(OMNR, 2006), provide safe drinking water (Gabor et al ., 2001) and maintain a betterquality of life (MPIR, 2006) for those living, working and/or playing in the watershed.

This was identified as one of the four goals for the LSEMS program, and the protectionof these features also contributes to the achievement of the other LSEMS goals.

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5.2.1 Woodlands

The Provincial Policy Statement (PPS) (MMAH, 2005) defines woodlands to mean,

“treed areas that provide environmental and economic benefit to both the private landowner and the general public, such as erosion prevention, hydrological and nutrient cycling, provision of clean air and the term storage of carbon, provision of wildlife habitat, outdoor recreational opportunities, and the sustainable harvest of a wide range of woodland products. Woodlands include treed areas, woodlots or forested areas and vary in their level of significance at the local, regional and provincial levels .”

Structural diversity of habitat is a strong driver of biodiversity. In woodlands, habitatniches can range from microhabitats such as the surfaces of fissured trunks, leaves androtting logs to macrohabitat features such as the horizontal layers within the forest (e.g.,supercanopy, canopy, subcanopy). In addition, woodlands are present in a wide variety

of topographic positions and soil and moisture regimes. These can range from talusslopes to heavy clay soils; from saturated organics to very dry sandy soils. For all ofthese reasons it is not surprising that many woodland species are obligates (i.e., theyare only found in woodlands), or that woodlands provide habitat for a wide range of floraand fauna. They form important building blocks of the natural heritage system.

Why Are Woodlands Important

The Natural Heritage Reference Manual (OMNR, 1999) lists a variety of importantfunctions associated with woodlands and Larson et al . (1999) summarize theimportance of woodlots. These important functions can generally be described asfollows:

• Economic Services and Values• Oxygen production, carbon sequestration, climate moderation,

water quality and quantity improvements, woodland products,economic activity associated with cultural values

• Cultural Values• education, recreation, tourism, research, spiritual and aesthetic

worth• Ecological Values• Diversity of species, structural heterogeneity, energy

(photosynthesis), nutrient and energy cycling.

Woodlands in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

Woodlands were identified within the Lake Simcoe watershed through the proceduresdescribed in Appendix 1 – Ecological Land Classification. Woodlands include all treedcommunities, whether upland or wetland. The ELC communities that were considered torepresent woodlands are: FOD, FOM, FOC, SWD, SWM, SWC, CUP and CUW asshown in the table (Table 5.1) below. Woodlands of all qualities and types combined

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comprise approximately 71,900 ha or 27.4%, of the total area of the watershed(excluding the lake itself). Of this area, approximately 9,700 ha (i.e., 13.5% of theavailable woodland cover) could be considered to be of questionable quality (i.e., theyare plantations and cultural woodlands); excluding these two cover classes, thewoodland cover within the watershed is approximately 23.8%.

Table 5.1 Woodland Cover by Type in the Watershed

Forest CoverClass – Woodland Type

ha %

Cultural Plantation (CUP) 5,788 8.1

Cultural Woodland (CUW)* 3,272 4.6Conifer Forest (FOC) 4,621 6.5

Deciduous Forest (FOD) 20,310 28.6Mixed Forest (FOM) 15,417 21.7

Conifer Swamp (SWC) 3,028 4.3Deciduous Swamp (SWD) 10,825 15.2

Mixed Swamp (SWM) 7,809 11.0

Total 71,070 100

Approximate Area of Watershed(excl. lake)

261,887 27.1

*This category includes substantial hedgerows which are continuous with other natural features (ca. 608 ha).

As described in the ELC metadata (Appendix 1), hedgerows were included in theLSRCA ELC base map layer as Cultural Woodlands (CUW) where they weresubstantial and continuous with other natural heritage features, with an attachedattribute note indicating that they were hedgerows. In addition to the amount ofwoodland cover within the watershed, there are two ways in which the distribution ofthat cover may be examined. The general spatial distribution of cover (for example bysubwatershed, ecodistrict or other spatial characteristic) is most likely uneven. Anothercharacteristic is the size of forest patches. Both of these spatial parameters will bediscussed in the following sections.

Spatial Distribution of Woodland Cover

An analysis of woodland cover was undertaken by ecodistrict. An ecodistrict is an areadefined by the MNR that has a distinct combination of landforms, soils, waters, plantsand animals. Ecodistricts are therefore a useful mechanism to describe biodiversity, asthe species associated within similar community patches would be expected to someextent to reflect the influence of the ecodistrict. If woodland cover types are wellrepresented within each ecodistrict this can be expected to maximize biodiversitypotential. Within the Lake Simcoe watershed there are four ecodistricts (Figure 5.1).Most of the watershed, and all of the lake itself, are contained within ecodistrict 6E-6.Only 13% of the watershed is within the Oak Ridges Moraine (ORM) ecodistrict 6E-7,and a relatively tiny proportion is within ecodistrict 6E-9, in the extreme northeast areaof the watershed.

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Table 5.2 provides the results of the analysis by ecodistrict. Not surprisingly, woodlandcover is highest in the 6E-7 ORM ecodistrict. However, it is noteworthy that almost one-third of the woodland cover within that particular ecodistrict is either plantation orcultural woodland. Without these cultural communities, woodland cover within this 6E-7would be 29.3%. Woodland cover is notably low (21%) in ecodistrict 6E-8, which

accounts for approximately one-quarter of the entire watershed.

Figure 5.1 – Ecodistricts in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

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Table 5.2: Woodland Cover Analysis by Ecodistrict

6E-6 6E-7 6E-8 6E-9

ha % ha % ha % ha %

Ecodistrict area (excl.

Lake Simcoe) 156,684 59.8 33,603 12.8 65,433 25.0 6,166 2.4Cultural Plantation 1,644 3.9 3,511 25.1 587 4.4 46 2.6

Cultural Woodland 2,020 4.8 715 5.1 463 3.4 74 4.2Conifer Forest 1,973 4.7 920 6.6 1,703 12.7 25 1.4

Deciduous Forest 12,709 30.4 4,824 34.5 2,295 17.1 481 27.2Mixed Forest 10,044 24.0 2,434 17.4 2,499 18.6 440 24.8

Conifer Swamp 1,118 2.7 411 2.9 1,402 10.4 97 5.5Deciduous Swamp 8,020 19.2 344 2.5 1,966 14.6 495 27.9

Mixed Swamp 4,329 10.3 837 6.0 2,529 18.8 113 6.4

Total Woodland Cover 41,857 13,996 13,445 1,771

EcodistrictWoodland Cover % 26.7 41.7 20.5 28.7

To provide as complete a picture as possible of the spatial variation in woodland coveran analysis was undertaken by subwatershed. For greater clarity, some discrete butproximal subwatersheds were combined (e.g., “Barrie creeks”). Table 5.3 provides theresults of this analysis. The data have been sorted in ascending order by watershed toshow the lowest percent forest cover at the top of the table, and the greatest percentcover at the bottom. Subwatershed areas vary in area from less than 2,000 ha to morethan 40,000 ha and these differences must be taken into account when examining thesedata.

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Table 5.3: Total Woodland Cover by Subwatershed Areas

Area ofSubwatersheds

WoodlandCover by % ofsubwatershed

Maskinonge River 7,179 11.7

Barrie Creeks 3,781 14.1Hewitt’s Creek 1,751 16.8Beaver River 32,724 17.1

West Holland River 35,410 20.6East Holland River 23,910 20.9White’s Creek 10,520 21.8Innisfil Creeks 10,757 25.2Ramara Creeks 14,350 26.9

Lover’s Creek 5,995 27.2Talbot River 7,056 27.6

Georgina Creeks 4,946 30.3

Uxbridge Brook 17,495 31.0Pefferlaw Brook 28,482 35.1

Oro South Creeks 5,769 35.4

Oro North Creeks 8,344 35.9Black River 37,536 37.4Hawkestone Creek 3,971 43.4

Islands in Lake Simcoe combined 1,912 68.5

Woodland Patch Size Analysis

A woodland patch is defined here as the total area of a contiguous patch of wooded

habitat as mapped by the LSRCA ELC mapping project. This analysis does notincorporate other parameters of “quality” that by and large could only be establishedwith detailed field work. A calculation of the area of “interior” habitat within eachsubwatershed was not undertaken as part of this analysis. The presence of interiorconditions or habitat is highly variable according to factors such as the type ofwoodland, its position in the landscape and the organism of interest (“interior” distancesare much different for plants versus birds, for example). The concept of “interior”breeding bird species is not robust and many species thought to be “interior” areactually either area-sensitive (requiring large areas of habitat in which to successfullybreed) or require certain specialized habitat conditions (e.g., Brown Creeper [Certhia familiaris ]). Indeed, some studies have even found higher densities of forest breeding

birds in linear woodlands with limited “interior” habitat (Bollinger and Switzer, 2002) andfew studies, if any, have looked at breeding success for various flora and fauna versusedge effects over several different community patches in temperate climates.

For this analysis, GIS was used to calculate all contiguous woodland areas and tocompute a graph of the distribution of woodland patch sizes within the watershed. Thisanalysis does not in any way incorporate the benefits of adjacent or nearby naturalareas, nor does it discount woodland patches that have exurban developmentenvelopes within them. The results of this analysis are provided in Figure 5.2.

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Watershed

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

< 0 . 5

> 0 . 5

< = 2 > 2

< = 4

> 4 < = 1 0

> 1 0

< = 1 5

> 1 5

< = 2 0

> 2 0

< = 2 5

> 2 5

< = 5 0

> 5 0

< = 1 0 0

> 1 0

0 < = 5 0 0

> 5 0 0

< = 1

0 0 0

> 1 0 0 0

Patch Size (ha)

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

T o t a l A r e a ( h a )

# ofPatches

Total Area

Figure 5.2: Woodland Patch Analysis - Whole Watershed

Figure 5.2 demonstrates that for the entire watershed, approximately 9,387 ha ofwoodland (or 13.1% of the total woodland) are accounted for in the first four columns(i.e., patches up to 10 ha). The (unlikely) total loss of this woodland cover (and withoutthe “recruitment” of new patches) would reduce the percent of the watershed that iswooded from the current 27.4% to 23.9%. This analysis also indicates the importance of

woodlands over 25 ha in terms of total forest cover, even as the number of patchesdeclines sharply. Relatively few hectares (1,921) are encapsulated within the twosmallest categories, even though they include over 2,000 patches. There is only onepatch (approximately 1,100 ha) in the greater than 1,000 ha class. This is somewhatdeceiving, however, as the definition of a break in contiguous cover was conservativelyapplied consistent with the ELC methodology employed (Appendix 1). Considering thatthe overall size of the watershed is around 260,000 ha, it is perhaps surprising thatthere are only ten woodland patches greater than 500 ha. One more patch would beadded to this category if a large contiguous wooded area that extends outside the edgeof the Lake Simcoe watershed is included. Given that many scientific authoritiesconsider 500 ha wooded patches to be at the lower end of what is required for

successful reproduction by many sensitive species, this analysis shows that thewatershed is not in good shape from a patch size perspective. Three of these largerpatches are located on the Oak Ridges Moraine.

Woodland Issues

Prior to European settlement the dominant land cover type of the Lake Simcoewatershed was woodlands of various forms. Estimates of total cover were in the 80%range, rather than the more commonly thought 90%, as Simcoe County was known as

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one of the most densely settled areas by aboriginal inhabitants (the Hurons) who mayhave farmed as much as 20,000 hectares (Heidenreich, 1971 as cited in Larson et al .,1999).

Some authors have estimated that 70% of woodland cover south and east of the

Canadian Shield has been lost since settlement (Riley and Mohr, 1994). Post-settlement forest loss is thought to have peaked around 1920 and in some areas therehas been some recovery since then. In 1978, woodland cover in Simcoe County wasestimated at 29% and in York Region at 18.5 % (Larson et al ., 1999). The originalwoodlands throughout most of southern Ontario were converted to non-forest uses. Forinstance, upland woodlands found on prime agricultural soils have largely beentransformed into agricultural lands, while woodlands once surrounding urban centreshave been developed into subdivisions.

Contribution to Watershed Cover

Perhaps the most important factor affecting the integrity of the watershed from awoodland perspective is the total percentage of woodland cover. There is substantiveevidence that the key cover number lies between 20 and 40%, and is probably closer tothe higher end of this spread; the use of 30% as an ecological threshold is becomingwidely adopted. Woodland cover within the Lake Simcoe watershed is below thisthreshold. The portions of the four ecodistricts represented within the watershed also fallbelow the 30% threshold when plantations and cultural woodlands are deducted. Withplantations and cultural woodlands included only the Oak Ridges Moraine ecodistrictmeet the threshold (note that woodland cover by entire ecodistrict was not considered,

just the portion within the Lake Simcoe watershed). However, seven of the 18 LakeSimcoe subwatershed groups (plus the islands) did meet the 30% threshold. In terms ofarea, these subwatersheds represent approximately 41% of the land base of thewatershed.

Fragmentation

Fragmentation describes the process that results from larger forest patches beingseparated into ever smaller patches or fragments. Fragmentation has manyrepercussions for forest habitat such as increased edge effects, such as increasedpredation and decreased species richness (Austen et al . 2001). As well, fragmentationleads to increased woodlot isolation, which in turn can reduce dispersal, immigrationand recolonization (Burke and Nol, 2000; Trzcinski et al., 1999).

Fragmentation can result in habitat blocks that are too small to support certain speciesof flora or fauna (e.g., those that are considered to be area-sensitive) or are too small toprovide relatively undisturbed and high quality habitat conditions. Fragmentation canalso result in the degradation of connectivity to a critical habitat type (e.g., an amphibianbreeding pond). However, it can be very difficult to tease apart the relative importanceof fragmentation from patch size, which is confounded by the fact that in reallandscapes these two factors are often interrelated. One review of 134 fragmentationstudies showed evidence that the ecological mechanisms and effects of habitatfragmentation are poorly understood (McGarigal and Cushman, 2002).

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Patch Size

Many researchers agree that fragmentation can affect woodland composition in terms ofspecies and vegetation composition, but many have also found that woodland patchsize is a more significant component with a preference for large patch sizes (Trzcinski et

al., 1999; Villard et al., 1999; Austen et al., 2001; Nol et al., 2005). Larger patches ofwoodlands tend to have a greater diversity of habitat niches and therefore they aremore likely to support greater biodiversity. Very large patch sizes are also associatedwith total forest cover, as these conditions tend to occur simultaneously in real-worldlandscapes (Villard et al., 1999). It is now generally accepted that when it comes towoodland patch size, bigger really is better (Austen et al., 2001; Burke and Nol, 2000;Bayne and Hobson, 2002; Margules and Pressey, 2000; Miller and Hobbs, 2002;Trzcinski et al., 1999). Large woodlands are more likely to contain a greater diversity ofplant and animal species and communities than smaller woodlands and are betterbuffered against the harmful edge effects of agricultural or urban activities than smallerareas (OMNR, 1999).

In a landmark paper, Robbins et al. (1989) determined habitat area requirements forforest birds (based on presence/absence, not productivity) in the mid-Atlantic states andconsidered 100 hectares as an absolute minimum guideline for forest patch size. Theprobability of detecting some of the more sensitive woodland bird species in 100 hawoodland patches was as low as 20 to 30%. More recently, some researchers haveraised the concept of the “Big Woods” (Mancke and Gavin, 2000; Environment Canada,2004). Few, however, have tackled the idea of establishing minimum sizes forproductive, high quality forest patches in southern Ontario. Burke and Nol (2000)recommend preservation of tracts that are least 500 ha in extent to guard against localpopulation declines in some bird species (notably the Ovenbird).

Environment Canada (2004) summarized the anticipated response of forest birds topatch size using data from one area of southern Ontario. It was concluded that 200 hawoodland patches will support 80% of sensitive species, 100 ha patches 60% while fewwere supported at the 50 ha patch level. Based on Illinois data, Herkert et al. (1993)suggest that a 400 ha woodland patch was required to support 75 to 80% of the highlysensitive woodland bird species. They predicted that a 100 ha patch should containabout 60% of the highly sensitive species. In Maryland, guidelines suggest that blocksof 3,000 ha of mature forest should be preserved (Maryland Partners in Flight, 1997).Mancke and Gavin (2000) stress the importance of the “Big Woods” (meaning >5,000ha) for regional productivity of some forest birds. Clearly, woodland patch size can beimportant for many species of flora and fauna. The relative importance of patch size,patch characteristics and landscape cover varies and so too does the interaction ofthese for different species. Studies specific to the Lake Simcoe watershed would greatlyassist in determining optimum woodland patch sizes for this area.

Habitat Quality

Habitat quality usually relates to a range of metrics such as: shape, interior (that whichis more than 100 m from an edge), age, composition, structure and the presence of

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invasive species. Today, most of the woodlands in southern Ontario are young (Larsonet al., 1999), due to having been clear-cut, then abandoned and left to regeneratenaturally. This has altered the composition of trees in Southern Ontario’s woodlands aswell as the composition of species found within them. Species that use older-growthwoodlands or characteristics of old trees (e.g., flying squirrels [Glaucomys volans ] and

Brown Creepers [Certhia americana ]) are now less frequent in Southern Ontario(Larson et al., 1999).

There is no doubt that habitat quality is an important metric, and it may be as importantas patch size. Recognizing that all these different woodland metrics are interrelated tosome extent, the literature suggests that neither patch size nor habitat quality are asimportant as overall woodland cover.

Woodland Cover

There is increasing scientific evidence that the total woodland cover of a landscape may

be the most important influence on biodiversity. Obviously the loss of woodland coverresults in a direct loss of habitat of that type. This reduction in habitat can result inproportionally smaller population sizes, and animals in habitat remnants mayexperience altered dispersal rates, decreased rates of survival, decreased productivity,altered foraging behaviours and decreased mating opportunities (Brooker and Brooker,2002).

Research that has examined the independent effects of habitat loss versus habitatfragmentation suggests that habitat loss has a greater effect than habitat fragmentationon the distribution and abundance of birds (Fahrig, 2002). Golet (2001) also found thatbird relative abundance was not related to patch size and that the pattern of distributionof breeding birds was consistent with that of total forest cover. This is further supportedby southern Ontario research that found that woodland area and edges effects did notsignificantly affect either nesting success or the productivity of neotropical songbirds(Friesen et al., 1998).

There is now substantive evidence that total woodland cover is a critical metric (e.g.,Austen et al., 2001; Golet, 2001; Fahrig, 2002; Lindenmayer et al., 2002; Trzcinski et al., 1999; Friesen et al., 1998, 1999; Rosenburg et al., 1999). Perhaps less clear are thethresholds for biodiversity. These thresholds, or general patterns, will be influenced by awide variety of interacting metrics, such as the quality of woodland, and the type ofmatrix (meaning the in-between areas, such as agriculture, exurban or urban landuses). Presumably, where the dominant landscape is woodland, wildlife will respondprimarily to local habitat effects rather than woodland cover metrics, as described byLichstein et al. (2002). What is known with reasonable certainty is that as woodlandcover decreases, species fail to occupy remaining patches and many of those thatremain become rare, or fail to successfully attract mates or reproduce.

Overall, the literature indicates that one primary woodland cover threshold is probablysomewhere in the 30 to 40% percent cover range. Currently, there is a preponderance

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of evidence supporting the use of 30% as a threshold. The use of this figure probablywould not be described as precautionary.

5.2.2 Wetlands

Wetlands can be defined as lands that are seasonally or permanently covered byshallow water or have the water table close to or at the surface and have hydric soilsand vegetation dominated by hydrophytic or water-tolerant plants (MNR, 2002).Wetlands encompass a substantial number of ecological niches and provide habitat fora large percentage of the global biological diversity (Bergkamp and Orlando, 1999). Forexample, within the Lake Simcoe watershed, they provide critical habitat for manyendangered and threatened flora and fauna, including the nationally and provinciallyendangered King Rail (Rallus elegans ), nationally and provincially threatened JeffersonSalamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum ) and the endangered Small White Lady’sSlipper Orchid (Cypripedium candidum ) (Bergkamp and Orlando, 1999; Oldham, 1999;2003).

Why Are Wetlands Important

Wetlands provide several significant economic, social and environmental benefitsessential for sustainable development. Wetland functions include carbon, nutrient andsediment retention, shoreline stabilization, flood attenuation, the regulation of waterquantity and quality, the provision of habitats, as well as providing economicvalue/goods through fisheries, timber, clean water, peat, and tourism possibilities(Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986; Dugan, 1990). Since wetlands are found at the transitionbetween terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, they are highly dependent on water qualityand quantity. Any hydrologic changes caused by climatic conditions or anthropogenicimpacts will influence the form and function of the wetland, thus impacting on the plantsand animal species that depend on them (Environment Canada, 2007).

Many wetlands can both recharge and discharge groundwater, depending on theseason and fluctuations in the water table. Nutrient flows within wetlands are alsocomplex, and they too vary by season. Some functions ascribed to wetlands, such assediment removal or pesticide dissipation, can be detrimental to other aspects ofwetland ecology. For example, sedimentation is one of the leading causes ofimpairment to wetland function and it is also one of the three leading causes of outrightwetland loss.

Clearly, these wetland hydrologic and water quality functions are complex anddependant on a wide range of variables, both spatial and temporal. It is certainhowever, that wetlands contribute towards the sustenance of freshwater resources,which are used by humans and wildlife alike.

Many of Ontario’s fish, fauna and flora species also use wetlands during all or part oftheir lifecycles. A high proportion of the designated “Species At Risk” are wetland-associated species. This is not surprising given that wetland loss within the Great LakesBasin is estimated at 68% south of the pre-Cambrian shield (Snell, 1987 as cited in

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Detenbeck et al., 1999). Marshes are often critical fish nursery and spawning areas.They also provide habitat for a wide range of other obligate aquatic species that haverelatively narrow habitat niches (i.e., they need permanent water). This includes a widevariety of insects, birds, reptiles and amphibians. Extensive marshes are now relativelyrare and only 10% of southern Ontario wetlands have been estimated to represent

marsh (Riley, 1989).

Fens and bogs are rare and represent habitat for relatively specialized species.Consequently, a variety of plants can be found in these communities that are rare atvarious levels (i.e., locally, regionally, provincially and nationally). They also providespecialized habitat for other species (e.g., non-vascular plants and insects).

Wetlands in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

Within the Lake Simcoe watershed there are only a very small 25 ha of bog (and someof this may actually be poor fen). This is one of the rarest habitats of any type in the

watershed. There are more fens, but even this wetland type represents only 1.3%(about 448 ha) of all the wetlands identified within the watershed. Both of these areexceedingly rare and together comprise less than 0.2% of the total land cover.

Swamps support a wide variety of habitat niches due to the structural diversity that theypresent. This structural diversity includes: tall canopies, tree cavities, dense shrublayers, dense winter cover (from conifers), pits and mounds on the forest floor andseasonal pools. In turn, these features can provide habitat for a wide range of attributessuch as area sensitive forest breeding birds, winter deer yards, amphibian breedingpools and even seasonal fish spawning when swamps are flooded

An estimated two-thirds of the wetlands in southern Ontario have been lost or severelydegraded with much of the remainder being threatened (Bergkamp and Orlando, 1999).According to a recent publication, How Much Habitat is Enough? by EnvironmentCanada (2004), it was found that watersheds which contained less than 10% wetlandswere at greater risk of increased incremental wetland loss, poor flood control and largersuspended solid loadings. A guideline was proposed which suggested that majorwatersheds within the Great Lakes region, like the Lake Simcoe watershed, shouldhave wetland coverage of at least 10%, with each subwatershed having wetlandcoverage of at least of 6% (Environment Canada, 2004). As of 2002, the Lake Simcoewatershed comprised 14% wetland habitat, with the subwatersheds ranging from 2 to24%.

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Table 5.4: Distribution of Wetlands in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

Area ofSubwater-shed(ha)

TotalWetlandArea by

Subwater-

shed(ha)

TotalWetlands bySubwater-

shed

(% ofsub’shed)

UnevaluatedWetlandArea by

Subwater-

shed (ha)

UnevaluatedWetlands bySubwater-shed (% of

sub’shed)

Barrie creeks 3,781 109 2.9 82 2.2Hewitt’s Creek 1,751 70 4.0 25 1.4Maskinonge River 7,179 451 6.3 36 0.5Talbot River 7,056 533 7.6 490 7.0West HollandRiver 35,410 2,935 8.3 647 1.8East HollandRiver 23,910 2,124 8.9 410 1.7Oro creeks (north) 8,344 805 9.7 216 2.6

Oro creeks(south) 5,769 599 10.4 390 6.8Innisfil creeks 10,757 1,145 10.6 597 5.6

Lover’s Creek 5,995 647 10.8 88 1.5

Uxbridge Brook 17,495 1,950 11.1 620 3.5Georgina creeks 4,946 627 12.7 84 1.7Pefferlaw Brook 28,482 4,133 14.5 1,390 4.9

Beaver River 32,724 5,378 16.4 1,393 4.3White’s Creek 10,520 1,926 18.3 1,045 1.0Black River 37,536 7,392 19.7 2,097 5.6

HawkestoneCreek 3,971 862 21.7 191 4.8

Ramara creeks 14,350 3,200 22.3 775 5.4Islands in LakeSimcoe combined 1,912 663 34.7 182 9.5

Totals 261,887 35,596 13.6% 10,747 4.1%

Wetland Issues

Despite their value, wetlands continue to be lost and degraded; this is driven by manyfactors including land use change, shoreline hardening, urban and rural runoff, and thespread of invasive and/or exotic species. In the Lake Simcoe watershed, two of themain causes of wetland loss are land use change and alteration activities.

Land Use Change

The conversion of natural heritage features such as wetlands into urban or agriculturaloperations has been occurring since the area was first settled. Tableland forests werethe first to be cleared for farming, while wetlands were second choice, requiring moreeffort as the hydrology had to be altered to facilitate farming. However, with increasingland values and changing financial realities, wetlands are no longer as difficult to farm or

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develop as they once were. Further, as available tableland has already been developedor farmed, wetlands often remain as the only undeveloped or unfarmed areas.

In response to the continued loss of wetlands in southern Ontario and in the face of on-going urban expansion, the Province created the Ontario Wetland Evaluation System in

the late 1980’s to identify wetlands that are of provincial significance. Through theProvincial Policy Statement, the Province protects provincially significant wetlands fromdevelopment under the Planning Act . Recent changes to the Conservation Authorities Act now means that all wetlands (greater than half a hectare) are regulated and anyactivity in or near wetlands requires a permit from the Conservation Authority. Wetlandsthat are either not evaluated or are not of provincial significance are vulnerable todevelopment as they are subject only to the policies of municipal Official Plans, whichoften do not protect wetlands beyond those that are of provincial significance.

The continued encroachment into wetlands by exurban development serves to increasehabitat fragmentation and wetland loss. This type of encroachment has resulted in a

loss of over 350 ha of wetland in the watershed. While this may not seem to be a vastamount of area, the impact of this loss extends beyond the actual loss of wetland, intothe surrounding wetland where the impacts of residential development reach (such asalteration to hydrology, light, noise, and increased predation from squirrels, raccoons,cats and dogs). The fragmentation of large wetlands into smaller wetlands furtherreduces the amount of suitable habitat for area-sensitive species.

Peat/Organic Extraction

The second main cause of wetland loss in the Lake Simcoe watershed is from theextraction of peat or organic material. Peat is the accumulation of physically andchemically transformed organic matter in varying stages of decomposition formed incold and waterlogged environments (Bozkurt et al ., 2001; Holden et al ., 2004; Gleeson,et al ., 2006). While peat extraction refers to the removal of this particular substrate, inOntario it also includes the removal of ‘organic’ material.

The Province of Ontario contains approximately 30% of the peatland area in Canada(Gleeson, et al ., 2006), although within the Lake Simcoe watershed, bogs and fens (true‘peat’ based wetlands) are very rare and cover approximately 483 ha or a mere 0.2% ofthe watershed. All known fens and bogs within the Lake Simcoe watershed are withinprovincially significant wetlands (PSWs). However, there are hundreds of hectares oforganic-based wetlands, which is equally as sought after for extraction purposes(Beacon and LSRCA, 2007, OMNR Wetland Mapping).

The extraction of the peat/organic substrate requires the removal of the vegetationwhich then results in large, deep holes (i.e., 4 m) in which very little vegetation grows.In addition to the loss and destruction of the vegetation communities, these large pondshave a negative impact on the water quality as it is warmed and can be vulnerable toalgae blooms and can lead to changes in the local hydrology. The harvesting ofpeat/organics ultimately changes the water quality and hydrogeology of the watershed

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by impairing the hydrological conditions (Gleeson et al ., 2006). Peat is also a non-renewable resource and such the extraction is not a sustainable activity.

There are at least thirteen known peat extraction operations within the watershedcovering an approximate total area of 76ha.Ten of the known peat extraction operations

are currently within evaluated provincially significant wetlands (26ha) or are adjacent toevaluated wetlands (32ha). The Provincially Significant Wilfred Bog for example, is 47ha in size, of which, nearly 10 ha has been harvested, as of the 2005 orthophotos.

Peat/organic extraction is an activity that is now regulated by the Conservation Authorityunder O.Reg 179/06, requiring that a permit be obtained. Some municipalities withinthe watershed also have their own peat extraction by-laws. Previous to the Authority’sregulation being approved and authorized by the Minister of Natural Resources, peatextraction was an allowable activity within all wetlands whether provincially significant ornot. The Authority’s regulation is very clear that no interference to a wetland is permittedwhich includes peat extraction.

While large peat/organic extraction operations provide employment and revenue, theycause damage and destruction of wetlands. This results in wetland fragmentation, lossof vegetation cover and biodiversity, changes to the local hydrological regime,impairment of water quality and of sensitive habitats that have established overcenturies.

5.2.3 Wildlife Habitat

The Povincial Policy Statement 2005 (PPS) (MMAH, 2005) defines Wildlife Habitat as:

“areas where plants, animals and other organisms live and find adequate amounts of food, water, shelter and space needed to sustain their population.Specific wildlife habitats of concern may include areas where species concentrate at a vulnerable point in their annual life cycle; and areas which are important to migratory or non-migratory species.”

Why is Wildlife Habitat Important?

The provision of habitat is one of the main functions of natural heritage features(OMNR, 1999). There are five principal types of wildlife habitat suggested. These are:

• Seasonal concentrations of animals;•

Rare vegetation communities;• Specialized habitats for wildlife;• Habitats of species of conservation concern; and• Wildlife movement corridors.

Seasonal concentrations of animals

Areas of seasonal concentrations of animals provide important cover and protectionfrom inclement weather conditions and predators (OMNR, 2000). They may also be

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areas where there is an abundance of resources, such as food or breeding sites. Thesehabitats directly influence the persistence of species. Some examples include: winterdeer yards, waterfowl stopover and staging areas, and reptile hibernacula.

Rare vegetation communities

Rare vegetation communities often provide habitat for rare species that in turn dependon these habitats for survival (OMNR, 2000). If rare vegetation communities are lost thenumber of rare species will increase and therefore further reduce biodiversity. Someexamples of rare vegetation communities in southern Ontario are tallgrass prairies,fens, bogs, and alvars.

Specialized habitats for wildlife

Specialized habitats for wildlife are considered to be those that serve specializedspecies. Some species have particular requirements in order to ensure their survival.

This is a rather poorly defined category, but could, for example, include seepage areasthat support certain flora and fauna. These specialized habitats are often of seasonaluse.

Habitats of species of conservation concern

This category includes species that may be locally rare or in decline, but that have notreached the level of rarity that is normally associated with Endangered or Threateneddesignations. It is suggested that the highest priority for protection be provided tohabitats of the rarest species (on a scale of global through to local municipality).

Wildlife movement corridors

Movement corridors allow animals to travel across the landscape with cover thatprotects them from predators and provide shelter from harsh weather conditions(OMNR, 2000).

Wildlife Habitat in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

In the Lake Simcoe watershed wildlife, knowledge of wildlife habitat is restricted to foursubcomponents. These are:

• Winter Deer Yards;• Colonial Waterbird Nesting Sites;• Rare Ecological Land Classification (ELC) communities (e.g.,

tallgrass prairies, alvars, fens, and bogs); and• Grassland Communities.

For all other suggested features (e.g., bat hibernacula) extensive and intensivefieldwork would be required over a large watershed (~250,000 ha), that would likely takemany years to complete.

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Winter Deer Yards

Deer yard mapping is typically undertaken by the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR).Because White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus ) do not move well in deep snow,they sometimes remain in sheltered areas during the winter, or as snow begins to

accumulate. Yards typically consist of a core area of coniferous forest (over 60%canopy cover), surrounded by mixed or deciduous forest. Yards can persist over manyyears and the use of specific yards is likely learnt by successive generations of deer.The understory of the deer yard areas usually consists of small trees, especially easternwhite cedar (Thuja occidentalis ), which serve as winter food. If snowfall is heavy, thedeer stay within the core of the yard. Deer tend to use the same yards year after yearand are not highly adaptable in moving to a new yard. These yards can be critical to thesurvival of White-tailed Deer in some parts of the Province (OMNR, 2000).

Colonial Waterbird Nesting Sites

Colonially-nesting waterbirds concentrate in relatively small areas for nesting purposes.These species include cormorants, herons, terns and gulls. Individual colonies maysupport the entire breeding population for a given species across a relatively large area.Because colonial waterbirds typically nest in relatively confined areas, they can beparticularly susceptible to disturbance, disease or habitat destruction.

Rare Vegetation Communities

Based on the ELC mapping program, rare vegetation communities identified within theLake Simcoe watershed include: alvars, tallgrass prairies, fens and bogs. Alvars areprovincially rare to uncommon communities (as ranked by the NHIC) that arecharacterized by naturally open areas of thin soil over essentially flat limestone ormarble rock with trees absent or at least not forming a continuous canopy (LSEMS,2003). Approximately 27 ha of alvars occur in the Lake Simcoe watershed, on theCarden Plain in the northeast portion. Tallgrass prairies are open (or semi-open) plainscovered in tall grass, with little to no tree cover. They are characterized by droughty soilconditions and ground fires. These ecosystems support a high concentration of rareplants and associated insects. Fifteen percent of the watershed’s rare plant species arefound here. Tallgrass prairies once covered sandy areas in the southwest portion ofLake Simcoe at Holland Landing, DeGrassi Point and Fox Island. It is not surprising thatthese areas have experienced a long history of occupation by First Nations. It isprobable that the First Nations encouraged the ground fires that are essential for themaintenance of the prairies. These prairies have become significantly diminished in sizedue to natural woody succession, which was once kept in check by the fires (LSEMS,2003).

Fens are primarily characterized by specific kinds of plants that are only found in thesehabitats. In the Lake Simcoe watershed, almost all known fens are peat-based andcomprise a total of approximately 450 ha.

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Bogs are unusual in that all of their nutrients are delivered by rainfall (a conditionreferred to as “ombrotrophic”); consequently they are nutrient poor and the pH is oftenvery acidic (e.g., 3.9 – 4.2), further reducing the availability of nutrients to plants. Only25 ha of this rare wetland type have been identified within the Lake Simcoe watershed.

Grassland Communities

Grasslands are communities that are dominated by grasses and have none to few treesand may include more specific vegetation communities such as alvars and prairies. Inthe Lake Simcoe watershed, grasslands have been identified and defined using theEcological Land Classification community of ‘cultural meadow’, as well as ‘alvar’ and‘prairie’. Cultural meadows can include fallow agricultural lands, or true grasslands,found where areas of shallow soils are unable to support trees and shrubs, leavinggrasses to grow without threat of succession. It is recognized that fallow agriculturallands rotate in and out of active use. As such, fallow agricultural ‘grasslands’ areconsidered to augment the system and are not intended to be part of the ‘system’.

Grasslands provide habitat for a range of flora and fauna habitat-specialists. Plantsfound only in grasslands are generally shade-intolerant and occupy a relatively narrowhabitat niche. A correspondingly specific range of butterflies, moths, dragonflies anddamselflies that rely on these plants are also found in this ecosystem. Being one of themost easily and extensively surveyed and monitored groups, birds are often the mostdiscussed ecosystem component in relation to grasslands. Studying trends in birdpopulations can also provide insight into the ecosystem services provided to birds bygrasslands in the form of foraging and breeding habitat.

The loss of grasslands has been documented most acutely by a decline in grasslandbird populations, primarily through the work of the North American Breeding BirdSurvey, which has been compiling records since 1966. Unabated declines in this groupof species have been observed in North America as well as throughout Western Europe(Fuller et al., 1995; Peterjohn, 2003). Of the 37 species of grassland birds that aremonitored by the Breeding Bird Survey, 32 demonstrate some degree of decline(McCraken, 2005). In Ontario, of the 14 endangered breeding bird species, five usegrasslands at some point in their life cycle (Beacon Environmental and LSRCA, 2007).Within the Lake Simcoe watershed, species such as Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus ),Clay-coloured Sparrow (Spizella pallida ), Grasshopper Sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum ), Vesper Sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus ) and Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus ) are among the declining grassland species (from McCraken, 2005); whilethe Henslow’s Sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii ) is now endangered.

Correlated with the loss of grasslands is a loss of native flora and insects associatedwith grasslands. As such, quality grasslands and prairies have become an oasis of rareflora, harbouring species such as the provincially rare Prairie Buttercup (Ranunculus rhomboideus ), Houghton’s Cyperus (Cyperus houghtonii Torr.) and Hairy Panic Grass(Panicum villosissimum Nash ), and watershed rare species such as Flowering Spurge(Euphorbia corollata ), Saskatoon Berry (Amelanchier alnifolia ), Frostweed(Helianthumum bicknell, H. canadense ) and Butterfly-weed (Asclepias tuberosa ). With

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the rare flora are rare insect associates, including butterflies, moths and dragonflies,such as the provincially rare, Olympia Marble (Euchloe olympia ) and the now extirpatedKarner blue (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) butterfly.

Wildlife Habitat Issues

Decline of Grassland Species

The decline in grassland species, particularly birds, has been researched extensivelyover the past decade. The primary cause for the decline in grassland species is thechange in habitat quality and quantity. Associated with this are several other aspects:productivity and survivorship of ground nesting species, changes in food supply, and theimpact of toxins (McCraken, 2005). The cause for the change in habitat quality andquantity in the Lake Simcoe watershed can be examined from the two main pressures:agricultural and urban.

Agricultural Pressures

Some researchers consider the major cause for declines in the habitat quality andquantity of grasslands to be the expansion and intensification of agriculture (McCraken,2005), as farms move towards higher yields and larger operations. However, thisposition may not distinguish clearly between true grassland habitats, and grasslandagriculture and normal agricultural lands – where there is no active – or minimal – management. Here, the forces of old field succession – could create these ‘culturalmeadows’ – with varying degrees of disturbance. These are usually found on marginalfarmlands or in areas where land use has changed due to changes to non-farmownership.

It is recognized that agricultural fields are at times suitable for grassland species.Although agricultural lands are not intended to be part of grassland habitat specifically,they may provide habitat at different points in their rotation, and include the followingagricultural grassland forms:

• Hay crop – grass, legumes or grass-legume mix as part of a broader, long-term rotation (6-8 years) that includes cereals and row crops

• Improved pasture – intensively grazed and improved pastures with attentionto fertility and overseeding practices – including rotational grazing. Thesesystems are adopted mostly by dairy operations. Improved pasture can bepart of a pasture-hay rotation and in some cases a cereal-hay-pasture system

• Unimproved pasture – extensive grazing, minimal improvement or vegetationmanagement; often on marginal agricultural lands (too wet, too shallow, toobedrock, etc)

Given that grassland agriculture does contribute to the grassland ecosystem, effortsshould be made through stewardship activities to optimize the utility of these landswhen possible.

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Over one half of grassland species are area-sensitive, meaning that they generallyrequire large expanses of grassland (i.e ., greater than 10 ha), although the optimal sizecan vary regionally and by species. Grassland size is modified by its landscapeattributes such as the number, size and interspersion of habitat patches (McCraken,2005) and the proximity of these patches. In Lake Simcoe, the largest single patch of

grassland is approximately 67 ha, and is found in King Township on the Oak RidgesMoraine. The largest conglomeration of grassland habitat (i.e., meadow plus thicketplus hay/pasture) is 511 ha and is located in the Talbot River watershed in the farnortheastern corner of the watershed. This is critical grassland in the Lake Simcoewatershed because of its size, but also because it is in an agricultural landscape that isdominated by hay and pasturelands.

Many species rely on hayfields and it has been found that the age of hayfields plays animportant role in their suitability with older fields generally having higher function(Bollinger and Gavin, 1992). For grasslands that exist as part of an agricultural rotation(i.e., are not ‘true-grasslands’), natural succession is a constant threat as it naturally

moves towards a wooded ecosystem. It must also be noted that in many casesagricultural lands may be incorrectly considered to be grasslands, and may change insome part of their agricultural rotation in the future. This function is enhanced by thesuppression of fire, particularly in southern Ontario. However, in areas wheregrasslands are maintained through grazing it has been found that there is a negativecorrelation between intensive cattle grazing and several species of grassland birds suchas Short-eared Owl, Savannah Sparrow, and Henslow’s Sparrow (Bock et. al ., 1993).This is a factor in the northeastern portion of the watershed, where there are extensivetracts of pasture, although the intensity of grazing tends to range throughout the area.

Urban Pressures

Grasslands in southern Ontario are also at risk from continued expansion of urbanareas. While the Province has recognized the importance of maintaining agriculturallands in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) by implementing the Greenbelt Act , thisapplies only to approximately 66% of the Lake Simcoe watershed (York and DurhamRegions).

Where development is occurring, more emphasis is now being placed on planningurban growth such that natural heritage features can be maintained within the newurban matrix. However, while some municipal official plans and policies directdevelopment away from woodlands and wetlands, development is thereby directed intomeadows, fallow fields and agricultural lands. The development community seesgrasslands as ‘available’ lands, free of the encumbrances associated with proposingdevelopment within woodlands and wetlands. Grasslands are essentially targeted fordevelopment within urban expansion areas.

Outside of urban growth areas, another key factor in the decline of grasslands in thewatershed is the fragmentation of large grasslands by exurban development. Thosechoosing to build a home on an existing lot of record are in some areas directed out ofwoodlands and wetlands and into agricultural lands or grasslands. While the footprint of

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a single-family dwelling is relatively small (compared to that of a subdivision), thecumulative impact of fragmentation of grasslands reduces the amount of largecontiguous undisturbed areas which are the most productive areas, similar to that of theimpact on woodlands.

Where grasslands are within or adjacent to urban areas the quality of habitat isdecreased for several reasons associated with its location in an urban matrix. Groundnesting species are easy prey for the increased number of squirrels, raccoons, coyotesand domestic cats and dogs associated with residential development. The food supplyand quality for grassland species is usually lower as a result of smaller grasslandpatches which are less able to maintain the full suite of ecosystem components onwhich grassland birds feed (e.g., insects and plants). While urban grasslands are lesslikely to be subject to the toxic effects of pesticide applications, these areas arebombarded with other impacts associated with urban development, such as light,sound, dust and general disturbance.

5.2.4 Endangered and Threatened Species Habitat

Endangered Species are defined under the Provincial Policy Statement as a species that is listed or categorized as an “Endangered Species” on the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources’ official species at risk list, as updated and amended from time to time. A Threatened Species is defined as a species that is listed or categorized as a “Threatened Species” on the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources’ official species at risk list, as updated and amended from time to time.

Why is Endangered and Threatened Species Habitat Important?

There is general consensus amongst ecologists that special efforts should be made toprotect species that are at a risk of becoming extirpated from a region or province. Thisis related to objectives of maintaining or enhancing biodiversity at regional, provincialand national levels .In the Natural Heritage Reference Manual (OMNR, 1999), MNRnotes that the protection of endangered and threatened species is necessary in order toslow or prevent the loss of species from the province, and in some cases, theirextinction on a global basis.

Endangered and Threatened Species Habitat in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

Within the Lake Simcoe watershed, the only reliable and easily accessible source forinformation on these species is the MNR’s Natural Heritage Information Centre on-linedatabase as well as the local MNR District offices. Historical records that were 20 yearsor older were not used. This is consistent with the typical approach taken by MNR whenusing element occurrences that incorporate older records. In total, 15 “current” elementoccurrences of E&T species were provided for the watershed. These are indicated inTable 5.5.

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Table 5.5 NHIC Endangered and Threatened Element Occurrences for theLake Simcoe Watershed

Common Name Scientific Name Prov.S-Rank

MNRStatus

Subwatershed

Eastern Prairie

Fringed-orchid

Platanthera

leucophaea

S2 END-NR West Holland

Purple Twayblade Liparis lilifolia S2 END-NR West HollandKing Rail Rallus elegans S2B,SZN END-R West HollandLoggerhead Shrike Lanius ludovicianus S2B,SZN END-R East HollandLoggerhead Shrike Lanius ludovicianus S2B,SZN END-R Talbot RiverLeast Bittern Ixobrychus exilis S3B,SZN THR West HollandLeast Bittern Ixobrychus exilis S3B,SZN THR Beaver RiverLeast Bittern Ixobrychus exilis S3B,SZN THR West HollandLeast Bittern Ixobrychus exilis S3B,SZN THR Beaver RiverLeast Bittern Ixobrychus exilis S3B,SZN THR East HollandRedside Dace Clinostomus elongatus S3 THR West Holland

Redside Dace Clinostomus elongatus S3 THR East HollandRedside Dace Clinostomus elongatus S3 THR West HollandBlanding's Turtle Emydoideas blandingii S3? THR Black RiverL. SimcoeWhitefish

Coregonus clupeaformis

S? THR Lake Simcoe

Endangered and Threatened Species Habitat Issues

Large areas within the Lake Simcoe watershed have not had extensive, intensive oreven any recent field investigations. Therefore, it is common for the known occurrencesof E&T species to be from evaluated wetlands, designated ANSIs, or areas where

development applications have resulted in detailed field investigations or data collectionefforts from local naturalists. This lack of data in general and bias towards “investigatedareas” doubtless reflects, at least to some extent, the real distribution of these species,but it may also underestimate the importance of other habitat patches within thewatershed that have been lightly surveyed or not surveyed at all.

5.2.5 Valleylands

A valleyland is a natural depression in the landscape that is often, but not always,associated with a river or stream. Valleylands act as the framework of a watershed andthe landscape of the Lake Simcoe watershed is a mosaic of valleylands and tablelands.

Valleylands vary in size from tiny headwater features (which create much debate aboutthe definition of a “valley”) to wide valleys containing substantial rivers and expansivewetlands that everyone would recognize as a valleyland.

Why are Valleylands Important?

The Natural Heritage Reference Manual (OMNR, 1999) refers to valleylands as thebackbone of a watershed because of the many important ecological functions theyperform, such as:

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• channeling water and wildlife;• providing a connection between natural heritage features;• providing important migration corridors;• providing microclimates;• transporting sediment and nutrients;

• acting as natural drainage areas;• maintaining water levels by acting as floodplains and seepage

areas; and• maintaining water quality through riparian vegetation communities.

Valleylands are also often associated with cultural significance. Whether they were thelocation of aboriginal travel routes or settlements, or post-settlement developmentpatterns, they often strongly influence human settlement patterns.

Valleylands are generally not developed because of the inherent hazards associatedwith them. Natural hazards such as flooding or bank instability and erosion are common

in valleys. This has left many highly urbanized or agricultural areas with valleylands asthe only remaining natural areas. The fact that valleylands are often relativelyundisturbed areas existing in relatively developed areas also renders them as animportant feature in the overall natural heritage system.

Valleylands in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

Despite the importance of valleylands to the mandate of Conservation Authorities theyhave generally not been specifically addressed (except perhaps indirectly as part ofconnectivity, pathways) when it comes to the development of natural heritage systems.In part, this is related to the complexity of identifying the limits of valleylands at a

landscape scale. However, the advent of GIS tools has made it possible to use digitalelevation models and other analytical approaches to identify valleylands at a regionalscale using chosen design inputs (e.g., depth, length, height and slope). A precursor ofdetermining valleylands has been the recent update of the Conservation Authorityregulations.

5.2.6 Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest

A wide variety of natural landscapes rich in natural heritage features are found insouthern Ontario. To encourage the protection of these features and landscapes, theOntario Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) has led the provincial Areas of Natural

and Scientific Interest (ANSI) program. The ANSI program began in 1983 withregulation through the Ontario Heritage Act to meet the objective of ultimately achievingProvincial Park protection status for these biologically or geologically significant areas(OMNR 1988). The evolution of this provincial program led to the protection of ANSIsunder the Provincial Policy Statement (PPS) as natural heritage features.

There are two types of ANSIs: life science and earth science. Life science ANSIs arebased on biological and ecological characteristics. Earth science ANSIs are based ongeological landform characteristics.

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The selection criteria used by the MNR to define ANSIs are:

1. Representativeness;2. Habitat diversity;3. Ecological integrity; and

4. Special features.

ANSIs can be designated within one of three levels of significance. These are: local,regional and provincial. These three levels are not based on jurisdictional boundariesbut are based on ecological regions. Provincial significance relates to the wholeprovince, regional significance is assigned at the ecoregional level, and localsignificance is assigned at the ecodistrict level. Only provincially significant ANSIs arespecifically addressed by the PPS and they are identified by the MNR using proceduresestablished by the Province. Presently, there are more than 500 provincially significantANSIs in Ontario (OMNR, 1999).

Why Are ANSIs Important

ANSIs are important because they are chosen to represent the full range of biological(life science) and geological (earth science) resources of a particular area. This meansthat a provincially significant life science ANSI is one of the best representations of therange of biological resources associated with that particular kind of feature within theprovince of Ontario. Protecting the range of biological resources of an area will helpmaintain a high diversity of habitat types, which in turn will aid the maintenance of highbiodiversity.

ANSIs in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

The Lake Simcoe watershed has seven provincially significant life science ANSIs,comprising a total of just over 3,000 ha (Table 5.6). This represents approximately 0.9%of the watershed (including the lake), and 1.16 % of the land base of the watershed(excluding the lake).

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Table 5.6 Provincially Significant Life Science ANSIs in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

ANSI Area(ha)

Primary Features

Allandale LakeAlgonquin Bluffs

3.7 Oak-maple and hemlock-beech forest, 70 m above oldAlgonquin lake plain, best bluff complex in Site District6-8

DeGrassi PointPrairie Relict

31 Relict prairie-parkland complex on a sandy, till slopereworked by Lake Algonquin. This oak-pine savannahas some 27 species with prairie affinities (i.e.,Sorgastrum nutans, Andropogon scoparius,Desmodium canadense )

Derryville Bog 237 Situated on the Peterborough Drumlin field, this bog isthe largest, most diverse and least disturbed inEcodistrict 6-8, and may be one of the only in thewatershed that meets the strictest definition of a truebog

Duclos PointPark Reserve &Adjacent Lands

388 Illustrates a variety of different community typesassociated with wetland habitat. Contains a lakefront,sandbar and associated backshore marsh complex,unique to Lake Simcoe

Holland LandingPrairie

32 The prairie at Holland Landing is dominated by twoprairie grasses, the Big and Little Bluestem(Andropogon gerardii and A. scoparius ). This is thelargest and most extensive prairie remnant in theSimcoe Lowlands physiographic region

Holland Marsh 1,309 Extensive area and a historical remnant of one of thelargest marshes in southern Ontario. Two regionallysignificant features: 1) breeding and migratorywaterfowl habitat and 2) contains a shrub fen, anuncommon vegetation type

Rugby West 106 Rugby West offers the best example of relativelyundisturbed kame hills with upland semi-maturewoods in Ecodistrict 6-6

Total area 2,106.7

Source: OMNR (2005).

There are seven regionally significant life science ANSIs in the Lake Simcoe watershed(Table 5.7). These regional ANSIs occupy a total area of 6,870 ha. Excluding the lake,this represents 2.62% of the watershed.

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Table 5.7 Regionally Significant Life Science ANSIs in the Lake Simcoe Watershed

ANSI Area(ha)

Primary Features

Beaverton RiverSwamp

1,712 River-swamp complex along Beaverton Rivervalley with various swamp communities

Martin Farm South 120 Gentle to moderate rolling kame hills withimmature to semi-mature sugar maple-ash-beechwith sugar maple forest

McGinnis Point 281 Shoreline swamp on north shore of Lake Simcoein Barnstable Bay with two creek outlets.

Pefferlaw BrookSwamp

1,177 River swamp and lake complex along a portion ofthe Pefferlaw Brook and Mud Lake

Pottageville SwampNorth

214 This section of the swamp lies on glaciolacustrinedeposits overlain by organics

Wilfred Bog 49 Mature, rich kettle-hole sphagnum-dominatedcommunity. Now mostly extracted for peat.

Zephyr Creek Swamp 3,317 River swamp complexTotal area 6,870

Source: OMNR (2005).

5.3 Emerging Natural Heritage Issues

Conservation Planning

Landscapes across the world are a matrix of agricultural, rural, urban and natural areas.The practice of conservation planning has generally not been systematic and protectedlands have often been located in places that do not contribute to the representation ofbiodiversity (Margules and Pressey, 2000). Systematic conservation planning was firstintroduced in Ontario during the early 1990s as Natural Heritage Systems. This coreand natural corridor approach, as defined by Riley and Mohr (1994), played a role in thedevelopment of the Provincial Policy Statement 1995 and began to connectconservation science to implementation policy.

The concept of a Natural Heritage System is two-fold. First it aims to identify, by usingsound scientific concepts, the important natural features of a landscape in order topreserve biodiversity. Second the system attempts to respect these scientific principleswith the use of direct policy tools, such as directed development and land use policies toimplement the protection of important natural features through municipal official plans.Natural Heritage Systems contribute as part of an integrative land use planningapproach to conservation biology.

The preservation of biodiversity has become an international objective with respect toconservation (Redford and Richter, 1999) through initiatives such as the United NationsConvention on Biological Diversity and the Ontario Biodiversity Strategy (2005). Theterm biodiversity has become somewhat ambiguous due to its use across a wide range

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of disciplines such as ecology, policy development, and planning. The Ontario Ministryof Natural Resources (OMNR, 1999) defines “biodiversity”, as:

“the variability among organisms from all sources including terrestrial,marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of

which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.”

Not all natural heritage features are protected on the basis of their ecological function.Some features are preserved on the basis of social values. For example, small woodlotsin urban areas are often valued for providing improved air quality, buffering extremetemperatures and noise, providing an aesthetic value as well as their contribution to thephysical and psychological wellbeing of residents (FON, 2006). It can be beneficial inmany respects to integrate social criteria into a Natural Heritage System. Preservingnatural features in urban centres can maintain a healthy link between the heritage ofindigenous knowledge and biodiversity-based tradition that still exists amongst many

rural migrants who may now live in urban centres (Pierce et al., 2005).

Economic, social, and ecological systems all have interconnecting parts (Polasky,2006). Associating an economic value to ecological function is a more recent approachto protecting natural features. Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) has been a leader inpromoting the concept of Ecological Goods and Services (EG&S). Ecological Goodsand Services are the benefits that society derives from healthy ecosystems such as thepurification of air and water, groundwater recharge, wildlife habitat and carbonsequestration (Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2006). It is likely that in sometime in the nottoo far distant future it will be possible to establish a dollar value on the Natural HeritageSystem of the Lake Simcoe watershed NHS that will help to demonstrate theimportance of these ecosystems to the public.

Invasive Species

Invasive non-native species are a threat to biodiversity.While each species plays a specific role within their nativeecosystems, once out of that setting and into a newecosystems, these species can grow into enormouspopulations, if unchecked by the evolved predatory/preyrelationships of their native systems. Invasive species candominate a habitat niche, preventing other species fromsurviving, thereby reducing biodiversity. Invasive speciescan take any form, from plants and insects to fish andmolluscs.

A field of dog strangling vine with fruiting structures (photo credit: Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources

In the Lake Simcoe watershed, invasive species are aproblem within terrestrial, wetland and aquaticecosystems. The presence of invasive species can be anindicator of disturbance in an ecosystem as there aregenerally very few if any non-native species present in

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less disturbed features. Invasive species are usually highly effective at transportingthemselves. Plant dispersal for example, can include such tactics as hitching a ride withan unsuspecting dog or person, through wind dispersal or a tenacious root system.Therefore, woodlands and wetlands that have been visited by very few people oftenhave few to no invasive species and therefore, higher biodiversity.

The following are a few notable species within the Lake Simcoe watershed:

A threatening upland species that has shown rapid increase recently is dog-stranglingvine (Vincetoxicum rossicum ). Its strong vine-like structure creates a thicket blanket onthe ground and can grow over small shrubs and trees leading to their death. Thisspecies is highly effective at crowding out other species; it is difficult even to walkthrough and blocks light from penetrating the ground.

Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum ) is ahighly invasive perennial that has escaped from

gardens. This species will inhabit any type of habitatfrom roadsides, building sites and abandoned landsto meadows and woodland edges. It grows veryaggressively, out-competing other species. Itspreads rapidly by way of its thick and vigorousunderground rhizomes, making it difficult to remove.

Japanese Knotweed (photo credit: Kentucky Division of Forestry)

A long-time invader of the southern Ontario landscape, Scotspine (Pinus sylvestris ) continues to cause problems. Thisspecies is of particular concern on the Oak Ridges Moraine asit thrives on the sandy soils and spreads quickly andsuccessfully across meadows. Scots pine regeneration is oneof the serious threats to grassland bird species on the Moraine.Grasslands are rapidly transformed into Scots pine thickets ifleft unto its own devices, creating habitat that is unsuitable forthe grassland bird species that could otherwise breed there.This is an important invader to control due to the documenteddecline of grasslands birds. While Scots pine can provideshelter for some wintering birds and deer, and nesting habitatfor a few common generalist species, it provides very littlevalue as a food source.

Scots Pine (photo credit: US Fish &Wildlife Service)

As traditional dumping grounds of everything from compost and garden waste to fill,wetlands have long been the recipient of invasive species. Species such as purpleloosestrife (Lythrum salicaria ) have been the subject of intensive eradication efforts inthe past. However, newer invaders such as ornamental jewelweed (Impatiens gladulifera ), found in moist to wet swamps, are proving to be spectacularly effective atboth rapid expansion and excluding any other form of growth (OFAH 2006).

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Climate Change

Climate change, as discussed in Section 2.0, also has an impact on Natural Heritage.Climate change will increasingly drive biodiversity loss affecting both species andecosystems (UNEP, 2007). At a species level, each species will respond in an

individual fashion according to its tolerance to climate changes, its ability to disperseinto a new location, alter its phenology (such as breeding date), or adapt to shifting foodresources (UNEP, 2007). As there are so many variables for each species, and somany species comprising an ecosystem, it is very difficult to predict exactly howecosystems will respond to this change.

According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2007), wetlands andforests are among ecosystems that are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Thefollowing table is from the UNEP’s Sensitive Ecoystems Analysis (2000):

Ecosystem Key Climatic Variables Implications for Biodiversity

Wetlands•

Mean summertemperatures• Mean annual

precipitation• Flooding

•

Increased variability inhydrological, cycle,leaving inland wetlands todry out with lower speciesdiversity

• Warming of 3-4C couldeliminate 85% of allremaining wetlands

Forests • Changes in rainfall,temperature andpotential

evapotranspiration

• Major changes invegetation types, forestsmay disappear in certain

areas at a rate faster thenthe potential rate ofmigration to or re-growthin new areas.

• Increased frequencyof fire and storms

While the actual impact of climate change within the Lake Simcoe watershed is difficultto predict, this information provides some indication of what could be expected andefforts that could be made to reduce the impacts. For example, that wetlands are underfurther threat as a result of climate change should provide additional rationale for theirlong-term protection.

5.4 Tools and Actions to date to Improve Natural Heritage

Provincial

As identified in Section 1.0, the Province of Ontario has introduced several new andupdated planning frameworks/documents, which help to maintain and/or restore naturalheritage systems in Ontario, while providing for sustainable communities, infrastructureand economic growth, and benefits from other resources. Of particular importance tothe Lake Simcoe watershed are the Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan (2002), the

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Greenbelt Plan (2005) and the Provincial Policy Statement 2005. The Oak RidgesMoraine Conservation Plan (ORMCP) is an ecologically based plan intended to protectthe ecological and hydrological features and functions of the plan area. Landsdesignated under the ORMCP as Natural Area and Natural Linkage represent thenatural heritage system of the Moraine.

The Greenbelt Plan (2005) includes lands within and builds upon the ecologicalprotections provided by the ORMCP. Within the Protected Countryside designation ofthe Greenbelt Plan, a Natural System has been identified which is comprised of anatural heritage system, water resource system and key natural heritage features andkey hydrologic features. The Natural Heritage System of those Provincial Plansrepresents those areas with the highest concentration of the most sensitive and/orsignificant natural heritage features and functions.

The Provincial Policy Statement (PPS) recognizes the key role that the protection ofnatural heritage features, areas and systems play in economic prosperity,

environmental health and social well being. The PPS directs that the long-termecological functions and biodiversity of natural heritage systems should be maintained,restored or where possible improved. It further requires that natural features and areasbe protected for the long term. To assist approval authorities in making land useplanning decisions consistent with the natural heritage goals of the PPS, the Province,though the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR), has developed technical guidelinesand manuals including the Natural Heritage Reference Manual (1999) and theSignificant Wildlife Habitat Technical Guideline (2002). In areas outside of theGreenbelt and Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan, these guidelines assistmunicipalities in developing their own Natural Heritage Systems and related policy fortheir official plans.

To ensure that natural heritage information is accurate and up to date, the MNRcontinues to update mapping and evaluations related to wetlands and Areas of Naturaland Scientific Interest as well as preparing Recovery Plans and habitat guidelines forendangered and threatened species. To further the protection of species at risk theProvince has also passed The Endangered Species Act, 2007. This legislation is onlyone component of the Provinces comprehensive approach to species at risk protectionthat also includes programs and policies to implement the new legislation, and greatersupport for public stewardship initiatives.

To assist municipalities in the identification and protection of natural heritage systems,MNR is developing and testing a science-based replicable approach for identifyinglandscape-scale natural heritage systems for southern Ontario. The development of theNatural Heritage Systems Approach as a tool complements other tools that exist intoday’s planning framework. The approach may be used to produce high-level mappingas a starting point for further analysis and refinement.

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Municipal

York Region Significant Woodlands Study, 2005

The York Region Significant Woodlands Study will update the Region's forest cover

information using 2002 ortho-photography, and establish and apply criteria to determinethe significance of woodlots within the Region. This information will assist with anumber of Greening Strategy initiatives relating to the protection and enhancement of ahealthy natural heritage system for future generations, including updating the SignificantForest Cover mapping in the Regional Official Plan through a subsequent Official PlanAmendment.

The purpose of study is to analyse the science around significant woodlands relative tothe Regional Landscape and natural heritage condition with the intent of delineating anddefining significant woodlands. This study does not include the implementation of thefindings through a Regional Official Plan Amendment (ROPA) or any other policy

development. Implementation of the findings, including a ROPA will be undertakensubsequent to the study with additional public consultation and input.

The study confirmed that 22.5 per cent of York Region is covered by forests and 97 percent of this cover is Regionally significant. This information will be useful in:

• Directing Forest Conservation By-law administration• Naturalization, stewardship and property securement• Protecting and restoring a connected natural heritage system for future

generations• Directing sustainable growth once incorporated into the Regional Official

Plan

York Region’s Natural Heritage System Update

York Region is embarking on an update to the Natural Heritage Strategy as acomponent of the Planning For Tomorrow Growth Management Strategy. York Regionhas faced significant growth over the past 25 years. Past growth and future growthforecasts will continue to place considerable additional pressure on the Region's naturalheritage system. Ensuring a strong, robust natural heritage system integrated into thenew communities of York Region, and enhanced and restored in the Region'sintensifying urban areas will help ensure the long term health of the system andcontribute to a sustainable York Region.

In May 2007, the Natural Heritage Discussion Paper was released. The DiscussionPaper proposed eight Action Areas for charting a fresh path for natural heritageplanning.

1. Update our Natural Heritage System2. Incorporate The Greenbelt Plan Into The Regional Official Plan3. Make Connections in New Communities.

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4. Restore and Strengthen the Natural Heritage System5. Adopt a New Approach to Infrastructure.6. Establish a Regional Trail Network.7. Advance the Greening Strategy.8. Continued Awareness and Dialogue.

The feedback received on the Discussion Paper reinforced the importance of acoordinated and comprehensive strategy to identify a linked natural heritage systemthroughout York Region. Consultation confirmed the importance of the eight ActionAreas. In January 2008, Regional Council endorsed strategic directions for movingforward on each of the 8 Action Areas.

Durham Region

The Durham Region Official Plan has recently been updated to include enhancedpolicies for the protection of natural heritage features and systems. Specifically, the

Plan includes policies addressing:

• Protection of a natural heritage system and its associated components

• Woodlands cover target of 30%

• Retention and/or re-establishment of natural linkages and connectionsbetween natural heritage features and areas

• Restoration and protection of native biodiversity

• Protection of water resources

• Securement of lands for the purposes of protection/enhancement.

City of Barrie - Natural Heritage The City of Barrie is in the process of updating its Official Plan prior to June of 2009 tomeet provincial policies, incorporate Greater Golden Horseshoe Plan and the InterGovernmental Action Plan (IGAP) recommendations. The City will be addressingNatural Heritage Policies and Strategy through this update. The Lake Simcoe NaturalHeritage System Phase 1 and 2 will form the basis for the Official Plan policies andmapping. City Staff will be working with Lake Simcoe Region Conservation AuthorityStaff in developing these strategies and policies through the public consultation processas part of the update.

Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority

The LSRCA is involved in natural heritage matters on several fronts. Through thepermitting process (O.Reg. 179/06), the potential impact to natural heritage isconsidered and when necessary, appropriate studies (e.g., Environmental ImpactStudy, Hydrological Impact Study) are requested and reviewed. ThroughMemorandums of Understanding with our partner municipalities, the Authority reviewsand provides comments on the natural heritage component of reports and studies (i.e.,Environmental Impact Studies, Natural Heritage Evaluations) completed in support of

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development proposals, as well as Environment Assessments, completed under theEnvironmental Assessment Act .

The LSRCA embarked on an ambitious mapping project in 2001 to identify and map thenatural heritage features and land use of the Lake Simcoe watershed. The mapping

was undertaken using the Ministry of Natural Resources’ standardized protocol forvegetation identification; Ecological Land Classification (ELC), combined withstandardized land use categories, mostly through airphoto (or digital orthophotography)interpretation. As the mapping has been in progress since 2001, the most recentorthophotos were used as they became available. Since the initiation of the mapping,only the 2002 set of orthophotos cover the entire watershed in one year. In 2006 themapping was fully updated to the 2002 orthophoto base for the entire watershed.

Now that the LSRCA has an accurate inventory of the natural heritage features and landuse of the watershed at one time (2002), changes in land cover and land use can nowbe measured over time from this point forward. At the time of writing, there has not

been another full set of orthophoto coverage available for the entire watershed on whichto measure and analyse change. It is anticipated that full coverage will be available tothe Authority in the near future, at which time change analysis will be undertaken.

Based on the structure of the data contained in the mapping, change detection ofnatural heritage features can include such metrics as: woodland cover (e.g.,increase/decrease), community structure (e.g., thicket to forest), change in quantity anddistribution of woodland interior, woodland distribution, and meadow quantity andwetland loss. Analysis of land use can include change in the amount, extent anddistribution of peat extraction operations, conversion of agricultural lands to urban uses,and encroachment by exurban development. This analysis can be conducted on awatershed basis or by subwatershed, which can feed into subwatershed plans. Thedata and analysis can also be provided on a municipal level to assist in Official Planupdates and in planning, both generally and on site-specific projects.

The Authority also recently completed Phase 1: Natural Heritage System Componentsfor the Lake Simcoe Watershed Natural Heritage System. The Phase 1: NaturalHeritage System is a key tool in assisting watershed municipalities to fully implementthe Provincial Policy Statement (PPS) by identifying the features of the natural heritagesystem. Phase 2: Restoration, Enhancement and Securement Strategy was initiated in2008.

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6.0 Towards Achieving LSEMS Goals

6.1 Introduction

The original LSEMS goal developed in Phase I of restoring a self-sustaining coldwater

fishery has expanded to a holistic goal of improving the health of the through a suite offocused objectives.

Phase III LSEMS Goals and Objectives

“To improve and protect the health of the Lake Simcoe watershedecosystem and improve associated recreational opportunities by:

• Restoring a self-sustaining coldwater fishery;• Improving water quality;• Reducing phosphorus loads to Lake Simcoe; and• Protecting natural heritage features and functions.”

This evolution has been required and successful for the LSEMS program as Phase III ofLSEMS included the highest diversity of activities, programs and projects across wideranging disciplines all focused on protecting and improving the health of the lake andunderstanding its complexity. Simply, the reality that everything is connected toeverything else has been the underlying philosophy of LSEMS in the most recentphase.

This philosophy or reality is the foundation looking forward to continued, enhanced andincreased protection and restoration of the Lake Simcoe basin. The following sections

identify not only what does the lake and watershed need looking forward but also whatare some options and approaches to respond to the needs of the Lake Simcoe basin.

6.2 What the Lake and its Watershed Needs

Based on the preceding chapters and earlier LSEMS work, below provides a synopsisof what the Lake and its watershed needs to ensure long term health and to meet theLSEMS goals and objectives.

Water Quality

• Reduction of pollutants in Lake Simcoe and its tributaries• Identify and target sites of concern for input of nutrients and other

contaminants and work to reduce the risk from these sites• Stakeholders working together to meet applicable [achievable]

standards for aquatic contaminants• Research to better understand the impacts of pollutants in the

ecosystem

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• Greater public understanding of the impacts of contaminants in thelake, and how to minimize the risk of contamination

• Research that identifies local sources of atmospheric phosphorusloading

Water Quantity

• Improvement and restoration of flow to systems under stress,• Protection of areas of groundwater recharge and discharge.• Identification and protection of areas of groundwater vulnerability to

protect from risks (from contamination, loss of recharge, etc)

Fisheries and Fish Habitat

• Enhanced levels of natural reproduction of coldwater fishes (i.e. laketrout & whitefish)

• Increased hypolimnetic oxygen levels to improve ecological function• Identification, protection and enhancement of fisheries habitat in the

lake and its tributaries• Maintainance and enhancement of the warm water fish community in

the lake and its tributaries• Control the introduction, spread, and impact of invasive species in

order to preserve the integrity of the Lake Simcoe ecosystem• Restoration and protection of native biodiversity

Natural Heritage

• Protection of a common natural heritage system and its associatedcomponents within the watershed;

• Retention and/or re-establishment of natural linkages and connectionsbetween natural heritage features and areas;

• Restoration and protection of native biodiversity• Enhanced existing natural features, areas and functions; and• Securement of lands for the purposes of protection/enhancement.

6.3 Options and Approaches

Based on the preceding, options and approaches to achieve the LSEMS goals and toaddress what the lake needs are provided below under five headings:

Programs, Policies and Enforcement

• Implement a comprehensive storm water management retrofit and un-controlled areas program for existing urban areas in the Lake SimcoeBasin.

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• Limit the extraction of water for consumptive use in the Lake Simcoebasin with an emphasis on subwatersheds identified as under stressthrough the Tier I and II water budgets (SWP Requirement).

• Ensure enforcement of permits for water users / takers, where required.• Undertake restoration/enhancement projects within the watershed to

improve the fish community and aquatic habitats within Lake Simcoeand its tributaries.

• Participate on recovery teams and implement local projects to enhanceand protect Species at Risk within the Lake Simcoe watershed.

• Develop an Invasive Species Response Protocol for the Lake Simcoewatershed.

• Identify and incorporate provincially, regionally and locally significantnatural heritage features that link with the Greenbelt Natural HeritageSystem into municipal planning documents

• Incorporate policies to protect natural heritage features and systemsinto municipal planning documents.

• Establish and/or enhance municipal site alteration and tree cutting by-laws to assist in protection of features.

Stewardship

• Continue to implement and expand environmental stewardshipprograms, funding and opportunities across the Lake Simcoe basin toassist in the restoration and protection of watershed.

• Direct stewardship activities within the natural heritage system toachieve restoration and rehabilitation.

• Seek securement opportunities for lands integral to the watersheds

natural heritage system.

Studies

• Develop a management framework to maintain the health of the lakeand the associated management options, which will be based on thelake’s tributaries and the detailed recommendations of the AssimilativeCapacity Study.

• Develop and assess options to achieve sub-watershed targets in orderto not exceed the recommended annual in-lake phosphorus target.

• Consider the development of a Nutrient Trading or Offsetting

Mechanisms to reduce phosphorus loading to Lake Simcoe as a toolfor the aforementioned ACS implementation framework.

• Complete detailed water budgets across the basin to provideinformation to better understand the stress potential and allow for betterdecision making.

• Develop a stream flow management framework / evaluation systemrecognizing Environmental-flows to ensure ecological health ofsystems.

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• Determine effective methods for reducing the atmospheric phosphorusload, and undertake activities to reduce loading from this source.

• Increase knowledge of the flora and fauna of the Lake Simcoe basin toidentify information required to protect and manage critical habitat andensure informed decision making.

• Develop fish community objectives for the lake and its tributaries.• Quantify and assess the quality of critical fish habitats in the lake and

its tributaries.• Determine the factor(s) limiting natural reproduction of the coldwater

fishery.

Monitoring Programs

• Continue chemical and biological monitoring in the watershed toprovide the best possible and up to date science in order to set targetpriorities for action and making wise resource management decisions.

• Continue to monitor the climate change issue and where suitableincorporate climate change information into ongoing studies. Theinformation derived from those assessments may provide insight intofuture management options and identification of potential future areasof stress and concern.

• Complete studies and install monitoring equipment that will benecessary to accurately quantify phosphorus loading from atmosphericsources.

• Monitor fish communities, assess information gaps and determineactivities necessary to fill them.

Education and Outreach

• Increase the development and promotion of water conservation andwater efficiencies for all users across the basin.

• Enhance communications on all aspects of fisheries management,invasive species and fish habitat to build an informed populous.

• Provide education and awareness programs to ensure watershedhealth overall.

6.4 Looking to the Future

The vision for the future of LSEMS is a continuing program of protection and restorationto improve the quality of water in the lake and natural resources in the watershed. Asthe human population grows, conservation efforts will continue to be an important partof urban development. At the same time, restoration projects will become morechallenging and potentially more expensive since the most easily implemented,conventional projects have been completed. Future remedial projects will continue torely on proven conventional techniques but there will need to be more investment in andpotential risk taken in exploring new technologies and concepts. Success will requirecommitment, participation and funding.

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Citizens and stakeholder groups have made it clear that they wish to be more activeLSEMS participants, working hand in hand with government to protect and improve thelake.

The LSEMS partnership has listened to our communities over the past 17 years; inaddition to understanding what the science of the Lake, and how science can helprestore the health of the Lake, we recognized that continued success for the Lake mustinclude:

A new governance structure that involves a much greater role for citizensin the watershed community;

continuing best practices to manage water quality; innovation and research; increased stakeholder involvement at all levels; better and simpler communication; and

sustained adequate funding.

This report focuses on the leading-edge science that continues to predict and validatethat Lake Simcoe and its ecosystem continues to be at risk unless actions by allstakeholders and levels of governments are undertaken.

The report emphasizes that science and emerging science is providing opportunitiesthrough options and approaches that can assist us to protect and restore the health ofthe lake and its basin.

Working together, we can restore a state of balance in the lake and the naturalresources of the watershed. With commitment and effort, we can protectenvironmentally sensitive areas from further damage. With vision and leadership, wecan have sustainable growth and continue to enjoy a clean and healthy environment.

Our vision for the future of Lake Simcoe is a renewed and recharged lake, invigoratedwith a continual supply of fresh water from its tributaries flowing down from every cornerof the watershed. Human settlements co-existing with wildlife habitats. The basinflourishing in a state of balance, all of its inhabitants integrated with the land and water,with respect for each other and a shared sense of responsibility to sustain these naturalresources for future generations. The lake belongs to everyone.

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