i + s ” 1

l Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Changes

eologists refer to the last two million years as the Quaternary. The Quaternary is divided into the Pleistocene (2 million -70,000 years

ago) and Holocene (70,000 years ago to the present). During this era several worldwide climatic changes called glacials and inter-glacials occurred. During the glacial periods sea levels dropped, sometimes to 700 metres below today’s levels.

Sea Level Changes A system called oxygen isotope analysis of deep sea sediments has enabled scientists to map variations in sea levels which had major repercussions on the physical geography of the archipelago. Large areas

of the shallow South China Sea and Java Sea, (Sunda Shelf), became periodically dry land. In fact large river valleys can still be observed on slrbmarine maps of the Sunda shelf. These land bridges did not extend east of Wallace’s line - the natural zoogeo-

Death and Rebirth. Aiiak Krakatau, a new vo fcano, rises from the sea where in 1883 AIt,

Rakata, popidarb know¿ as Krakatoa, explodedin a mig&

bfast. Ifölcaiiic actìvity i71 Itzdonesiu has

imreasea’ during the last t z o tnìllioji years, . and may have had a

sigti;f;ant ej4ect on tke morfa% climate.

G E O L O G Y A N D H U M A N EVOLUTION

The last two million . years are known to

geologists as the Quaternary era. Most

ofhuman prehistory falls into the geological

period known as the Pleistocene, except for

rhe last 10,000 years which are called the

Holocene or Recent.

graphical barrier which separates, because of the depth of the sea, the western part of Indonesia under Asian influence from the eastern part under Australian influence. Climate (precipitation and seasonal patterns) underwent drastic changes throughout the Quaternary, as did the natural environment (palaeogeography and vegetation).

Land Bridges and Migrations When, the seas retreated they created land bridges between mainland Southeast Asia and the western part of Indonesia. These bridges allowed animals to reach as far south in the archipelago as the island of Java. By successive steps during the Quaternary era, the mammal fauna of Java was successively enriched by new species. .The oldest fossil fauna, circa 1.8 million years old, yields only proboscidians (related to modern elephants), hippopotamus, and ~

cervids (members of the deer family), Then other herbivorous mammals and several carnivores arrived. Homo erectus (man) probably reached Java more than ?ne million years ago.

The fauna had to adapt to these peculiar geo- graphic and ecological conditions. During interglacial periods, the sea level rose and the islands of the archipelago became isolated both from the mainland as well as from each other. The fauna also developed specific characteristics, exemplifying an evolutionary phenomenon called endemism. In the mcqt extreme cases,,pigmy forms could appear. Such forms are found most commonly in eastern Indonesia, especially among animals like the proboscidians (pigmy Stegodon or elephant) of Flores and Timor.

Reconstructing Prehistoric Vegetation Patterns A useful method for reconstructing the vegetation of the past is the study of pollen grains that have become fossilised in ancient sediments. The microscopic pollen grains of each species of plant have a specific morphology which allows us to identify the plants from a particular time and region. Such studies give a good picture of the older vegetation pattern and its changes during the Quaternary. These studies also provide us with a clear picture of the climate pattern.

Humid conditions prevailed during the inter- glacials. Tropical rain forest covered the area, with

HOLOCENE

I

n r L’ ./

Schima and Altingia (shrubs), fodocarpus (firs) and Quercus (oaks).

During the glacial periods, Indonesia’s mean air temperature is believed to have dropped a few degrees Celsius, while sea temperatures, as inferred from recent studies, would have been only two degrees lower than today. This cooling, however, was enough to cause a downward shift of vegetation zones on mountains: trees like Podocarpus imbricatus, which presently grow only higher than 2,000 metres above sea level could be found at lower altitudes. But the main change during these glacials related to the precipitation pattern: the dry season was longer and more severe, and the tropical rain forest shrank, replaced in many areas by a more open monsoon-like forest with an abundance of Leguminosae, and Mimosaceae. Grass-lands developed during those drier periods and several studies even give evidence of the existence of Gramineae (grass)-dominated savanna-like environments in Kalimantan and Java. The vegetation had a mosaic-like character at such times, as rain forest galleries persisted along the rivers and also on the upper parts of the mountain slopes where the climate was constantly wet.

Palaeoenvironmental evolution was not only affected by climatic changes. Geological phenomena like volcanic eruptions also deeply changed the landscape. These eruptions periodically disturbed the vegetation and led to the colonisation of the moun- tain slopes by pioneer plants. At the same time, tectonic uplift - which has given Java its present shape - also caused great changes in the landscape. As the sea receded, large mangrove and swamp forests were created on the lowlands of Java, only to vanish as they were filled in by the products of volcanic eruptions and erosion.

The First Humans and their Environment Pithecanthropus (the scientific name given to Javanese fossil hominids) were the first humans to cross the equatorial area. As the sea levels rose and fell he became - periodically - an islander. Human evolution on Java lasted approximately one million years. These early humans had to adapt to a frequently changing environment, which is likely to have deeply influenced their subsistence and culture. How did they use the natural resources offered by the rain forest? Did they develop a unique culture in such an unusual environment? Current studies are attempting to correlate palaeoenvironmental reconstructions with other aspects of prehistoric life, including the use of stone tools; vegetal resources like bamboo; and the significance in terms of diet of wear features on the fossil teeth such as striations and enamel chips.

P R E H I S T O R Y

The Upper Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Changes The Pleistocene-Holocene transition corresponds to the most recent major climatic change from glacial to the interglacial conditions which persist today. Pollen analysis has been widely used for research into this era and gives excellent results for such a period of changing climate; the study of pollen preserved in lake and swamp deposits, together with good chronological control of carbon 14 dating, enables scientists to put together a detailed picture of paleo- environmental evolution. The precise quantification

Stilt Roots of Mangrove m~cronata, Sungaì Sembdang, South Sumatra.

of vegetation zone shifts between higher and lower elevations indicates the magnitude of the decrease and increase in tem- peratures in Indonesia during the glacial event. The influence of man upon his environment during the later periods of prehistory is also reflected in the pollen diagrams:

I

Ml INDONESIAN HERITAGE I - I

Ancient Historv J

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Prof. Dr. Haryati Soebadio (Chair), H.E. Minister Joop Avé, Prof. Dr. Edi Sedyawati, Soedarmadji Damais, Paul Sochaczewski, Dr. John Miksic

’ .

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I . Iflirstrators

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lwl INDONESIAN HERITAGE

Ancient History

VOLUME EDITOR

Dr. John Miksic National Univenity of Singapore

AUTHORS Bambang Soemadio - (almarhum) University $Indonesia J.G. de Casparis - Leiden University (retired) Anne-Marie S h a h - Ecole Fmnpzise d’Extr2me Orient Françoise S h a h - Ecole Franpise d’Extrénie Orient

Dominique Grimaud-Hervé - Ecole Francaise

Harry Widianto - Centrefor Archaeology, Yogy‘rkarta H.T. Simanjuntak - National Research Centre

Peter Bellwood - Department of Prehistory

I Wayan Ardika - Drpnrtnient ofArchaeology,

Pierre-Yves Manguin - Ecole Francaise d’Extrime Orient Edi Sedyawati -Depnrtmmt of Education

R. Soekmono - Depnrtment $History2

Jacques Dumarçay - Ecole Frnn,caise d’Extrénie Orient Ph. Subroto - Department afArchaealogy,

d’Extrénie Orient

j õ r Archneology, Jakarta

nndAntbropology, Australian National University

U d ; f ~ ~ a University

and Czilture, Indoitesi~z

University of Indonesia

Garljnh Mtida University

A R C H I P E L A G O P R E S S

Mundardjito - Department ofArcbaeology,

Timbul Haryono - Departnient ofArchaeohgy,

Wahyono M. - NationalMuseum, Jakarta Jan Christie - Centre f o r SoutheastAsian Studies,

Endang Sri Hardiati - National Research Centre

Hasan M. Ambary - National Research Centre

Denys Lombard - Ecole Française d’Extlr;me Orient Henri Chambert-Loir - Ecole Francaise dExtretne Orient Bernard Arps - Department of Language and Culture,

Manu Jayaatmaja - Faculty ofLetten,

S. O. Robson - Department ofAsian Langunges and

University of Indonesia

GacljRb Mada University

University of Hull

for Archaeology, Jakarta

for Archaeology, Jakarta

Rijks Universiteit, Leiden

Gadjab Mada University

Studies, Monnrh University

* ' LAND, PEOPLE AND HISTORY

Indonesian Geography and Cultural Diversity.. . .8 Haryati Soebadio

Periods of Indonesian Prehistory .................... 1 O Barnbang Soeniadio

Archaeological Techniques ........................... . I 2 John Miksic

Development of Indonesian Scripts. ............... 1 4 J.C. de Gasparis

Indonesian Calendrical Systems ..................... 16 J.C. de Gasparis

PREHISTORY

Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental

Anne-Narie Semah ........................................................ 20

Javanese' Pleistocene Hominids.. .................. .22 Francois Semah, Dominiqzie Grimand-Herve &'Harry Lfidianto

Indonesia's Oldest Tools.. ............................. .24 Francois Semah d H.T Simanjzintak

The Hunting and Gathering Stage in Eastern Indonesia ..................................................... .26 John Niksic

Austronesian Languages and Early

Peter BellwoDd Population Movement.. ................................. .28

Early Cultivation and Domestication .............. .30 Peter Bellwood

Ceremonial Bronzes of the Pre-Classic Era.. . .32 I Wayan Ardika

Social Complexity in Late Prehistoric Java .... ..34 I Wayan Ardika

Late Prehistoric Bali ..................................... .36 I Wayan Ardika.

Late Prehistoric Culture in Sumatra ........... -38 John MikJic

INDONESIA AT THE DAWN OF HISTORY

Phases of Early Indonesian History ................. 42 Bani battg S o ein adio

Early Trade Patterns .................................... .44 JÒhn Miksic &' I LVayan Ardika

Early Indonesian Inscriptions ........................ ..46 'J. C. de Casparis

The Early Archaeology of Sriwijaya.. ............. ..4 8 Pierre-Yves iiiangziin

Adoption of Buddhism and Hinduism .................. 50 E d Sedyawati

Candi: Symbol of the Universe ....................... 52 R. Soektnono

EARLY CLASSIC PERIOD

Early Classic History ........................................... .56 John Niksic

The Oldest Buildings in Indonesia ................. .58 Jacques Dzimarçay

Temples of the Dieng Plateau ......................... 60 Jacpzies Diiniarpy d John Miksic

Early Buddhist Temples of Java ...................... 62 Jacqzies Dutnarçay

Bali During the Early Classic Period ................ 64 I LIkyzn Arnika

Borobudur and the Rise of Buddhism ............. 66 Johlt Miksic

Borobudur: Form and Symbolism ................... 68 Jacqzies Dirntarçay

Buddhism and Architectural Change ............. .70 Jacques Duntargay

Prambanan and Architecture ............................... 72 Jacques DzimarGay

Ratu Bok0 ..................................................... 74 Ph. Sztbroto

Sriwijaya's Golden Age ................................ ..76 Pierre- Yves Nanguin

LIFE IN EARLY CLASSIC INDONESIA

_'. . i . The Javanisation of Hindu and Buddhist Art...80 E d i Sedyawati

. -

Early Classic Sculpture ................................ ..82 E d i Sedyawati

The Agricultural Basis of Classic Java ................. 84 Ph. Sribroto

Patterns of Temple Distribution in Early Classical Java ............................................................. 86 Mrciidardjito

Material Aspects of Everyday Life.. ................ 88 Ti?nbul Haryowo

Javanese Gold: the Wonoboyo Hoard .......... .90 bVUhJlO?lO fi!.

The Early Indonesian Economy ........................... 92 Jan Christie

MIDDLE CLASSIC PERIOD

Bali in the Late Classic Period ..................... .I 16 I LVàyan Ardika

EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD: 1300-1600

Early Mosques and Tombs ........................... 1 20 Hasan &l. Arnbary

Palaces and Gardens ................................. ..I 22 Jacques Dzimarçay

Earlylslamic Cities 'and Commercial Life ....... 124

Forms of Early Islamic Belief and Practice ..... 126

Denys Lombard

Henri Chambert-Loir .

HERITAGE OF INDONESIAN LITERATURE

Singing Literature ......................................... 130 Bernard A r p

Interpretations of the lndian Epics in Indonesian Literature .................................. ..I32 hlanu Jayaatmaja

The Twilight of Sri wijaya. .............................. .96 Picrre- Yves ~angzi ' in

Sumatran Kingdoms After Sriwijaya ............... 98 John Miksic

Bali in the Middle Classic period .................. 1 O0 Endang Sri Hardiati

The Kingdoms of Kadiri and Singasari .......... 102 E d i Sedyawati

LATE CLASSIC PERIOD: 14TH TO 16TH CENTURIES

Kakawin Literary Forms ............................... .i 34 S O Robson

Panji Tales ................................................... 136 S O Robson

Early Islamic Literature of Indonesia .............. 138 Hen ri Cham bert-L o ir

Glossary ...................................................... 140

Bibliography ................................................ 142

Index ........................................................... 1 44

The Kingdom of Majapahit ........................... 106 Johk Miksic .

Trowulan in Literature and Archaeology ......... 108 John Miksic

Mountain Sites of Lawu and Penanggungan ............................................ I I 0 John rlliksic

Monuments of the Upper Brantas Valley ....... 1 I 2 Jacques Dumarçay

Sculpture and Reliefs of Majapahit ......... :..... 1 14 E d i Sedyawati

Photo Credits .............................................. 148

31 '8 ................................................................................... / f i l r i4 8 ;

:! , 0 Capital $ Temples i! * Towns Megaliths

:' A Mountains R Inscriptions

$1 @ Archaeological sites (Major) X Bronze d r u m s

4; Archaeological sites (Minor) 11 i $: ..-,_I.-. __ h'ofe: This leKeiia' applies to all the maps it1 tbis volume.

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