1.0 INTRODUCTION

The objectives of this experiment are to define parasite, saprobe, mutualist, gametagium, hypa, mycelium, multinucleate, sporangium, rhizoid, zygosporangium, ascus, conidium, ascocarp, basidium, basidiophore, basidiocarp, lichen and myocorrhiza. Other than that is to recognize representative of the major phyla of fungi, distinguish structure that are use to place various representatives of the fungi in their proper phyla, list reason why fungi are important. Besides, objectives of this experiment are distinguish between structure associated with asexual and sexual reproduction described, identify the structure of fungi examined and determined the structure of light on certain species of fungi.

2.0 MATERIALS

2.1 Compound Microscope2.2 Prepared slide of :i) Phylum Zygomycota- Rhizopus nigrians -conjugation

ii) Phylum Ascomycota (Sac fungi)- Aspergillus -condiophoresiii) Phylum Basidiomycota (Club fungi)- Coprinusiv) Imperfect fungi- Penicilium conidiav) Mutualistic fungi- Lichen Thallus-Mycorrhizal root

3.0 PROCEDURE

3.1 The prepared slides were examined using the lower-power objectives first and then the specific structure was studied by switching into medium and high dry-objective.3.2 The macroscopic appearances of the organisms observed under the light microscope was drawn and labelled.

4.0 RESULTS

Figure 10.1: CoprinusMagnification: 40Figure 10.2: CoprinusMagbification: 40

Figure 10.3: Lichen (ascocarp)Magnification: 40Figure 10.4: LichenMagbification: 100

Figure 10.5: Penicillium conidiaMagnification: 40Figure 10.6: AspergillusMagnification: 100

Figure 10.7: PenicilliumMagnification: 100Figure 10.8: RhizopusMagnification: 100

Figure 10.9: Rhizopus nigricans conjugationMagnification: 100Figure 10.11: Endotrophic mycorrhiza orchid rootMagnification: 100

Figure 10.10: Aspergillus conidiophoresMagnification: 40

5.0 DISCUSSIONPhylumDescriptions

Zygomycota Lack septa in their hyphae except when they form sporangia or gametangia. The group is named after a characteristic feature of the life cycle of its members, the production of temporarily dormant structures called zygosporangia. Sexual reproduction occurs by the fusion of gametangia, which contain numerous nuclei. The gametangia are cut off from the hyphae by complete septa. These gametangia may be formed on hyphae of different mating types or on a single hypha. Asexual reproduction occurs much more frequently than sexual reproduction in the zygomycetes. During asexual reproduction, hyphae grow over the surface of the bread or other material on which the fungus feeds and produce clumps of erect stalks, called sporangiophores.

Ascomycota Among the ascomycetes are such familiar and economically important fungi as yeasts, common molds, morels, and truffles. Also included in this phylum are many serious plant pathogens, including the chestnut blight, Cryphonectria parasitica, and Dutch elm disease, Ophiostoma ulmi. Named for their characteristic reproductive structure, the microscopic, saclike ascus. The zygotic nucleus, which is the only diploid nucleus of the ascomycete life cycle, is formed within the ascus. The asci are differentiated within a structure made up of densely interwoven hyphae, corresponding to the visible portions of a morel or cup fungus, called the ascocarp. Asexual reproduction is very common in the ascomycetes. It takes place by means of conidia, spores cut off by septa at the ends of modified hyphae called conidiophores. Conidia allow for the rapid colonization of a new food source. Many conidia are multinucleate. The hyphae of ascomycetes are divided by septa, but the septa are perforated and the cytoplasm flows along the length of each hypha. The septa that cut off the asci and conidia are initially perforated, but later become blocked. The cells of ascomycete hyphae may contain from several to many nuclei. The hyphae may be either homokaryotic or heterokaryotic.

Basidiomycota These are among the most familiar fungi. Among the basidiomycetes are not only the mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, jelly fungi, and shelf fungi, but also many important plant pathogens including rusts and smuts. Named for their characteristic sexual reproductive structure, the basidium (plural, basidia). A basidium is club-shaped. Karyogamy occurs within the basidium, giving rise to the zygote, the only diploid cell of the life cycle. The basidiospores are borne at the end of the basidia on slender projections called sterigmata. The life cycle of a basidiomycete continues with the production of homokaryotic hyphae after spore germination. These hyphae lack septa at first.

Imperfect Fungi Either asexual or the sexual reproductive structures have not been identified Most are thought to be ascomycetes that have lost the ability to reproduce sexually.

6.0 PRE-LAB QUESTIONS

6.1 Which characteristics best define fungi?Availability of oxygen and misture induce the growth of fungi on organic matter without the requirement of light. The main characterstic of fungi is that they are heterotrophic. The main plant body is gametophytic haploid and dominant and may be unicellular or filamentous.

6.2 On what basis are fungi classified?Fungi classified based on their structure and sexual reproduction.

6.3 Explain the term of zygospore fungi?Azygosporeis adiploidreproductive stage in the life cycle of manyfungiandprotists. Zygospores are created by the nuclear fusion ofhaploidcells. In fungi, zygospores are termedchlamydosporesand are formed after the fusion ofhyphaeof different mating types.

6.4 Explain the term sac fungi? How do sac fungi reproduce asexually?Sac fungi are any of the various ascomycetous fungi in which the spores are formed in a sac or ascus. Sac fungi reproduce asexually by perform binary fission which is essentially splitting themselves in half.

6.5 Draw and explain a diagram of the life cycle of a typical mushroom?

Dikaryon formation begins with the fusion of hyphal cells between compatible monokayons . The monokaryon stage of the Basidiomycotina is short-lived and fusion with a compatible monokaryon occurs soon after basidiospore germination. The dikaryon is the mycelium that produces the basidiocarp. The terminal cells develop into basida and is where karyogamy will take place to form the zygotes. The zygote is the only diploid stage in the life cycle. The zygote immediately undergoes meiosis to form four haploid nuclei, and the future basidiospores are formed as blown out structures, on the tips of sterigmata, of the basidium. The nuclei migrates into the blown out areas which may then be properly referred to as basidiospores.

6.6 Give an examples of imperfect fungi that serve humans and examples of those that cause disease.Trichophyton interdigidale is a species of imperfect fungi responsible for the disease known as Athletes Foot. Penicillium is an example of imperfect fungi that serves humans, which makes the famous anti-biotic Penicillin, which is used to interfere with the formation of a bacterias cell wall during its growth, thus weakening the wall and effectively killing the bacteria.

6.7 Describe the structure of lichen and name three different types of lichen.Plant body in lichens is a thallus. It is grey or greyish green irregularly shaped structure. Some species are yellow, orange, brown or red in colour. Lichen thalli are classified under three types which are curtose lichen, foliose lichen and fructicose lichens.6.8 A mycorrhiza is mutualistic association between plant roots and certain species of fungi. State the two different types of mycorrhizal roots.First type of mycorrhizal roots is ericoid mycorrhizas have a simple intraradical phase, consisting of dense coils of hyphae in the outermost layer of root cells.Second type of mcorrhizal roots ectomycorrhizas present as a thin-to-thick mass of hyphae that covers the outside of the fine root tips and provides a characteristic appearance.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS

8.0 REFERENCES8.1 http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/tlw3/eBridge/Chp15/15_3.pdf8.2 http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/tlw3/eBridge/Chp15/15_5.pdf8.3 http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/tlw3/eBridge/Chp15/15_4.pdf8.4 http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/tlw3/eBridge/Chp15/15_2.pdf

9.0 APPENDICES

Figure 9.1: CoprinusMagnification: 40Figure 9.2: CoprinusMagbification: 40

Figure 9.3: Lichen (ascocarp)Magnification: 40Figure 9.4: LichenMagnification: 100

Figure 9.5: Penicillium conidiaMagnification: 40Figure 9.6: AspergillusMagnification: 100

Figure 9.7: PenicilliumMagnification: 100Figure 9.8: RhizopusMagnification: 100

Figure 9.9: Rhizopus nigricans conjugationMagnification: 100Figure 9.11: Endotrophic mycorrhiza orchid rootMagnification: 100

Figure 9.10: Aspergillus conidiophoresMagnification: 40