Lady Mary Ann Baker - First Lessons in the Principles of Cooking

8/22/2019 Lady Mary Ann Baker - First Lessons in the Principles of Cooking

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FirstLessonsinthe

PrinciplesofCooking

LadyMaryAnneBarker


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FirstLessonsInThePrinciplesOfCooking.

InThreeParts.

LadyBarker,

AuthorOf

Stories

About,

A

Christmas

Cake,

1886.


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CONTENTS

PartI.TheChemicalComposition,AndTheEffectUponTheHuman

BodyOfTheVariousSubstancesCommonlyEmployedAsFoodLessonI. TheChemicalCompositionOfOurFoodLessonII. BreadAndBeefLessonIII. FishLesson

IV.

Vegetables

Part II.TheBestModesOfPreparingSomeSortsOfFoodForUse,

WithASimpleExplaNationOfTheirRespectiveActionsLessonV. ThePreparationsOfFlourUsedAsFoodLessonVI. PotatoesAndOtherVegetablesLessonVII. ModesOfPreparingBrothOrSoupFromBeefLesson

VIII.

Fuel

And

Fire

PartIII.ThePrinciplesOfDietAndAFewCheap.AndEasyRecipesLessonIX. BoilingAndStewingLessonX. Baking,Roasting,AndFryingLessonXI. Bacon

LessonXII. TheGistOfTheWholeMatter


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FirstLessonsinthePrinciplesofCooking

1

PartI.TheChemicalComposition,AndTheEffectUponTheHuman

BodyOfTheVariousSubstancesCommonlyEmployedAsFood

Introductory

ThedayhascomeinEnglishsocialhistorywhenitisabsolutelythe

boundendutyofeverypersonattheheadofahousehold whether

thathouseholdbelargeorsmall,richorpoor toseethatnowasteis

permittedinthepreparationoffoodfortheuseofthefamilyunder

hisorhercare.Iamquiteawarethatsuchwastecannotbecuredby

theories,and

that

nothing

except

apractical

acquaintance

with

the

detailsofhouseholdmanagement,supplementedbyaconvictionof

thenecessityofeconomy,canbeexpectedtoremedytheevil.Atthe

sametime,itispossiblethatignoranceofthefundamentalprinciples

ofthechemicalcompositionandoftherelativenutritivevalueofthe

various sorts of foodwithin our reach, added to thewidespread

ignorance of themost simple andwholesomemodes ofpreparing

suchfood,maybeattherootofmuchofthatwaste.

Manyexcellentworkshavebeenwrittenonhouseholdmanagement

and expenditure onboth a large and a small scale,but I am not

awareofanybooksosmallasthis,whichexactlysuppliestheneedI

speak of, orwhich, laying other details aside,deals onlywith the

subjectof thepreparationof food,andyet isnotexactlyaCookery

Book.

Ishall

attempt

in

this

part

to

give

in

acondensed

form

the

reasons

why one sort of food isbetter than another,more nutritious, and

therefore cheaper,andalsowhy certainmethodsofpreparing that

foodwill cause it tobemore easily digested, and render itmore

wholesome.Itmustbestated in this,theverybeginning,that these

reasonswhyarenot the resultofanycrude theoriesofmyown,

but aredrawn from a careful study ofworksupon the subjectby

practicalchemists.Wheneverthequestionisavexedone,orlearned

doctorshave

agreed

to

differ

upon

it,

Iomit

it

altogether,

confining

myselfentirelytothediscussionofsubjectsuponwhichthere isno

doubt,andstatingtheresultsofyearsofpatientstudyandincessant


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experimentsasbrieflyand simplyas Ipossiblycan.Although it is

perhapssomewhatalarmingtocomeacrossscientificexpressionsin

sounpretendingalittlebookasthis,stillImustentreatmyreaders

notto

be

scared

away

by

words

which

are

unfamiliar

to

them;

and

I

may truthfully addmy own experience tobear out the common

assertionthethebestandhighestmethodoflearninganysubjectwill

alwaysprovetheeasiestinthelongrun.

Insteadofhelplesslywringingourhandsandcryingoutabout the

highpriceoffuelandfood,letusacceptthepresentstateofthingsas

the inevitableandnatural resultofpastyearsofextravaganceand

carelessnesson

our

own

part.

The

sooner

we

make

up

our

minds

thatwhatweregretfullyspeakofasthegoodoldtimeswiththeir

goodoldpriceswillnevercomeagain,thesoonerweshallceaseto

lookfondlybackonacheaperpast,andbraceourselvesuphelpfully

andbravelyto facethe increasedcostofthenecessariesof life.It is

much more sensible to do this, instead of going on in our old

ignorant way, buoying ourselves up with hopes of a shadowy

millennium of butchers meat, of a future day when carcases of

Australianor

South

American

sheep

and

oxen

shall

dangle

in

English shops. Believeme, that time is a longway off, and even

when itdoes come therewillbemanymore thousandsofhungry

mouths tobe filled, so that the supplywillonlykeeppace even

thenratherlaggingbehind,asitdoesnow withthedemandofthe

comingyears.Iffuelandfoodcostnearlytwiceasmuchatpresent

astheydidtenyearsago,thensurelyitbecomesourimperativeduty

toseehowwecan,eachofus,according toourpossibilities,make

thematerial

for

warmth

and

cooking

go

twice

as

far

as

they

have

done hitherto. Nor in making such an attempt are we blindly

groping in the dark, feeling our way step by step along the

unaccustomedpathsofscientificexperiment.Ithasallbeendonefor

uswhilstwewere stupidly spending our capital,bymenwhose

clearsightcoulddiscernthedarkdaysahead;menwhohave,many

of them,goneto theirrest,before thedawnofthesedarkdays,but

whohaveleftbehindthemclearinstructionshowtomakethemost

ofcertain

necessary

substances

whose

increasing

value

they

foresaw

twentyorthirtyyearsago.If,therefore,wehavethecommonsense

toavailourselvesoftheresultsoftheseresearchesandexperiments,


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whicharestillcarriedondayafterdaybyworthysuccessorsofthe

great practical chemists I speak of, it is quite possiblewemay so

utilizetheirinformationastomakeouravailablematerialgoagreat

dealfurther.

At

present

we

all

confess

that

the

balance

is

uncomfortably adjusted, and a greatmany people are throwing a

greatmanyremediesintotheunevenscales.Letustryafewgrains

of science, and a fewmore of common sense, and see what the

practicalresultwillbe.

Beforeweproceedtodothis,however,Ishouldliketoendeavourto

disabusemyreadersmindsoftheideathateconomyandstinginess

aresynonymous

terms.

In

point

of

fact

they

are

precisely

opposite.

An individualorahouseholdhabituallypractisingeconomyhasa

farwidermarginforcharityandhospitalitythantheshiftlesspeople

who never can keep a penny in their purses or a meal n their

cupboards through sheer wasteriff, as thenorthcountrypeople

call it. Take care of the scraps, and the joints will take care of

themselves, would be a very good motto in ninetenths of our

middleclass households, and the practical result of such a theory

shouldbe

better

food

and

more

of

it.

FormyownpartIhavelittlehopeofanyrealprogressbeingmade

in the right direction until it shall have become once more the

customforladiestodoastheirgrandmothersdidbeforethem,and

make it theirbusiness to acquaint themselves thoroughlywith the

principles and details of household management. In many cases

theremaybenoactualpecuniarynecessityforsuchsupervision,but

itwould

at

all

events

serve

the

good

purpose

of

setting

an

example,

besides teaching servants the real good and beauty of a wise

economy,aliberalthrift.Solongastheworldlasts,solongwillthere

be aMrs.Grundy;but ifMrs.Grundy can onlybe induced to go

down into her kitchen and insist on a good use being made of

sundryscrapsandbones,andoddsandendswhichatpresentmay

be said to benefit no one, then will she deserve a statue in the

marketplace.IfMrs.A.,whosehusbandsincomemaybeoneortwo

thousandayear,

is

able

and

capable

to

show

anew

cook

how

such

and such things shouldbe done so as to combine economywith

palatableness,thenwillMrs.B.,whoseincomeisbarelyaquarterof


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that sum, not consider it beneath her dignity to do so. If this

movement is to do any good, it will have tobe inauguratedby

peoplewhosesocialandpecuniarypositionmakesthem,toacertain

extent,unaffected

by

the

pressure

which

weighs

so

heavily

on

their

poorerneighbours.And Iamgoing toattempt, so to speak. tokill

twobirdswithonestone;topersuadeevenrichpeopletoinsistona

due economy in the consumptionof thenecessaries of life, and to

assurepoorpeoplethatitispossibletomakeagooddealmoreofthe

scantymaterialswithin theirreach than theydoatpresent.When I

speakof inducingrichpeople tobeeconomical, Ihavenoculinary

Utopia inmymindseye,whenmillionaireswillprefer todineoff

coldmutton

or

to

lunch

on

bone

broth.

What

Imean

is,

that

rich

people can surely be made to understand that it is nowadays

absolutelyagreatergood to thecommonwealth if theirhouseholds

are somanaged that little or nomaterial for human food canbe

wasted in them, than if they subscribed ever so liberally toall the

greatcharitiesofLondon. It isjust inproportionaspeoplesminds

areenlargedandtheirfieldofmentalvisionextendedbycultureand

truerefinement,thattheywillbeabletoperceivetheimportanceof

thequestion.

For

that

reason

Ihope

and

expect

that

the

warmest

supportersoftheattemptnowbeingmadebytheNationalSchoolof

Cookery to teach themassof theEnglishpeoplehow tomake the

mostofthematerialaroundthem,willbefoundinthehigherranks

ofoursociety,andthatfromthemitwillspreaddownwardsuntilit

reachesthecottagewherethelabouringmanisfedfromyearsend

toyearsendonmonotonousandoftenunwholesomefood,asmuch

fromlackofinventionasfromshallownessofpurse.

Beforeending thispreliminary lessonI(TheChemicalComposition

OfOurFood)feelitincumbentonmetostatemostemphaticallythat

Idonotwishor intendtoorganizeacrusadeagainstcooks !Inthe

courseofnearlytwentyyearsexperienceofthatclassofservants,I

can declare that I have found very little intentional dishonesty.

Waste,extravagance,andbadmanagementIhavemetwithoverand

overagain,buttheseevilshavealmostinvariablyarisenfromwant

ofopportunities

of

learning

better,

and

Ican

scarcely

remember

an

instancewhere therehasnotbeenaneffortmade to layasidebad


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habitsandacquirefreshones.Itisonlytootrue,asdearTomHood

says,that

Evilis

wrought

by

want

of

thought,

Aswellasbywantofheart.

So, ifwe can even teach our servants to think twicebefore they

throw things into thepigtub, itwillbe taking a step in the right

direction.

Ifacookandhermistressareatdaggersdrawn,eachregardingthe

otheras

afoe

to

be

distrusted,

then,

indeed,

there

is

little

real

economy to be expected. But if a cook sees that her mistress is

willing togiveher fairwages forher services,and to considerher

comfortsinotherways,whilstatthesametimetheladythoroughly

understandshowthecooksdutiesshouldbeperformed,thechances

arethattheservantwillreadilysubmittobetaughtathousandlittle

helpful and comfortableways. Such knowledge on themistresss

part is not incompatiblewith accomplishments and refinement of

tasteand

manner,

but

it

is

not

to

be

learned

from

reading

this

book

oranyotherbook.Itcanonlycomefromstudyandapossibilityof

acquiring practical experience on the subject whilst the future

matron isstillayounggirl;and if theschemeof theCommitteeof

theNationalSchoolofCookerycanbecarriedoutaccordingtotheir

viewsandintentions,itwillbeawomansownfaultifinfutureher

firstvisit toherkitchenbemadeasan inexperiencedbridewitha

dozenyearsofapprenticeshipbeforeherereshecanventureevento

makeasuggestion

to

her

cook,

or

dream

of

tossing

up

some

little

daintydishwithherownhands.


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LessonI.TheChemicalCompositionOfOurFood

Theold

German

poet

who

wound

up

each

verse

of

his

famous

drinkingsongbytheassertionthatfourelementsintimatelymixed,

formallnatureandbuilduptheworld,wasnotsofarwrongafter

all. The jovial songwriter referred to his favourite formula for

brewingpunch;andaccordingtohimtheworldofconvivialitywas

builtupbylemonandsugar,rumandhotwater.

Now, it isperfectlytruethat fourelementsgoagreatway towards

buildingup

the

world;

but,

setting

aside

the

question

of

brewing

punch, theyare called carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,andnitrogen.So

universalistheirpresenceinthelivingandgrowingpartsofanimals

andplants, that they are always spoken of as organic elements,

and science has ascertained exactly the proportion inwhich each

shouldexistinahealthyconditionofthehumanbody.Thatbodyis

incessantly,but imperceptibly,undergoingaprocesswhich cannot

bebetter described thanby the expression of perennialmoulting,

onlythat,

whereas

certain

animals

cast

off

certain

parts

of

their

body

theirskin,theirhair,ortheirfeathers everyyear,weloseaportion

ofourweighteveryday ;that istosay,weshould lose it ifwedid

not absorb through our lungs, the pores of our skin, and our

stomachs, sufficient oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, to

supplythelosscausedbythewearandtearofourdaily life.There

has evenbeenanattemptmade toprove thatourvitalorgansare

entirelyrenewedeveryfortydaysorso,butforthiscalculationthere

canbe

no

really

satisfactory

data,

although

there

certainly

is

constant

loss and gain going onwithin us. Thematerial for repairing this

incessantwastewhich is the inevitable resultof theactivityofour

nervousandmuscular system, isnot suppliedaloneby the starch,

sugar,water,and fat,noryetby themilk,meatandvegetableswe

consume,butby a due combination of foodmaterialwhich shall

ensure the proper proportions of albumen, fibrine, and caseine

absolutelyrequiredbyour changing frames.Theseare ratherhard

words,but

their

meaning

will

be

quite

plain

if

we

take

as

familiar

examplesofthethreeindispensableingredients,thewhiteofanegg,

apieceof leanmeat,andabitofcheese.Everyonecanunderstand


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that, although these things contain the largest proportion of one

particular substance, still theremaybemany other substances in

whichtheyarepresent,alltogether,anditisjusttoteachusthis,and

toexplain

to

us

why

we

should

rather

give

our

attention

to

procuringone formof food thananother, thataknowledgeof the

elementsofPracticalChemistryisuseful.Inreadingtheaccountsof

thehardshipsandsufferingsofexplorersandtravellers,weareoften

surprised to learn that first onemember and then another of the

expeditiondroppeddown anddied longbefore the supplieswere

actuallyexhausted.This isparticularlynoticeable in theaccountof

Burke and Wills attempt to explore the great plains of South

Australia,where

one

by

one

the

travellers

died,

not

so

much

from

sheer lack of some sort of food to eat, as from the unhappy

circumstanceoftheonlyattainablefoodbeingutterlydeficientinthe

ingredientswithoutwhichthehumanbodycannotbenourished.For

instance, therewas abundance of an alkaline plant onwhich the

nativesalmostliveatcertaintimesoftheyear,andoccasionallyeven

afewfishwerecaught.

Butthese

materials

taken

by

themselves

were

so

weak

in

life

supportingproperties,thattheyfailedtorepairsufficientlythewaste

causedbysevereexerciseandexposuretotheweather.Amanmay

bestarved todeath,andyetscarcely feelhungry; that is tosay,he

maybeabletoputfoodintohismouthwhichwillallaythecravings

ofhisappetite,butwhichmaynothave the leastpower tonourish

hisbody,so thathewilldieassurelyas thoughhehadnothing to

eat.

Mens instinctsaregenerally thesurestguides,andhowevermuch

wemayhavebeendisgusted tohearofsuchfactsasofEsquimaux

andSamoiedeslivinguponblubberandfat,andeveneating8lbs.or

10 lbs. of flesh at a meal, Science teaches us that they were

unconsciously adopting the very best means of keeping up the

supplyofcarbonandoxygen,or internalwarmth,which theircold

climaterenderedabsolutelynecessary.Sointhesamewayweoften

seeasick

person

take

afancy

to

some

curious

kind

of

food,

and

perhapsbegintorecoverfromthemomenthewasallowedtohave

it.Thechancesarethatifwecouldbringallthepracticalchemistsin


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the world into his sickroom, and they were to analyse the

component parts of that particular food, and at the same time

ascertain exactlywhichof theorganic elements ofhuman lifewas

insufficientlyrepresented

in

the

patients

system,

the

result

of

their

researcheswouldgo toprove that thesickmanknewexactlywhat

hewantedtobuildhimupinhealth,betterthananyoneelse.

Nature is our surest guide after all, only unfortunately our

civilizationhasbluntedour instincts,andrenderedusmoreor less

artificial,sothatwecanhardlytellwhatisNature,andareobliged

to call in the aid of Science to teach us. Those who live in hot

countriesdo

not

require

to

provide

their

systems

with

internal

warmthbymeans of food, andwe shall generally find that they

prefer a diet which will contain very little carbon. But it often

happens thatanEnglishman travellingor living insuchplaceswill

becometerrifiedathislossofrelishformeatandheatingfood,and

willflyeithertohisdoctorfortonics,tohiscookforpicklestoincite

hisflaggingappetite,or,stillworse,towineorbrandyforstimulants

to repair his imaginary weakness. Nature, thus thwarted in her

arrangements,turns

sulky,

and

the

man

falls

ill,

accusing

the

climate

ofthefaultspringingfromhisownignoranceandfolly.Inhisown

countryheknowsmuchbetterwhatisgoodforhim;andinmixing

baconwithhisbeans,or in taking, like the Irishman,cabbagewith

his potatoes, or, like the Italian, a strong kind of cheesewith his

maccaroni,heexhibitssomanypurelychemicalwaysofpreparing

mixturesnearly similar to eachother in composition andnutritive

value.

Intherudestdiet,and inthe luxuriesof themostrefined table,the

main cravingsofanimalnaturearenever lost sightof.Besides the

firsttasteinthemouth,thereisanaftertasteofthedigestiveorgans,

whichrequirestobesatisfiedifwewanttoarrangeaperfectdiet.It

is not necessary that a food should yield every kind ofmaterial

whichthebodyrequirestonourishit,forthenonesortoffoodmight

besufficientforthewantsofman.Eachsortmustfulfiloneormore

ofthe

bodys

requirements,

so

that

by

awise

combination

the

whole

ofitswantsmaybesupplied.Itisalsotobeborneinmindthatour

nourishment isnotonly thesolid foodwhichweactually take into


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our stomachs, according to the popular idea on the subject, but

comprises thewaterwedrinkand theairwebreathe.Butas these

pagesshouldtreatsimplyofthenourishmentforourbodies,which

nourishmentmust

needs

be

submitted

to

the

action

of

fire,

it

is

only

withthecookingoffoodwehavetodeal.

In considering thequestionof thebestand cheapest food,and the

mostwholesomemodeofcooking it,wemustkeepsteadilybefore

ustheprinciple,that it isnotthequantityof foodreceived into the

humanbodywhichnourishes it,but theproportionwhich canbe

digested of such food. All else is sheer waste an encumbrance

worsethan

useless

whose

presence

clogs

and

throws

out

of

gear

the

delicatemechanismappointedtodealwithit.

It isgenerallyagreedby scientific chemists, that in castingaround

forsomethinglikeaformoffoodwhichcouldbetakenasatypeof

allothers, there isnonesoperfectasmilk.Duringtheperiodwhen

theyoungofanimalsaswellasofhumanbeingsarefedentirelyon

milk,theygrowveryrapidlyinthesizeofeverypartoftheirbodies.

Fromthis

we

infer

that

milk

must

contain

all

the

essentials

which

go

tobuild upmuscle, nerve,bone, and every other tissue. The first

lessonwe learn from takingmilkasan exampleofperfectnatural

food, is that there shouldbe a certain proportion of liquidmixed

with the substances we consume as food, though, as the animal

attainsitsfullsizeandthereisonlywastetobemadeup,notgrowth

to be provided for, the necessity for the liquid form of food

diminishes.

Of the fleshforming substances contained inmilk, caseine is the

most important,and in the largestproportions ; therefore it iswith

milk in the formof cheese that itcanbestbedealtwithashuman

food in this place.Now, there is a popular theory that cheese is

unwholesome,anditcertainlyisanindigestiblesubstance,butstillit

needonlybeavoidedbythosewhosufferfromweakdigestions.The

hardworkingmanwholabourswithhismusclesintheopenair,and

whosestomach

is

in

the

best

possible

condition

to

digest

his

food,

doeswiselytospend,ashegenerallydoes,whatlittlemoneyhemay

possess in cheese, for cheese containsnearly twice the quantity of


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nutritivematterhewouldget in the sameweightof cookedmeat.

Evenwith delicate feeders, a small quantity of cheese takenwith

other food facilitatesdigestion, forcaseine iseasilydecomposedor

putin

acondition

which

causes

other

things

to

change.

When,

therefore,weeatapieceofcheeseafterameal, itacts likeyeast in

bread,and startsachange in the food; for thechancesare that the

stomach in trying to digest the cheese will digest the rest of its

contentsatthesametime.Themouldycheesewhichsomepeoples

instinctleadsthemtoprefer,actsmorequicklyinthiswaythanfresh

cheese.When cheese is spoken of as a nourishing article of food,

especially to thosewho labour in theopenair, it isonly cheese in

whichthe

cream

has

not

been

previously

separated

from

the

milk,

for theactualnutritivevaluewilldependon theamountofbutter

materialleftinit.ThecheapskimmilkcheesesofSouthWalesyield

solittlenourishmentinthisrespect,thattheyareofbutslightvalue

asfleshformers,whereastherichcheesesfromCheddar,Stilton,and

Ayrshirearenotonlyinfinitelycheaperthanmeat,butarealsovery

nourishing.

Itwill

perhaps

only

be

necessary

to

take

bread

and

beef

as

samples

offoodwhichcontaininthemselveseveryelementrequiredtobuild

up thehuman frame, to repair thedailywaste,and topreserveall

the conditions of perfect health. The generality ofmankind have

foundout thevalueof thesesubstances for themselveswithout the

aidofscience;butitmaybeaswelltolearnsomethingaboutbread

andbeef,for thesimplereason thataswecannotalways,underall

circumstances,makesureofhavingthemasfood,wemaybeableto

selectthose

substances

which

come

nearest

to

them

in

nutritive

value, ifweunderstand thecomponentpartswhichmake them so

important.


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LessonII.BreadAndBeef

Natureis

always

busy

cooking

inside

us.

She

is

ever

separating,

arranging,andmakingthebestoftheheterogeneoussubstanceswe

givehertodealwith,anditisaswelltofindoutwhatmaterialsare

theeasiestforhertomanage,andsolearntoeconomizeherforcesto

theutmost.Ofallthefoodusedtorepairtheincessantwastecaused

bymuscular exertion in the open air,bread andbeef, aswe have

alreadyremarked,best fulfil theneedsof thehumansystemunder

thoseconditions;andwewillfirstlookatthechemicalcomposition

ofbread.

Itisneedlesstotracethegrowthofwheatbeforeitarrivesatthemill

tobe converted into flour,butwhen it reaches that stage it comes

within the limits of the inquiry which we propose to ourselves.

Wheat is practically divided into two parts : the bran or outer

covering,andthecentralgrainorfecula;andtheobjectofthemiller

inthepreparationofflouristomixthequalitiesasabovementioned

soas

to

suit

his

market,

and

either

to

separate

the

bran

entirely

or

partiallyfromthegrain,ortoleavethewholeinflour.Accordingto

the quality of the grain and the amount of the husk left in it, the

valueoftheflourvaries,anditisdividedintofourclasses:thefine

householdsorbest,householdsorseconds,brownmeal,and

biscuit flour ; and the valuemust chiefly depend on the estimate

whichisformedofthenutritiveproportionsofthedifferentpartsof

thebran.

Manypeople say, vaguely, Oh,brownbread ismorewholesome

thanwhite;butitisimpossibleitcanbemorenutritious,thoughit

maybemorepalatable;fortheouterpartofthebranisglazedover

witha layerof flintwhich isquite indigestible.At thesame time it

mustbeacknowledgedthatourpracticalexperienceteachesusthat,

althoughthestomachmayfinditimpossibletoassimilatebranitself,

yetthepresenceofbraninbreadstimulatesthejuicesofthestomach

togreater

activity,

and

therefore,

like

cheese,

promotes

the

digestion

ofother things.Toadelicateorganization itwouldprobablyactas

an irritant, and therefore itsuse should notbepersisted inunless


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there is absolutely no disarrangement of the digestive system.

However finely the outerbranmaybe ground, it still remains in

nutritious,but the innerhuskpossessesgreatvalue from the large

proportionof

nitrogenous

matter

which

it

contains.

The

whiteness

of

theflourisnotalwaysatestofitspurityornourishingpowers,asin

caseswhere the flour from redwheat hasbeenmost thoroughly

siftedorbolted,itwillstillkeepadarkertingethanevenseconds

flourobtained fromwhitewheat, though the redwheat remains

themostnutritious.

It isan instanceofwhat Ihavebefore remarkedabout the instinct

whichguides

our

choice

of

food,

that

the;

navvies,

who

work

perhapsharderthananyothermenintheworld,makeitapointto

procuretheverybestandpurestandmostexpensivewheatenbread.

Itisalwaysthefirstthingthoughtofinsettlingtoajobofworkina

newplace, that thesemenshouldbeable toget the finestwheaten

bread to eat. In making this proviso they are really guided by

principlesof trueeconomy, for in theircase thenecessarywasteof

tissueissogreatthattheycannotaffordtotakeintotheirstomachs

anysuperfluous

matter

which

will

not

nourish

their

bodies.

And

we

willpresentlyseewhypurewheatenbreadisthemostnourishingof

allthecereals,althoughthereareotherformsinwhichwheatenflour

mightbeusedwithadvantage,suchaswhenmade intomaccaroni

orsiftedintosemolina.

Inothercountries,wherewheatenbread isnot the staplearticleof

food,itiscurioustonoticehowthosewhohavetoworkhardinthe

openair

have

struck

out

substitutes

for

themselves

which

contain

ingredients as near towheatenbread in chemical value as canbe

procured.Thus theminersofChili,whose livesarevery laborious,

feedonbeansandroastedgrain;whilstsomeHindoonavviesfound

their physical powers too low to do a good days work when

engagedinboringatunnel,untiltheyleftoffeatingriceandtookto

wheatenbreadandflesh.Butthewheatgrowninatropicalcountry

isneverofmuchvaluefornutritivepurposes,noryetthatgrownin

acold

one.

A

hot

summer

in

asunny

clime

lying

within

the

temperatezoneproducesthebestgrain thatis,grainwiththeleast

proportionofwaterandthegreatestofnitrogen.Riceflourpossesses


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somuch less nitrogen than does wheaten flour that its nutritive

valueisagooddeallessened,andincountrieswhereitisthestaple

food,averygreatdealhas tobeproducedandconsumedtoafford

theinhabitants

anything

like

asufficiency

of

nourishment.

The

innutritivequalityof rice isnaturally the reasonwhy a scarcityof

that foodcausessuch fatal results inanapparentlyshort time.The

peoplewhohabituallyeatithavealreadybroughttheirvitalpowers

to so low an ebb, that a very small diminution of nourishment

sufficestolowerthelifesupportingstandardbeneaththepossibility

ofexistence.Thechiefreasonwhywheat,andindeedallthecereals,

areof suchprimary importanceas food, is, thatwhilstnitrogen is

absolutelyindispensable

to

the

animal

body,

it

cannot

be

produced

outofsubstanceswhichdonotcontainit.Thesameistrueofcarbon,

butwemust look to flesh toproduce that.Thechief ingredientsof

our blood contain nearly 17 per cent, of nitrogen, according to

Liebig,andhewasalsoconvincedthatnopartofanorgancontains

less than the same proportion of that clementary body. The

nitrogenousprincipleinwheatiscalledgluten;butitisthecerealin

which acts as a ferment and assists in the digestion of the other

substances.

In wheat this is what we find water, gluten, albumen, starch,

sugar, gum, fat, woody fibre, and mineral matter, all in certain

proportions,butthereisagreatdealmorestarchthananythingelse.

Next to starch comes gluten, andwemust remember it is in that

ingredientthenitrogenousprinciplelurks.Ifthesecomponentparts

are again classed, the result will be that wheat stands first as a

forceproducer,

and

second

as

aflesh

producer;

so,

as

strength

is

ofmore importance to the navvies than flesh, theymay wellbe

excused forbeing soparticularabout theirbread. Inanotherplace

wewill speakof the simplest andbestmodes ofmakingwheaten

flourintobread.Nowwemustpassontobeef,andtrytoshowwhy

our national love of this particular form of fleshfood has had its

origin in an instinct ofwhatwasbest to keep ourselves in good

workingorfightingcondition.

Althoughbreadactuallyproduces fibrine, still it isbest ifweneed

only look to it forgluten,albumen,andsoforth,anddependupon


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14

fleshforfibrine,whereweshallfinditreadymadetoourhand(or,

shouldIsaytoourmouth?)inthefibresofthemeat.Ofalltheforms

ofmeatused forhuman food, the fleshof theox is thatgenerally

preferredwhere

there

is

any

choice

in

the

matter,

and

it

is

certainly

both nourishing and easily digested. In comparing the nutritive

value ofdifferent kinds ofmeat,wemustdistinguishbetween fat

andlean,andtheamountofnourishmentisinproportiontothefat

or lean of themeat. Fat (that is, carbon) generates heat,but lean

generates heat and forms flesh aswell, for in lean flesh all four

organic elementsarewell represented. Inbothmuttonandpork

we get somuch fat that the actual nourishment contained in the

sameamount

of

beef

(unless

exceptionally

fattened)

is

greater,

and

it

is also the fullest of the redbloodjuices. Besides this, the loss in

cookingbeef ismuch less than in cookingmutton, owing to the

greatersolidityof the fleshand thesmallerproportionof fat.It is

quitecertain,saysLiebig,thatanationofanimalfeedersisalways

anationofhunters,fortheuseofarichnitrogenousdietdemandsan

expenditureofpowerandalargeamountofphysicalexertion,asis

seen in the restless disposition of all the carnivora of our

menageries.Hence

it

follows

that

for

those

whose

daily

toil

necessitatesanexpenditureofpower,itwouldbethetruesteconomy

if theywere to endeavour to supply thewaste of theirmuscular

system by ever so small a quantity of true fleshforming food,

insteadofbeing contentedwith a largermealof a lessnourishing

description,washeddownbybeerorspirit,whichcontainsnoreal

nutritiveworth.Malt andalcoholpossessnarcoticand stimulating

properties,anddonoharm inmoderation indeed, to theweakor

agedthey

are

of

incalculable

value.

But

astrong,

healthy

labouring

man would keep himself in much better working order if he

economizedhisbeerandincreasedhisanimalfood.

Ihaveseenwithmyowneyesaveryforcibleillustrationofthistruth

intheworkingmanofNewZealandasheexistedsomeyearsago.In

thosedaysbeerandspiritusedtobealmostunknownexceptinthe

young colonial towns, and the early settlers up the country lived

entirelyon

bread

and

mutton,

for

even

potatoes

were

arare

and

precious delicacy for the first halfdozen years. Such a splendid

physicalconditionofthehumanframeithadneverbeforebeenmy


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goodfortunetobehold.Everyonelookedintheperfectionofhealth:

clearcomplexions,brighteyes,andactivelimbswhichseemednotto

know fatigue,were the resultofmanyyears ofa compulsory and

muchabused

diet

of

bread,

tea,

and

mutton.

When

Isay

tea,

it

was

reallyonlyusedasastimulantorforwarmth,forcoldwaterwasthe

universalbeverage.Peoplemightgrumble,buttheythrove,andthe

generation whom I saw growing on that diet from childhood

towardsmans estatemight challenge theworld over to produce

theirequalsforvigourandstrength.

Perhapsitisratherbullishofmetoinsistinonepageuponbeef,

likemotley,

being

your

only

wear,

and

then

in

the

next

going

near

toshowthatmuttondoesjustaswell;but,seriously,onehasonlyto

turntoSirFrancisHeadsaccountofhisrideacrossthePampas,to

learnhowmuchexertioncanbesupportedupondriedleanbeef.Itis

not only, as Sir Francis says, that he endured enormous and

incessant fatigue solely on thisbeef diet,but thatmonths of such

fatigue lefthim insplendidphysicalcondition,able todoanything

orgoanywhere.Toreconcilethetwotheories,however,Imustadd

thatthe

gallant

veteran

confesses

his

beef

diet

rendered

him

somewhat lean and illfavoured, and that he did not look so

handsomeandwellasmymuttonfedNewZealandcolonistsused

todo.


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16

LessonIII.Fish

Inmany

parts

of

the

coast

of

our

sea

surrounded

home,

fish

is,

from

necessity, the staple food of the inhabitants; and althoughwhole

districts in other parts of the world, such as Dacca, the

MediterraneancoastofSpain,etc,arefedalmostentirelyonfish,our

businessliesonlywithourownpeople.Thereisnodoubtthatfish,

even the redblooded salmon, should notbe the sole nitrogenous

animalfoodofanynation;andevenifmilkandeggsbeadded,the

vigour of such people will not equal that of a flesheating

community.But

of

all

kinds

of

animal

food,

the

fresh

herring

offers

the largestamountofnutriment for thesmallestamountofmoney,

andthisstatement isthemorecuriouswhenwethinkoftheturtle,

whichisproducedinsuchenormousquantitiesontheshoresofthe

West Indian islands, aswell as the estuaries of the Indian coast.

Although the flesh of the turtle is palatable and wholesome, it

possessesacloyingpeculiarity, insomuch that,afterayearor two,

Europeanswillsufferhunger to thevergeofstarvationrather than

touchit.

Perhaps

this

repugnance

may

be

an

instinct

arising

from

the

factthatthephosphoricfatoftheturtlerendersitdifficultofsolution

in thedigestivejuices,and therefore its reallynutritiousproperties

arecounteractedbythissuperabundantrichness.

Sowe see that thebalancehas tobeverynicely adjusted: the old

proverb,Ifalittleofathingisgood,agreatdealisbetter,doesnot

hold good at allwith our food.We have to take great care that,

accordingto

the

means

within

our

reach,

that

supply

of

the

proper

proportionsof theorganic elementswhich areasnecessary toour

bodiesasfueltoafire,shouldbekeptup.Infact,foodistoourbody

exactlywhatfuelistoafire.Ifwechokeuptherangeorstovewith

dust and bricks, the fire will go out; and so, if we persist in

supplying the furnace of our life withmaterialswhich it cannot

possiblyassimilate,oruseasfuel,thefireofourliveswilldieout.If

peopleunderstood,orwouldeventrytounderstand anditisnotso

difficultas

many

things

uneducated

people

learn

quite

easily

why

certainkindsoffoodproducecertainconditionsofthehumanframe,

therewouldbefarlessdisease.


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Thegreatmistakeistothinkthatactualwantofmoneyisattheroot

ofthebadfoodofEnglishlabourers.Itisnotsoatall.Idonotdeny

thepovertynor the toilrequisite,alas ! toobtaineven thescantiest

meal;but

anyone

with

any

practical

experience

of

the

very

poor

of

ourowncountrywillagreeintheassertionthatperhapshalfofthat

pressureisremovablebyeducationintheartofmakingthemostof

things.Ihaveoftenseenapoorwomanwhohadbeencomplaining

tomeofthescarcityoffuel,orthewantoffood,preparetolighther

fire, cook her husbands dinner, or bake her bread, in the most

recklesslyextravagantmanner.Sowithfish.Howoftenatthetimeof

the Irish famine were the charitable English public startled by

hearingthat

people

were

starving

on

acoast

swarming

with

fish

?If

it had been possible to teach the poor ignorant sufferers, that

although therewas not quite somuch nourishment in fish as in

meat,still itwouldhavemadeapalatableandwholesomeaddition

to their starvationdietof Indianmaize,muchdistresswouldhave

beenwardedoff.

The flesh of fish contains fibrine, albumen, and gelatine in small

proportions,and

fat,

water,

and

mineral

matter

go

to

make

up

the

restofthecomponentparts.Itiscurioustofindthedifferenceoffat

in some fishes, especiallymackerel,which possesses a very large

proportion,herringscomingnext (somepeoplesay first),butatall

eventstheybothshouldbecookedinsuchawayastogetridofas

much of this fat aspossible.Enoughwill remain tomake the fish

nourishing,but if therebe toomuch fat itrenders fish indigestible.

This danger needs to be particularly guarded against with eels.

Haddocks,whiting,

smelts,

cod,

soles,

and

turbot

are

all

less

fatty,

and consequently more digestible, than such fish as salmon,

pilchards, sprats, and mackerel. Raw oysters aremore digestible

than cooked ones, because the heat coagulates and hardens the

albumenatonce,besidesmakingthefibrinetoosolid,andrendering

itlesseasyforthegastricjuicestodissolve.

Wemustbear inmind that the flesh of all fish out of season is

unwholesome,and

often

makes

people

ill.

Iam

afraid

Mr.

Frank

Buckland and other true lovers of pisciculture would view the

sufferingsofsuchdepravedgourmetswithgreatindifference,andit


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is,indeed,mostshockingtothefoodeconomisttoreadoftheshoals

ofbabysolesaninchortwolong,ofdiminutiveoysters,oftheovaof

thecod, theroeof thesalmon,andof the fryof theherring,which

arebrought

to

our

markets

and

readily

sold

in

spite

of

vigilant

bye

laws.

Itisnotpossibleinthisplacetodealwiththesubjectofcookingfish:

cooking it in such a manner that the fat which renders it often

unwholesomeshallbeeliminated,andthenourishingandgelatinous

portionsofthefleshysubstancemadethemostof.


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19

LessonIV.Vegetables

Ifeel

that

Icannot

begin

this

chapter

better

than

by

quoting

what

Dr.

Lethebysaysonthesubject:

Primarily, all our foodsarederived from thevegetablekingdom,

for no animal has the physiological power of associatingmineral

elementsandformingthemintofood.Withinourownbodiesthere

isnofacultyforsuchconversion;ourprovinceistopulldownwhat

thevegetablehasbuiltup,and to let loose theaffinitieswhich the

planthas

brought

into

bondage,

and

thus

to

restore

to

inanimate

naturethematterandforcewhichthegrowingplanthadtakenfrom

it.

It isthusplainthatthebeefandmuttonweeatderivetheirfibrine,

gluten, and all othernecessary ingredients from thevegetables on

which the oxen and sheep have fed, though such food does not

apparentlycontainanyofthesesubstances.Itisacurioussuggestion

whichIhave

often

met

with,

that

if

avegetarian

family

lived

in

accordance with the rules of one of their own peculiar cookery

books, eachmemberwould actually consume half an ouncemore

animalfoodadaythanamanwoulddowholivedaccordingtothe

usualscaleofdiet.

Vegetables are alimentswhichdilute theblood, and containmore

salts thanalbumen.Theyconveyvery littlenutriment to theblood,

aswe

may

see

in

the

feeble

muscles

of

tropic

dwellers

who

feed

almostentirelyonvegetables.On theotherhand, theyareofgreat

service, first in the digestive canal, where they dissolve the

albuminous substances of themeat, and afterwards in theblood

itself, where, if they do not actually nourish, they yet keep the

albumenandfibrineinaliquidstate,andenablethosesubstancesto

perform their proper functions more vigorously. Of course the

cerealswould naturally stand first in a chapter on vegetables, as

they,of

all

the

products

of

the

vegetable

kingdom,

are

the

most

dependeduponbymanforfood.As,however,wheat,which is the

principalcerealofEngland,hasbeennoticedinanotherchapter,we


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20

may aswell proceed to examine the nutritive properties of other

vegetables.Insuchaninquirythepotatocomesfirst,for,owingtoits

largeproportionof starch, it is themost actuallynourishingof all

vegetables.This

starch

is

transformed

into

fat

by

the

digestive

process,andifpotatoescouldbeeatenwithasufficiencyofwhiteof

egg, their nutritive value would be brought very near the meat

standard. Other roots and tubers contain a larger proportion of

sugar,andthereisevenfatpresentinsomeofthem,butnoneareso

rich in this nourishing starch as the potato. A man may, and

probablywill,lookfatandrosyonapotatodiet,yethismusclewill

notbeinfirstratecondition,norwillhebeabletoendureprolonged

fatigue.In

spite,

therefore,

of

the

comparative

low

price

of

potatoes,

they are not themost economical food for a labourer, nor can he

depend on their nourishing starch alone to provide himwith the

requisitebodilystrength.Allsucculentvegetablesareantiscorbutic,

and since thepotatowasbrought intouse asadaily ration in the

fleet (not a hundred years ago), scurvy has gradually died out. If

there is any difficulty in providing potatoes for during long

voyages,whencrossingthetropics,thepotatoeswillbegintogrow,

andso

become

unfit

for

food

lime

juice

is

the

next

best

substitute,

foritcontainsmostofthechemicalingredientswhichgotomakethe

saltsofpotash found inall freshvegetables,butwhich is specially

presentinthepotato.Ithasoftenbeenpointedoutthatthereisreally

no excuse for scurvy nowadays, for potatoes, cabbages, turnips,

and carrots canbe pressed into a very small space, and yet carry

theirpotash aboutwith them. Indeed, thisprocesshas latelybeen

carried to great perfection. Other vegetables are less actually

nutritiousthan

the

potato,

and

the

palate

grows

sooner

tired

of

them,

but yet one hundred pounds of potatoes containbarely asmuch

nitrogenous matter, that is to say, positive nourishment, as

thirteenpoundsofwheat.

Asthewholesomenessanddigestibilityofvegetablesdependmuch

onhow they are cooked, it isperhapsuseless to enterhere into a

longerexplanationwhyvegetables,thoughtheyconstitutetheentire

foodof

animals

whose

flesh

contains

the

highest

forms

of

nourishment,willnot,of themselves,supplymanwith the foodhe

requires tokeephismuscles strongandvigorous. In the countries


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21

wheretheinhabitantsarecompelledbythenecessitiesoftheclimate

tolivechieflyonthem,Natureissobountifulthatshedoesnotcall

uponmantocultivatethegroundasweareobligedtodo.Therefore,

itstands

to

reason

that

in

aclimate

where

severe

manual

labour

is

necessary toproduce food,adietofamusclerelaxing, fatforming

natureisaverypooreconomy.


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22

PartII.TheBestModesOfPreparingSomeSortsOfFoodForUse,

WithASimpleExplaNationOfTheirRespectiveActions

Remarks

The very first principle of cooking is cleanliness. No skill or

flavouringcanmakeupforthelackofit,andifitbepresent,thereis

goodhopeofeveryotherculinaryvirtue.Butcleanlinessisanelastic

term,andIwishittobeclearlyunderstoodthatIwouldfainstretch

its interpretation to the utmost limit. Even the sacred fryingpan

wouldIruthlessly

scour,

all

unheeding

the

old

fashioned,

and,

let

us

add,dirtyaxiom, that itshouldbe leftwith the fat in it. It isquite

true that the fatwhichhasbeenused to frypotatoes,or fritters,or

anything except fish,maybe poured out of the saucepan into a

daintilycleanbasinoremptyjampotandusedagainandagain,but

Iwouldhaveeverycooktaught tocleanherfryingpanthoroughly

every time sheuses it.The fat inwhich fishhasbeen fried should

neverbeusedforfryinganythingelse,andaneconomicalhousewife

willtake

care

that

the

fish

is

fried

last.

Ihave

sometimes

been

met

with the assertion that it is toomuch trouble and takes toomuch

timetokeepeverythinginakitchenascleanasitoughttobekept.

To that I reply, that if a girlbebrought upby a tidymother or

mistress to understand and appreciate the value and beauty of

cleanliness,shewillneverbeabletoendureanyotherstateofthings.

IdeclarethatIhaveobservedgreaterdirtamongthesaucepansand

adeeper shadeofblackover everything inkitchenswhereneither

povertynor

want

of

time

could

be

pleaded

in

excuse,

than

in

aplace

whereonepairofwillinghandshashadtokeepthelivingroomof

halfadozenpeopletidy.

I am not sure that I do not detest surfacecleanliness, with its

deceptivewhiteness,more than genuine honest dirt aboutwhich

there is no concealment, for the sham snowiness is apt to throw

youthful housekeepers off their guard. For their encouragement I

canassure

them

that

it

is

not

such

asuperhuman

task

as

it

appears

to

seethateverythingundertheirsceptreiskeptscrupulouslyclean,for

the advantages of cleanliness over dirt are aspatent as light over


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23

darkness,andninetynineservantsoutofahundredwillsooncome

toacknowledgethisthemselves.Peopleofallranksandclassesdiffer

inthisrespectaccordingtotheirinstinctsandtraining,andinmany

afine

house

adirty

cook

would

find

things

more

after

her

own

heart

thaninatworoomedcottage.

Let us, for a moment, take the case of a girl who has been a

housemaid or nursemaid in a small family, and who marries a

decent young artisan earning from 15s. to 25s. a week. Here is

enoughmoneyforcomfortifthewifeknowshowtomanageandis

cleanandtidyinherself.Howfarwillthat,ortwicethatsum,go if

shebe

an

ignorant

slattern

?The

chances

are

that

such

agirl

knows

absolutely nothing of cooking, and that shewill have to arrive at

eventhesmallestamountofsuchknowledgethroughalongseriesof

unpalatablemealsandwastedfood.Perhapsitmaybeyearsbefore

sheattains to theproductionofanydishwhichcan fairlybecalled

wholesomeornourishing;butsurelysheisnottobeblamedforher

ignorance.Shehasgonestraightfromherschooltoasituationwhose

dutieshavenevertakenherintothekitchen,andshefindsherselfat

twentyfive

years

of

age

at

the

head

of

aworking

mans

home,

with

nomorenotionofhow tomanagetheir incomecomfortablythan if

shewereaninfant.Shehashithertohadnoopportunityoflearning

howtocook;but ifshehasbeentaughttobethoroughlycleanand

tidyinherhabitsandways,shemayrestassuredthathalfthebattle

iswon. The other half, theNational School of Cookery at South

Kensingtonstepsintohelphertowin,anditistobehopedthatin

due time,by the establishment ofbranch institutions all over the

kingdom,by

means

of

lectures

and

demonstrations

(for

cooking

cannotbe taughtby theory),anyyoungwoman in suchaposition

willknowwheretogoifshewantstolearnhowtocookthefoodher

husbandswages enable her to provide. But cleanliness shemust

teach herself, and practise it diligently in her little kitchen, for

without itshecanneverbeagoodcook,nomatterhowsuccessful

shebe in thematter ofbread, or how deftly shemay handle her

fryingorsaucepan.


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24

LessonV.ThePreparationsOfFlourUsedAsFood

Itis

well

known

that

so

far

as

actual

nutritive

power

goes,

both

oats

andbarley,tosaynothingofmaize,rye,themillets,andrice,contain

asmuch(oats, indeed,more)valuablematerial forthemaintenance

of the humanbody aswheatdoes; that is to say, they all contain

certain proportions of starch, protein, or the nutritive ingredient,

representedbyoilyor fattymatter,besides sundry salineparticles.

All theseare indispensable to thebuildingupof thehumanbody.

Why then dowe findwheatmore cultivated and used in greater

quantitiesby

all

the

civilized

nations

than

any

of

the

other

cereals

?

The only reason can be that wheaten flour alone, of all these

farinaceousfoods,willmakefermentedbread.

I used at one time to think thatbreadmakingmustbe the very

simplestthingintheworld,butwhenIcametobefacetofacewith

flourandyeastIfounditwasnotsoeasyamattertoproducelight

goodbread.Thesepagesarenotwrittenthereforefortheinstruction

ofbakers

or

those

fortunate

people

who

have

learned,

at

an

age

and

undercircumstanceswhenlearningiseasy,howtomakebread,but

withthehopethattheymayproveeversoslightapracticalhelpto

thosewhoareasprofoundlyignorantasIwas,notsolongago.

First of all the yeasthas tobe thought of.When near a town this

thorn in the path of the anxiousbreadmaker is removedby the

facilitywithwhichbrewersorreadypreparedbakersyeastcanbe

procured.Brewers

yeast

is

simply

the

scum

which

rises

to

the

top

of

themaltduringtheprocessoffermentation,and isofnousetothe

beer,orwort.Thebrewer is thereforeglad todisposeof it,and the

bakertakesitoffhishands.Buthedoesnotputitrawintohisbread.

A special ferment is firstobtained frommealypotatoes,byboiling

them in water, mashing them, and allowing them to cool to a

temperatureofabout8oofFahrenheit.Yeastisthenaddedtothem,

and ina fewhours theywillget intoastateofactive fermentation

withasort

of

cauliflower

head.

Water

should

now

be

gently

poured

into thismixture,and itmustbe strained,afterwhichavery little

flour shouldbe lightly sprinkled into it. In five or six hours the


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25

wholewill rise toa finesponge,whenmorewatermustbeadded,

andalittlesalt,andthentheyeastisfittouse.Itmaynowbebottled,

butitisnotadvisabletomakeagreatdealatatime.Onaccountof

thefermentation,

yeast

bottles

can

only

be

kept

from

bursting

by

pluggingtheirmouthswithsoftpaperorcottonwool.Ifneitherthe

freshyeastfromthebrewers(whichwillnotkeepbyitselfformore

thanadayortwo)orthedriedyeast,whichkeepsalongtime,can

beobtained, then itwillbenecessary toboil somedriednops ina

very littlewater,put some sugar to them,andadd thiscompound

wheninastateoffermentationtothemashedpotatoesinsteadofthe

brewersyeast.

Havingprocuredormadetheyeast,thenextthingistoputtheflour

ina large tinmilkpan,makeahole in thecentreof the softwhite

heap,andpourinasmallcupfulofyeastmixedwithalargecupful

ofwarmwater.Alittleoftheflourisstirredintothisliquidsoasto

makeitrathermoreofapaste,andthenthewholeiscoveredwitha

cleanclothandsettoworkduringthewholenight.Greatcaremust

be takennot toput it in toohotaplace,as itwillbecomedryand

crustyin

the

morning,

and

make

heavy,

tasteless

bread.

On

the

other

hand,ifthetemperaturebetoolow,theflourwillbedullandcold,

themixturewillnothavepenetrated it,and thebreadwillnotrise.

But,supposingthatthehappymediumhasbeenhit,andthatthegas

containedintheyeasthasmadeitssubtlewayamongtheflour,then

morewatermustbe addedby degrees and a very little salt. The

wholemassshouldthenbelightlykneadedbyverycleanhands,and

whenithasattainedacertainelasticconsistencyitshouldbequickly

cutinto

separate

portions,

dropped

into

well

floured

tins

(only

half

fill themwith the dough),whichmust instantlybe placed in the

oven. The oven shouldbe fairly hot to begin with, and its heat

increaseduntil theend.From time to timea cleanknife shouldbe

thrustintotheloaf;ifitcomesoutwithatarnishonthebrightblade,

as though it had been breathed upon, then the bread is not

sufficientlybaked,and there isnouse in taking itoutof theoven

untiltheknifecanbereadilydrawnoutwithaperfectlyundimmed

surface.The

real

art

of

bread

making

consists

in

the

dough

not

being

toostiffatfirsttoresisttheentranceofthegas,nortoosofttopermit

the gas to pass through it quickly. It should also be sufficiently


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26

kneadedsothatthegasmaybecomewelldistributedthroughoutthe

mass,yetnotoverkneaded,inwhichcaseagooddealofitwillhave

escaped,andthebreadwillconsequentlybeheavy.

Thedifferencebetweenbiscuitsandbreadisthatthereisnoyeastin

the composition of the former; they are also for the most part

unleavenedandveryhighlydried.Thoughvaluableasatemporary

substitute for bread, they can never be so wholesome from the

absenceof thewaterwhich isabsorbed in theprocessofdryingor

baking. Biscuits should invariablybe taken with ever so small a

quantity of liquid, forby themselves they either absorb toomuch

fluidfrom

the

juices

of

the

stomach,

and

so

produce

indigestion,

or

theyfailtoobtainasmuchfluidastheyrequirefromthosesources,

andthereforeremainalongtimeundigested.Cakesaremadebythe

substitutionof sodaor carbonicacid foryeast,and theadditionof

sugar, fat, and eggs. Of all these materials the sugar is the

wholesomest and should be the most freely used. The other

ingredientsaremoredifficultofdigestion.

Beforeleaving

the

subject

of

bread,

it

will

be

as

well

to

notice

the

extraordinary differencebetweenbatches ofbread. It is no reason

becauseahouseholdreceivesexcellentbreadoneweek eitherfrom

thebakersshoporitsownkitchen thatthenextweeksbakingwill

notbe heavy andbad. This isbecausewe trust so entirely to the

good old rule of thumb in our kitchens, scorning to make the

temperature of the oven a certaintybymeans of a thermometer.

Half,andmorethanhalf,ofthehardbakingandtheoverorunder

boilingand

frying

with

which

we

are

afflicted

arises

from

the

extraordinary prejudicewhich exists against the daily use of this

indispensablelittleinstrument.Itistheonlyreliablewayofmaking

sureof theoven,or thewater,or the fatbeingofexactly the right

temperature; and yetwhat cookwho respects herselfwould at

presentdeigntousea thermometer,still lessevenacharming little

contrivancewhich hasbeen invented specially for her use, and is

calledafrimometer?

Buttotouchuponsomeoftheotherusesofflour.Weareapttolook

uponmacaroniasaluxuryforthetablesoftherich,whenitisreally


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so low in price that it iswithin the reach of thosewho have any

choice at all as towhat they shall eat. It is considered a foreign

composition,unworthy to takeaplaceamong themoresolid flesh

formersdear

to

the

heart

of

the

Englishman

;but

if

he

understood

whatitismadefrom,hemightperhapsmodifyhiscontemptforone

of themostnourishingandwholesome forms inwhichhe can eat

wheaten flour.Macaroni, then, ismadeby thesimplest imaginable

process, and there is no reason in theworldwhy itsmanufacture

should not be carried on in England, as indeed it is. The finest

wheaten flour ismade intoapeculiarsmoothpasteordough,and

afterwardsdriven througha cylinderwhich cuts it into ribandsor

tubes.Wheaten

flour

contains,

of

course,

precisely

the

same

amount

ofnourishment,whetheritbemadeintobreadorintothepastafrom

whichmacaroni is cut;butwhereasbread can scarcelybe cooked

again(exceptastoast),therearemanywaysinwhichmacaronican

bedressedsoas to formadelicious food.Simplyboiledwithmilk

andalittlesugaritwouldbeawholesomeandagreeablechangein

childrens diet, andwemust remember that for childrenwho are

bornwith softbones that is,with too littlephosphate of lime in

theirbones

adiet

of

wheat

will

tend,

more

than

anything

else,

to

form thisdeposit.When I saywheat, I includemacaroni therefore,

andsemolina,whichistheverysmallgrainleftaftergrindingwheat

in a coarse mill. Such a mode of grinding gives but a small

proportionof flour, and a certain larger residue of coarse flouror

fine grains, and these grains are known as semolina. They are

chieflyobtainedfromthemostnourishingofallthewheats,thered

grained wheat grown in Southern Europe, and especially in the

DanubianPrincipalities.


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LessonVI.PotatoesAndOtherVegetables

Althoughit

is

rather

adeparture

from

the

plan

Ipursued

in

the

First

Parttospeakinthislessonaboutpotatoes,itisnaturaltometodoit,

because, so far asmy practical experience which was once in

experience,remember goes,itisalmostasdifficulttoboilapotato

properlyastobakegoodbread.Inthefirstplace,wehaveoneofthe

highest chemical authorities on our side for saying that on both

wholesome and economical grounds potatoes should always be

boiledintheirskins.Theydonotlookquitesowelliftheyhavetobe

peeledafterwards,

but

not

only

is

the

actual

material

wasted

by

the

process of peeling especiallywhere there are no pigs to eat the

peelings butagreatdealofthestarchysubstance,whichisexactly

whatmakesthepotatosonourishing,iswasted.Inroastedorbaked

potatoes,whichhavebeenpeeledbeforecooking,thelossinweight

fromtheskinandthedryingisactuallyaquarterofthewhole.Itis

curioustolearnthatpotatoeswhichcometousfromthebog lands

of Ireland are far lesswatery andproducemore starch than those

whichare

grown

on

the

dry,

light

soils

of

Yorkshire.

This

innate

dryness isone reasonwhy the Irishpotatocontainssomuchmore

nourishmentthananEnglishone.ThepotatowasfirstgrownbySir

WalterRaleigh in his garden atYoughal, in Ireland, and it is not

muchmore than a century since its cultivationbecame general in

England. The first potatoes grown in England came from a ship

wreckedonFormbyPoint,nearLiverpool.Thetuberswereplanted

by chance on the soil close by, which closely resembled that of

Ireland,and

no

part

of

their

new

home

has

ever

suited

them

better.

Thepotato,though,aswehaveseen,ofacertainappreciablevalue

as a fleshformer, is not tobedependedupon entirely as a force

producer, for theproportion ofwater in 100parts is 752.Next to

water, itspeculiarlynourishing starch ismost largely represented,

andstandsat155.Fromthisstarchalsoapastacanbemadewhich

givesa fairmacaroni,butofcourse theadvantagesof thewheaten

pastewouldbeabsent.

Inordinarykitchenswhereasteamerisused,theprocessofboilinga

potatoiseasyenough,andthatdrymealinessdeartotheheartofa


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good cook can be reckoned upon. But if only a saucepan be

attainable, then, having well washed nay, even scrubbed and

brushed yourpotatoes,putthemintoitwithcoldwater;addalittle

saltwhen

the

water

boils;

at

first

it

should

only

be

allowed

to

boil

slowly, but it may boil as fast as you like during the last five

minutes. Some varieties of thepotato canbe cookedmuch sooner

than others ; there isoften thedifferencebetween them of twenty

minutesandthreequartersofanhour.Fromtimetotimetheymust

be tried with a fork, which should go in freely when they are

sufficientlyboiled.Thepotatoesbeingnowcookedenough,pouroff

asmuchwateras canpossiblybegot ridof.Sprinklea littlemore

salt,take

off

the

lid

of

the

saucepan

and

set

it

on

again

in

such

a

manner thatthesteamcanescape,butkeep thesaucepanfora few

minuteson theoven todry thepotatoes thoroughly.Thesaucepan

shouldbe lightlyshaken from time to time toprevent thepotatoes

sticking to thebottom.Thenserveeither inawoodenbowl,witha

cleanclothoranapkin,orelseinadishwithperforatedholesinthe

cover so that thevapourcanescape. Ifpotatoes form theprincipal

dietofafamily,eggsshouldbeaddedwherepracticable,andmilk,

ordripping,

or

any

sort

of

fat,

as

the

potato

itself

is

very

deficient

in

albumenandfat.

Next to thepotato, thecabbage is themostwidelycultivatedofall

vegetables, yet it is far inferior to the others in the nutriment

containedinagivenweight.Inpointofvaluetheparsnipranksnext

tothepotatoasafleshformer,andpossessessixpercent,ofcarbon.

Parsnipsarefollowedcloselybycarrotsandonions,thoughthelatter

areprincipally

used

as

arelish.

But

all

vegetables

are

chiefly

valuable for theirantiscorbuticproperties,andasa flavouring for

insipid food. Lentils are particularly nutritious, and the food sold

underthenameofRevalentaArabicaisonlythemealofthelentil

afterbeing,freedfrom its indigestibleouterskin. Inpeaswe finda

greatdealofcaseine;hence, inananalyticaltabletheyranknextto

wheat as a flesh and forceproducer,whereaswe should find the

other vegetables relegated under the head of Nonnitrogenous

substances,that

is

to

say,

substances

which,

taken

by

themselves

withoutmilk,butter,or fatofanykind,areabsolutely incapableof

producingeither fleshor force. In Ireland it is themilk takenwith


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thepotatowhichmakesitsonourishing.Ifpotatoeswereeatenquite

alone, the consumerwould need to eat an enormous quantity to

keephimselfinanysortofcondition,andhewouldneverbeableto

doany

amount

of

real

hard

work

in

the

open

air.

It isquitecertain thatsufficientvalue isnotattached inEngland to

the importance of the cultivation of vegetables. If a few leeks or

sweetherbs,arowofpotatoes,oradozencabbages,wereplantedin

manyatinyspotbesideacottagedoor,whichspotatpresentisbuta

puddleoradowntroddenmassOrcakedmud,thehungrymouths

insidewould stand abetter chance ofbeing filled.When a poor

womanhas

to

go

with

her

pence

in

her

hand

and

buy

every

onion

or

potatoorsprigofthymewhichshewantstoimprovetheflavourof

thefamilymeal,thechancesareshewilllookuponthem andvery

justly,too asluxuriousadditionstothebilloffare,anddowithout

themasmuchaspossible.AlloverFrance thepoorestpeasanthas

her flavourings close to her hand; and it is difficult to over

estimate theboonwhicha few commonvegetables andherbs are,

whenused to assist in converting a scrap ofbacon, abone, and a

littlepea

meal

into

awarm,

comforting,

nourishing

mid

day

meal.

Mr.Ruskinattachesgreatimportancetothecultivationoftheland

themakingthebestofeveryinchofourownnativesoil;butIfearhe

wants to try experiments, and grow all sorts of curious things in

everyconceivablepartoftheBritishIsles,whereasIonlyconfinemy

ambitiontothose littleshabbynooksandoddsandendsofground

whichlurkaroundstraycottages,whoseoccupantsevidentlyprefer

sittingin

the

tap

room

of

the

Chequers

to

digging

for

an

hour

in

a

scrapofgardenmorningand evening.Perhaps, if, in time,weare

abletoshowtheworkingmanhowenormouslyhisculinarycomfort

canbe increasedby a little vegetable flavouring, hemay take to

plantingandcultivatingevenasquareroodofground,ifthatbeall

hecancallhisown.Isaynothingofthegaintohealth,forthatisso

easily ascertainedby his own or his neighbours experience. The

seedsofcommonvegetablesareveryeasilyprocured infact,they

canalmost

be

had

for

the

asking;

and,

at

all

events,

one

days

beer

moneywouldgoalongwaytowardskeepingafamilyinonionsfor

ayeariflaidoutinseed.Alittlesouporstewthusflavouredwithout


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extraexpense,wouldsurelybeavastgainonthehunchofdrybread

andmugofweak, cold coffee,which Ihaveoften seen a labourer

eating for his dinner. Then there only remains the trouble tobe

considered;and

alazy

man

will

have

to

make

twice

as

much

exertioninthelongruntokeepbodyandsoultogether.

Irepeat: it isnotactualmoneywhich isabsolutelywanting insuch

cases. It is that the few pence are generally laid out in themost

improvident way in a way which becomes gross extravagance

whenitiscontrastedwithwhatthesamepittancewouldproduceif

properlymanaged. Ihavenohopeof this littlebook,oranyother

book,great

or

small,

working

amiraculous

and

thorough

reform,

andconvertingeverycottageinthecountryintoasmilingabodeof

peaceandplenty.What Idoaimatand look forward to is, first, to

arouseattention to the subject in thosewhose social rank isabove

thatof thehandtomouthworkingman ;andnext, to induce rich

people to take as much trouble and spend as much money in

providing their servants and workmen with the opportunity of

learninghow to cook their food,as theynowdo in teaching them

andtheir

children

to

read

and

write.

Mr.Ruskin,inhisForsClavigera,insistsverystronglythat inhis

modelfarm,hislandboughtoutoftheproceedsoftheSt.Georges

Fund, every girl shall be taught at a proper age to cook all

ordinary food exquisitely. But Iwould go a stepbeyond, and I

wouldhaveeveryboy taughtalso. Idontknowabout thecooking

exquisitely!Ishouldbesatisfied,atfirst,ifeveryboyandgirlcould

betaught

to

cook

even

alittle.

For

aknowledge

of

cooking,

at

all

events in its simplest form, appears to me to be every whit as

necessaryforaman,ifheistomoveabouttheworldatall,asitisfor

agirl. If themandoesnotmoveabout,and is fortunateenough to

marryagirltrainedandtaughtcookingeitheratMr.Ruskinsmodel

farmorattheNationalSchoolofCookery,thenhemayforget,orlay

aside,hisculinaryloreasquicklyashepleases!Butifheemigrates,

or enlistsasa soldier,ordoesanyof thehundredandone things

whichmen

are

obliged

to

do

in

these

busy

days,

the

chances

are

that

hewillfindeversoslightaknowledgeofcookingaverygreatboon

andblessingtohim.


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32

Onethingisverypuzzlingtome,thoughIknownotwhyitshould

bebrought inaproposofvegetables.Itisthestaunchconservatism,

where food or cooking is concerned, of the working classes of

England.In

politics

they

are

very

often

to

aman,

nay,

even

to

a

woman,advancedLiberals,tosaytheleastofit.Theyaremuchmore

ready toadvocateandadoptsweepingchanges in thingsofwhich,

after all, they cannot know a great deal;but they distrust anyone

who suggests that they could improve thematterswhich lie close

around them,andwithwhich theyareat least familiar.Myould

grandmother did it that way, and she lived till ninety, is an

unanswerableargumentagainstmakingthescrapofmeatintoapot

aufeu,

and

adding

vegetables

and

meat

to

it,

instead

of

frizzling

and

burningthesamescantyportionofmeatinagreasyfryingpanover

a smoky fire. I feel persuaded, therefore, that the great reform in

cookingandeconomicmanagementofourfoodmaterialmustbegin

in theclassesabove theworkingman.Whenheseesand learnsby

experiencethatanounceofmeat,properlydressed,willgofurtherin

actual nourishment and strengthimparting qualities than two

ounces heated in his old barbarousmethod, hemay perhaps be

inducedto

consent

to

his

missis

or

the

gals

being

learned

how

tocook.Myownprivatehope andIwouldalmostsayexpectation

is,thatan increase in theartisansortheworkingmanscomfortat

home, such comfort asbetter cooked food andmore of itmust

surelybring, will lead tohiswages finding theirwayoftener into

thebutchers shop than the publichouse.Awellfedman is very

seldom a drunkard ; and it may be that in the spread and

development of an attempt at culinary reform, twobirdsmay, all

unconsciously,be

killed

with

one

stone.

In

improving

cottage

comfortswemayperhapsstrikeagreatblow(withourfryingpans

andsoupkettles !)at theshiningglassesandquartpotsof thegin

palace.Godgrantthatitbeso!


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LessonVII.ModesOfPreparingBrothOrSoupFromBeef

Thereason

Ihave

placed

this

subject

in

aseparate

lesson

is

because

ofitsenormousimportanceinthesickroom.Moredelicatechildren

are reared into health and strength, andmore lives are saved,by

goodbeeftea thanmost ofus have any idea of. This is themore

extraordinarywhenwe remember thateven thestrongestandbest

beeftea contains an almost infinitesimal amount of actual

nourishment. So that it is not to its capacity for supplying to the

wastedandfeeblehumanframeeitherstrengthornourishmentthat

wemust

attribute

its

wonderful

efficacy.

If

the

strongest

beef

tea

be

analysed, themeatwouldbe found to have lost in the process of

turning into liquid nearly all its albumen, fibrine, and caseine. In

other words, it would have parted with its most important

constituents;andwemightsupposeitthereforetobevaluelesstothe

humansystem.ButExperiencesteps inwhereChemistrystopsand

shakes her head, and Experience declares thatwellmadebeeftea

possesses a reparative power on a weakened digestion which

nothingelse

in

the

world

except

milk

can

come

near.

It

may

not

actuallycontainalltheelementsofnourishmentwithinitself,asmilk

does,but it is awonderful assimilator. It soothes and repairs and

collectstheenfeebledorgansandjuices,andenablesthemtoreturn

to their proper functions. Therefore we say that beeftea is

nourishing,whenitisnotintheleastnourishinginitself,butithas

thepowerofmakingreadyforothersubstancestonourish.

Althoughevery

sort

of

meat

can

be

made

into

soup

or

broth,

bee

makes thebest andwholesomest. For one reason of thiswemust

search in the fibrine,which holdsmore redjuice than that of any

other meat, and it is this red juice which we particularly want.

Everybodyknowsthattheleanestmeatisthebestforsoupmaking;

theleastparticleoffatisoutofplaceinbrothorsoups,andindeed

rendersitabsolutelyunwholesomeaswellasnauseous.

Inmany

emergencies

beef

tea

has

to

be

prepared

at

almost

a

momentsnotice,andthen Iwouldrecommendthatthemeatbeas

thoroughlyfreedfromfataspossible,choppedfinely,andsoakedin


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its ownweight of coldwater for tenminutes or so. Then heat it

slowlytoboilingpoint,letitboilfortwoorthreeminutes,andyou

willhaveastronganddeliciousbeeftea,betterthancanbeobtained

byboiling

in

the

ordinary

way

for

many

hours.

Another

method

is

to

placethefinelychoppedmeatinalarge,cleanjampot,withalittle

waterandapinchofsalt.Themouthofthevesselshouldbeclosed

bymeansofatightlytiedbladderorathickpastealloverit,asifit

were ameatpudding, and placed in a saucepan half full of cold

water.Thesaucepanshouldthenbecoveredwithitsownlidandset

uponorbythesideofthefiretosimmerslowly.Iftherebenotime

to let thebeeftea or essence in thejampot get cold, itmustbe

skimmedas

clearly

as

possible,

and

any

extra

globules

of

fat

floating

on the surface removedby a careful application ofwhiteblotting

paper.Somepeopledonotaddanywateratall to thecutupbeef,

undertheimpressionthattheessencemustbestrongerwithoutthe

addition.Butmyindividualexperienceteachesmethatwhereasthe

differenceinnutritivevalueisveryslight,sickpeopledonotlikethe

beefteathusprepared,andwillnottakeitsoreadilyaswhenithas

beenmadeafter the followingmanner. It isnecessary,however, to

statethat

the

process

Iam

now

going

to

describe

cannot

be

hurried,

and that it is therefore imperative to have one days noticewhen

beefteamadeinthiswayisrequired.

Taketwoorthreepoundsoftheleanestbeeftobeprocured,addone

quartofwater,andtwoshankbonesofmutton,whichbonesshould

bewellwashedbeforeusing.Apinchofsalt,andanotherpinchof

gratedlemonpeel,oratinybitofthepeelitself,areallIshouldadd,

forasick

persons

throat

is

generally

too

tender

for

pepper,

and

his

palate toodelicate foranything like flavouringor sauces.The lean

meatand shankbonesare tobeput intoa saucepan,whosewhite

enamelledliningshouldbedaintilyandscrupulouslyclean,andthe

saucepan,with its lid fittingveryclose indeed,setby thesideofa

moderatelygoodfiretosimmerslowlythewholedaylong.Itmust

neverapproachboiling,andyet theactionof fireupon itscontents

should be decided, though gentle. At the last moment before

shuttingup

for

the

night,

strain

the

soup

through

afine

hair

sieve

intoa cleanbasin,and in themorningyou should find,beneath a

preservingscumoffat,aboutapintofclear,solid,beefjelly,which


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can eitherbe eaten cold, orwarmed,without the addition of one

dropofwater, intoadeliciousdeantastingcupofbeeftea. Incold

weatherdoublethequantitymaybemade,butinthatcaseitshould

bepoured

into

two

basins,

and

the

fat

left

to

hermetically

seal

the

secondbasinuntilitbewantedinitsturnforuse.Inhotweatherthe

beeftea should be prepared fresh every day for the next days

consumption.Ihaveseenbeeftearenderedperfectlycolourlessand

whitebyrepeatedstrainingsthroughfinemuslinsieves,butIdonot

knowthatthisisanyparticularadvantage.

Insomecases,suchastheterriblestateoftheintestinesaftertyphoid

fever,beef

tea

is

no

use

as

areparative

agent

when

prepared

after

theabove fashion.Themeatshould thennotbecookedatall,only

cutupasleanandfreshandfullofredjuiceaspossible,andsoaked

for tenor twelvehours inasmallquantityofcoldwater.Thiswill

givea liquidwhichhasneverbeen submitted to theactionof fire,

andwhichlooksandtasteslikethegravyofunderdonemeat,butit

is of the highest reparative value to the lacerated stomach. A

judiciousnursewilltakecarethatherpatientneverseesthissortof

beeftea

until

he

has

learned

to

drink

it

freely,

which

he

will

do

if

not

atfirstdisgustedbythesightoftheclearredfluid.Ihavedweltthus

minutely on the value and process ofmakingbeefteabecause I

believeittobethestrongestresourceoftheculinaryartinsickness;

but the proper preparation of soup is of great importance in all

households. It is at once an economical,wholesome and savoury

formofnourishingfood;yet,tomanyaplaincook,soup,unlessshe

has costlymaterialsbought expressly for itsmanufacture,merely

meansgreasy

hot

water

flavoured

by

asoupcon

of

plate

washing

!

Nosoupshouldbeusedthesamedayitismade,onaccountofthe

impossibilityofremovingallthescumandfat.But,supposingthata

scragendofmutton,orthetrimmingsofcutlets,orboneswithafair

amountofmeat lefton,shouldhavebeensimmeringgentlyall the

precedingday,andallowedtogetcoldatnight,sothatthelayerof

fat (whichcanbeused forotherpurposes) iseasily removed, then

weshouldproceed thisway,always imagining it iswanted for the

useof

apoor

and

economical

family.

To

the

clear,

fat

free

soup,

add

halfateacupfulofwellwashedpearlbarleyorrice andwemust

rememberthattheinferiorandcheaperkindofricedoesjustaswell


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asthebestforthispurpose afewcleanedandcutupvegetables,a

littleonion,pepperandsalt,asprigortwoofherbstiedtogether,a

littlepeameal,anycoldpotatoes left fromyesterdaysdinner,and

thewhole

allowed

to

simmer

together,

without

removing

the

remainsof themeatandbones,until itbewanted,greatcarebeing

taken that it should notboil away. The result of this simmering

ought tobeanice,warm, comforting, cleantastingbasinofbroth,

verydifferenttotheweak,greasyliquidwhichresultsfromahastier

preparation.It isaverycommonmista

Documents

Lady Mary Ann Baker - First Lessons in the Principles of Cooking