CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The chapter one established the context of the research as well
as the action plan to develop framework to provide the answers to
the research problem. This chapter reviews comprehensive
understanding about the significance of Pre-Printing Waste to the
Cost of Printing in Mithuru Printers (PVT) Ltd., by referring to
various literature and discussions of previous studies, which were
published by authoritative sources around the world.Waste is
defined as something lying unproductive, inhabited, or desolate.
Generally all waste appears in three forms, namely: solid waste,
wastewater (liquid waste), and air emission (Appiah, 2002). Waste
reduction which is vital to the growth and development of printing
businesses in Sri Lanka cannot be overemphasized. In order to run a
printing business as economically and efficiently as possible, one
should reduce all types of wastes including hazardous wastes, solid
wastes, and air and water emissions.Waste generation is inevitable
in printing industry. All the printing processes, namely, offset
lithographic printing, gravure printing, flexography/letterpress,
and screen printing use materials and chemicals that generate
waste. When the waste generated causes financial loss to a company
and poses a threat to the environment-air, water, and land, then it
becomes a problem to society at large. Printing IndustryThe
printing industry uses various printing technologies for printing
books, magazine, newspapers, business documents, catalogs, form,
etc. These technologies include lithography, rotogravure,
flexography, screen, letter-press, and digital technologies
including inkjet and electro-photography. The use of these
technologies depends on the required quality of the print, number
of impressions to be printed, availability of required resources,
cost of the equipment, consumables cost per unit, need to use
variable content, and other factor (Romano, 2004).Classification of
WasteIt is important to note that waste does differ from process to
process and the methods of reducing waste in one printing process
do not necessarily apply to other printing processes. There are
three major waste streams found in the printing industry. They
include:
(a) Solid Waste in general printing environment solid waste
could consist of the following: empty containers, used film
packages, outdated materials, damaged plates, developed films,
dated materials, test production, bad printing or spoilage, damaged
product, and scrap papers.
(b) Water Waste water waste from printing operations may contain
lubricating oils, waste ink, clean-up solvents, photographic
chemicals, acids, alkaline, and plate coatings, as well as metals
such as silver, iron, chromium, copper, and barium.
(c) Air Emissions printing operations produce volatile organic
compound emissions from the use of cleaning solvents and inks, as
well as alcohol and other wetting agents used in lithographic
printing. Larger plants can be the source of sulfur dioxide
emissions (Lewis, 1982). Finishing operations may include final
trimming, die cutting, folding, collating, binding, laminating,
embossing, and assembling operations. Binding methods include
stitching (stapling), gluing, and mechanical binding. The primary
waste are binding and laminating chemicals and scrap papers
(Banerjee, 2001).An awareness of environmental, health, and safety
issues plays an important role in the identification of printing
technologies. Lithographic printers may not be familiar with
available government-supported environmental information programs,
and may rely primarily on vendors, suppliers, customers and trade
association for such information (Rothenberg, Toribio, and Becker,
2002).Printing operations use materials that may adversely affect
air, water, and land resources: certain chemicals involved in
printing volatilize, which contributes to air emissions from the
facility and to smog formation; other chemicals may be discharged
to drains and impact freshwater or marine ecosystem; and solid
waste contribute to the existing local and regional disposal
problems.
There is a growing concern in the world about industrial waste
and pollution, health and safety hazards to industrial workers,
public health problems due to adverse environmental changes and the
misapplication of hazardous chemicals. Atmospheric pollution
associated with worlds industrialization activities result mainly
from combustion processes. These pollutants tend to be in the form
of particulate matter, smog, odor, and nuisance gases. These
emissions contain varying amounts of gases such as nitrogen,
hydrocarbons, and carbon. Apart from the health problems caused by
these gases, they also contribute to the problem of acid rain. In
recent years, hydrocarbons have been identified as substances
contributing to the global ozone depletion problem (Tilley,
1999).In the printing industry inks such as web offset heat set and
non-heat set inks contain hydrocarbons in their formulation. The
improper disposal of fixer, for instance, can be very harmful to
the environment. The disposal of fixer is a big problem for the
environment (Appiah, 2002).
2.2 Current Research Findings
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)The chemicals used in a printing
company are another area for the business to follow a sustainable
practice. These chemicals are most often found in inks, press
chemicals, commonly wash-up solutions and fountain solutions, and
plate making processes. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are
produced when these chemicals are used in the printing facility.
Volatile organic compounds are compounds that have a high vapor
pressure and low water solubility (Volatile Organic Compounds in
Printing). VOCs have been found to be a major contributing factor
to ozone, a common air pollutant that has been proven to be a
public health hazard and a highly reactive gas that affects the
normal function of the lung in many healthy humans (Volatile
Organic Compounds in Printing).Wash-up chemicals used for blanket
and roller Leaning common VOC emitters in a printing company.
According to the case study, Emission Reduction in Waterless
Printing Operations, the amount of cleanup solution used annually
decrease significantly when the company, Win Cup, Inc., switched
from an isopropyl alcohol (IPA) based Leaning solution to Danko
Industries' Wash-Up Evap A. Productivity was also declining because
Win Cup, Inc. was exceeding their environmental emissions permit
limits due to the use of high emitting VOC chemicals.
Based on the 1997 purchase records for the West Chicago,
Illinois plant, Win Cup was using approximately 8633 lbs per year
of isopropyl alcohol. This generated approximately 4.32 tons of VOC
emissions per year. Due to air emissions permit limitations Win Cup
was forced to limit their production and Leaning activities while
using IPA. By switching to Wash-up Evap A the company was able to
reduce VOC emissions from press leaning activities by 66 percent
(approximately 2.85 tons VOC) and improve worker safety. This
reduction also created an opportunity to increase production
without the concern of exceeding their air emission permit limits.
Win Cup estimates they have been able to produce 550 lbs more
material for every 1 gallon of IPA they eliminated (based on
emission factor) (Emission Reduction).
The Printing Industries Association of Australia published the
report, Reducing VOC solvent use in the Printing Industry,
explaining that most wash-up solutions and press solvents contain
about 40 percent to 50 percent Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA). Due to the
high alcohol content, the actual Leaning agent in the solution
evaporates before the Leaning function is accomplished.
IPA substitutes and reducers have proved to be just as
effective, but more economical in use since almost 100 percent of
the substance performs the work it is intended to do. Added to this
is the greatly reduced risk of fire due to the higher flashpoints
of non-VOC chemistry, leading to low insurance premiums (Reducing
VOC Solvent).
According to this report, the higher the alcohol content in
solutions and chemicals the faster the evaporation rate. Therefore,
leading to the organic compounds being distributed into the
environment at a more rapid pace making these solutions high VOC
emitting products (Reducing VOC Solvent).Producing imaged plates
for printing presses is another area that emits VOCs within a
printing company and threatens the sustainability of a business.
The previous most common way to create a printing plate was to use
a negative to serve as the stencil for the printing plate. The
negative, which is chemically developed, is washed in chemicals and
solvents before a single plate is even developed. The resulting
negative was then used to produce a plate, which requires further
chemical. The process of using a negative to create a plate is an
unnecessary waste of chemicals that release VOCs (Direct Imaging
Technology).
The three main components of offset ink for sheet fed printing
are pigment, a vehicle, and additives. Pigments give the inks their
colors and a vehicle is a moist substance, such as petroleum,
water, soy or other vegetable oils, that eases the spread of
pigments and provides more even color. Additives, such as waxes and
distillates, help reduce setoff and improve the inks performance on
press (Lenz).
Current regulations require that petroleum based inks release no
more than 30 percent VOCs. Petroleum inks are not only made from a
non-renewable resource, but they release as much as 30 percent VOCs
into the environment as they dry. Petroleum based inks are no
longer the only option for consumers. Vegetable based inks can be
an effective alternative in decrease the amount of dangerous VOCs
released (Lenz).
Vegetable based inks are made of a mixture of renewable
resources, such as soy, flax, canola or safflower. Using the
renewable resources reduces VOC emissions to two to 15 percent down
from 30 percent with petroleum inks. Even though petroleum based
inks produce a sharper dot, vegetable based inks have a much better
ink holdout, less dry back, and as long as slightly added dot gain
is allowed for in prepress, results will be just as vibrant, if not
better(Lenz).
Non-Value Added Activities (Lean Practices)
Lean management and sustainability have become two main trends
businesses are focusing their resources on. Lean management and
sustainability encompass the same focal point, reducing the amount
of wasted resources in a company: using resources in a more
productive way in order to sustain the resources that go into
printing production processes. Physical resources to productivity
and energy are encompassed under the domain of Lean. Lean refers to
the entire enterprise from the shop floor, to the boardroom while
including suppliers, partners, and customers. Businesses want to
join the environmental movement since consumers are educated and
becoming concerned with the impact they have on the environment.
This environmental movement was first popular in the 1970s and is
now gaining recognition once again (Kessler).
Lean focuses on adding value to the customers final product.
Knowing what the customer values is the starting point. Then, the
printing company must understand the companys process in order to
deliver this value. Finally, understanding the process will enable
waste to be removed by clearing out all non-value-added activities
within the value stream. The customer will then be able to receive
value print products on demand (Kessler).
It is vital today that printing companies apply Lean and
sustainable practices throughout the workflow process. Choices
between recycled paper and virgin pulp paper have a direct effect
on the sustainability of a print company. Whereas, streamlining
workflow and locating equipment closer to the necessary
workstations will enhance productivity creating functional
workspace. Lean techniques, such as reducing the amount of back
inventory within a print company will decrease wasted inventory
that will potentially be unused. There are sustainable chemical
choices to use in a printing company as well. Ink, press chemicals,
such as blanket wash and fountain solution, the plate making
process, and other chemicals used in a printing facility produce
volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are organic compound which
reacts in the presence of sunlight, with nitrogen oxides (NOx) to
form ozone. Although ozone is needed in the upper atmosphere, in
the lower atmosphere (near the earths surface) it acts as a lung
irritant, causing health problems in people, animals and plants
(QGCPO). Switching to low VOC emission chemicals and alternatives
to VOC products will significantly reduce VOCs emitted into the
atmosphere, making for a more sustainable printing company Simple
Lean implementations can make a substantial positive difference to
the workflow and efficiency of a printing company.
Volume of Orders
Labor Absenteeism
It hardly needs mention that one of the major problems before
the printing industry is absenteeism among the workmen. This means
that at the beginning of the shift, the managers are suddenly faced
with the problem of finding extra people to make up the production
crew; either they have to carry large numbers as absentee reserve
or will have to shut down machines, for want of crew. This
naturally upset the production schedules.
Employees presence at the work place during the schedule time is
highly essential forthe smooth running of the production process in
particular and the organization in general. Despite the
significance of presence, employees sometime fail to report to the
work place during the scheduled time, which is known as
Absenteeism.
Absenteeism is a habitual pattern of absencefrom a duty or
obligation. An absencerefers to time an employee is not on the job
during scheduled working hours, except for a granted leave of
absence, holiday, or vacation time. However, employee absenteeism
is not just an employee issue it is an organizational problem and
therefore becomes everyone's responsibility.
Absenteeism can have an enormous effect on the productivity of
an organization. The average American worker takes six days sick
leave a year, and although this is significantly less than in
places such as Europe it is still having a big impact on US
staffing resources andproductivity.
Thelossofproductivityduetoshort/longtermillness,disabilityisthereforeproving
tobe amajor headachefor companies.
Causes of AbsenteeismJob Satisfaction- In recent years,
attention has been directed towards a possible dispositional
substrate to satisfaction. Research has shown that a board
personality construct called core self-evaluation is reliably
related to job satisfaction (Judge & Bono, 2001). In this
research, more satisfied individuals reported higher self esteem
and self efficiency, exhibited a higher internal control and were
lower in neuroticism. To summarize, unfavorable attitude toward the
job, and esp. towards the content of the work, are predictive of
absenteeism. However there is growing evidence that issues of work,
such as fairness and support may be especially critical
determinants of attendance patterns (Thomas & Hersen, 2002).
Beyond job satisfaction there is growing evidence that moods at
work are associated with absenteeism. Studies report lower absences
amongst those who react positively I the workplace (George, 1989;
Iverson & Deery, 2001).
Ill-health- ill health and absenteeism is extremely costly to
the employees, employers and the organization. There is a
relationship between lower back pain and absenteeism. The most
striking finding is that back pain is related more often to the
frequency of absenteeism. Women are more likely to experience
migraines than men and more likely to be absent. Stiffness of neck
or wrists and backache are common and are caused by repetitive
movements (Sikorki, 2001).
Depression Affective disorders, including depression have been
implicated consistently in the occurrence of absenteeism. In fact,
common minor illness is the cause of absenteeism and infect
disguise as depression. Depression is a common disorder that
affects more than one million persons per year, and women are twice
as likely as men to be affected during their lifetime. This
disorder can occur at any stage of womens lives regardless of their
education, race, ethnicity and income. Depression is a vital public
health issue that inflicts suffering, diminishes health and
functioning and may result in economic burden to the individual,
society and third-party payers (Ustun,T. B., yuso-Mateos, J. L.,
Chatterji, S., Mathers, C., & Murray, C. J. L., 2004).Unmet
expectations- This affects new employees entry into an organization
with certain expectations relating to the opportunities of applying
their skills and abilities, receiving respect and satisfactory
working conditions.
Job-person match If an employees personality, abilities and
kills do not match the job requirements, the person may become
bored and stressed and withdraws from the situation by being
absent.
Organizational culture- when there is a permissive culture
within an organization regarding absenteeism, other employees will
consider sick leave a benefit to be utilized. Organizational
culture was once seen as how things are done around here (Drennan,
1992) but has since evolved into a facet of management with a
robust range of literature affording a far deeper
understanding.Substances abuse According to Thomas & Hersen
(2002), every employee who is dependent on alcohol costs the
company an extra quarter of the employees salary per year to
absenteeism, occupational accidents and loss of productivity.
Stress Work stress is the perceived failure to cope with job
demands, personal life and may often be expressed as anxiety or
tensions. The infectious disease connection is associated with
depressed immune system functioning as well as related diseases
such as upper respiratory problems. However, there is a paucity of
research that explicitly and independently measures stress,
physical illness, and absenteeism (John, 1994).
Cost of Labor Absenteeism
The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that nearly 2.8 million
workdays are lost each year due to employee absences (Truman,
2003). One study estimated that if illness-related absenteeism were
a line item on a companys profit and loss statement, the cost would
probably exceed 15% of the profits, and the accounting doesnt
include lost productivity and missed deadlines, the costs for
replacement staff and overtime pay for the replaced workers, and
lowered morale costs" (HR Focus, 2003). Broken down, this amounts
to an average annual cost of $789 per employee in 2002 (Truman,
2003). This trend has only been increasing.
While most employers utilize disciplinary type actions to solve
the absenteeism problem, others are using incentives to reduce
absenteeism. Absenteeism has been defined as a root cause of losses
in productivity and company performance (Neuborne, 2003). Given
that the typical worker takes nine days off each year, it is not
surprising that employers are weary of lost revenues (Whittle,
2004).
Since many employers are unaware of the significant cost of
employee absenteeism, only about half have a system in place to
track absenteeism within their company, while only 16 percent have
the tools to reduce it once they have tracked it (Kaleta, 2003).
The need to determine how much these absences cost companies is
more prevalent than ever, with a fairly recent study stating that
small businesses are losing as much as $60,000 per year and the
largest employer involved in the study losing $3.6 million annually
(Truman, 2003).
Labor Skills (Labor Mobility)
Martin (2003) detected a complex relationship between turnover
and training. He suggested that establishments that enhance the
skills of existing workers have lower turnover rates. However,
turnover is higher when workers are trained to be multi-skilled,
which may imply that this type of training enhances the prospects
of workers to find work elsewhere. The literature on the link
between lower turnover and training has found that off-the-job
training is associated with higher turnover presumably because this
type of training imparts more general skills (Martin, 2003).
Shah and Burke (2003) reviewed some of the literature on the
relationship between turnover and training. In a British study
examining the impact of training on mobility, Green et al (2000)
concluded that, in aggregate, training has on average no impact on
mobility. However, training that is wholly sponsored by the
individual (or their families) is on balance likely to be a prelude
to job search. In contrast, when employers pay for training the
downward effect on mobility is more likely.
Lynch (1991, 1992) concluded that both on-the-job and
off-the-job training have a significant effect on job mobility.
While formal on-the-job training reduces the likelihood of
mobility, particularly for young women, off-the-job training
increases the likelihood of mobility. In a study of six local labor
markets in Britain, Elias (1994) found that women who received
employer-provided and job-related training had a lower probability
of changing employer or making the transition to non-employment,
but for men training made no significant difference to this type of
turnover.
In a study examining the effect of apprenticeships on male
school leavers in the UK, Booth and Satchell (1994) found that
completed apprenticeships reduced voluntary job-to-job, voluntary
job-to-unemployment and involuntary job termination rates. In
contrast, incomplete apprenticeships tended to increase the exit
rate to these destinations relative to those who did not receive
any training. Winkelmann (1996) reported that in Germany
apprenticeships and all other types of vocational training reduce
labor mobility in spite of the fact that the German apprenticeship
training is intended to provide general and thus more transferable
training.
Chang (1999) examined the relationship between career
commitment, organizational commitment and turnover intention among
Korean researchers and found that the role of career commitment was
stronger in predicting turnover intentions. When individuals are
committed to the organization they are less willing to leave the
company. This was found to be stronger for those highly committed
to their careers. The author also found that employees with low
career and organizational commitment had the highest turnover
intentions because they did not care either about the company or
their current careers.
Individuals with high career commitment and low organizational
commitment also tend to leave because they do not believe that the
organization can satisfy their career needs or goals. This is
consistent with previous research that high career committers
consider leaving the company if development opportunities are not
provided by the organization. However, this group is not apt to
leave and is likely to contribute to the company if their
organizational commitment is increased. Chang found that
individuals become affectively committed to the organization when
they perceive that the organization is pursuing internal promotion
opportunities, providing proper training and that supervisors do a
good job in providing information and advice about careers.
2.3 Chapter Summary
This chapter has covered a wide range of knowledge about
literature review related to pre-printing waste, non value adding
activities, volume of orders, labor absenteeism, labor skills and
printing cost in general. It further elaborates the previous
findings on above mentioned areas and new approach to understand
the above areas and printing cost from Sri Lankan printing industry
context. The current research findings elaborate the final outcome
of the research models, shortcomings and the comments of the
researcher regarding the concepts.
