Kollmann (1968) Remarks on the Structure of the Latin Hexameter

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Remarks on the Structure of the Latin Hexameter Author(s): E. D. Kollmann Source: Glotta, 46. Bd., 3./4. H. (1968), pp. 293-316Published by: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40266069Accessed: 02-11-2015 13:24 UTC

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Remarks on the Structure of the Latin Hexameter 293

daB sich in ihr etwas von sich aus zeigt und auf anderes einwirkt. Das Sich-Erweisen wird besonders deutlich im Bereich der Mantik.

* * *

Es ist M. Heideggers Verdienst, den vorphilosophischen, man darf sagen voraristotelischen, Wahrheitsbegriff wiederentdeckt zu haben. Was er als konstitutiv fur diesen Wahrheitsbegriff erkannte und im Wort aXrjd'eia wiederfand, haben die Griechen und die Rômer mit Wôrtern grundverschiedener Ableitung ausgedruokt. Die Griechen ursprûnglich durch êrsoç (mit erweiterten Bildungen ërv/toç, èrrjrv- /ioç). DaB der Wortgebrauch von vents und veritas der in a-Xrjftsia gefundenen Etymologie entspricht, ohne auf eine entsprechende etymologische Wurzel zuruckzugehen, zeigt, daB es auf dièse Etymo- logie nicht ankommt. Der Wortgebrauch von êrsoç lâBt sich wegen der seltenen Bezeugung nicht mehr erforschen x) . Man muB sich jedoch den Vorgang so vorstellen: als die Griechen das schwachlautende êrsàç durch âÀrjêrjç ersetzten, aktivierten sie eine Bedeutungs- komponente, die auch in êrsoç bereits angelegt war. Sie veranderten also an ihrem Wahrheitsbegriff nichts, sondern schufen in der Privativbildung lediglich einen nach Laut und Bedeutung expressi- veren Ausdruck2).

Remarks on the Structure of the Latin Hexameter

E. D. KOLLMANN, Tel Aviv University

This paper deals with the relation between ictus and accent, a relation which has been studied by many scholars, especially with regard to iambic verses. Lately, Jackson Knight3) attempted to find some kind of system in the relation between the two intonations in Vergil's Aeneid. Others, especially Herescu4), stressed the importance of the vowels in the structure of the verse.

1) Ein beachtenswerter Versuch bei T. Krischer, ërvfioç und àArjûi/jç, Philol. 109, 1965, bes. 164-167.

2) So H. Frisk, 'Wahrheit' und 'Luge9 in den idg. Sprachen (1935) = Kl. Schr. Gôteborc 1966, S. 17f.

8) W. F. Jackson Knight, Accentual Symmetry in Vergil, Oxford 1939/1950. 4) N. J. Hreescu, La Poésie Latine, Étude des structures phoniques, Paris 1960.

Glotta XLVI 3/4 19



294 E. D. Kollmann

These attempts show, each in its way, that the relation between ictus and accent on the one hand and the vowels on the other are indeed important factors in Latin verse, but a systematic use of these elements by the poets has not so far been established.

The present study is an effort to show the organic interrelation between these two factors and to prove that they together form the structural foundation of the Latin hexameter.

By means of a metrical analysis varying slightly from the traditional method, the function of the vowels is shown more clearly and the relation between the sound-body of a word and its meaning can be discerned.

This study is based on the assumption that both ictus and accent are dynamic and can therefore combine action in the verse.

It appears that a word retaining its prose intonation within the verse, i.e. a word bearing ictus and accent on the same syllable, has a stronger sound-body than one bearing ictus and accent on different syllables.

By distinguishing between long and short vowels, as differing from long and short syllables, it is demonstrated that words bearing ictus and accent on a long-vowelled syllable - being the strongest sound-bodies within the system - are the key words of the verse.

A. Accent and Ictus

It is an established fact that Latin poetry is based on a system of long and short syllables, stressed as well as unstressed. For the dactylic hexameter there is the additional basic rule that only a long syllable may bear the ictus.

However, opinions still vary as to the nature of the Latin prose accent1). Some important modern scholars, especially in France, hold that it is musical, and this seems to have been the current view

*) A brief summary on the subject is given in Lateinische Qrammatik by Stolz-Schmalz, * Leumann-Hofmann, Mùnchen 1928, vol. I, pp. 180-198. The authors are of the opinion that the Latin accent is musical.

In the meantime the number of scholars dealing with this question has increased, but to date no concrete conclusions have been adduced.

P. J. Enk, Mnemosyne, IV, 6, 1953, pp. 93-109 considers the Latin accent, musical in nature, as containing a dynamic element.

Among those assuming a musical accent are such prominent French scholars as Juret, Nougaret and others.




in antiquity1). Others, among them F. Vollmer2), E. H. Sturtevant3) Ed. Fraenkel4), H. Drexler5), are certain that the Latin prose accent is dynamic, although some of them do not exclude the possibility of a musical element within this dynamic accent.

Just as there is no unity of opinion on the nature of the prose accent, so views on the ictus vary widely. The problem of the relation between accent and ictus, a relation so characteristic of Latin

poetry, has not yet found a generally accepted solution. In early Latin the accent seems always to have been on the first

syllable of the word; later a change occurred and the accent started to move. Rules have been formulated stating that the penultimate syllable is accented, if it is long; if it is short, the syllable before it bears the accent (the Law of the Penult). The length of the

syllable is the governing factor in poetry as well. Latin poetry is quantitative, the verse being a system of long and short syllables, the long ones bearing stronger stresses than the short ones.

This metrical intonation6) is not subject to the same rules as is

prose accentuation; the Law of the Penult as such does not

apply to verse. The relation between these two systems of intonation is a most

important factor in Latin poetry: whereas the prose accent is sub-

ject to rules which state that a word bears one accent and one only, and no word may be accented on its last syllable, the metrical intonation permits a word to be stressed on almost every long syllable7).

x) W. Beare, Latin Verse and European Song, London 1957, c.p. especially chapter 5, pp. 57-65; this chapter contains some ancient testimonies as

appendix. 2) Fr. Vollmer, Romische Metrik in EinUitung in die Altertumswissenschaft,

Gercke-Norden, Bd. I., 8. Heft, Teubner, 1923, p. 1.

8) E. H. Sturtevant, Harmony and Clash of Accent and Ictus in the Latin Hexameter, TAPA, LIX, 1923, p. 51 and especially pp. 52-53.

4) Ed. Fraenkel, Tktus undAkzent im lateinischenSprechvers, Berlin 1928, p. 5.

5) H. Drexler, Plautinische Akzentstudien, Breslau 1932, pp. 348-351.

8) The following terminology is used in this paper: accent - prose intonation ictus - metrical intonation accented - accent-bearing stressed - ictus-bearing intonation - accentuation and/or stress

7) This limitation is valid mainly for the dactylic hexameter.

19*



296 E. D. Kollmann

As stated above, opinions on the nature of the ictus still vary, but it must be assumed that it is basically identical in nature with the prose accent. The ictus is the factor which distinguishes between prose and poetry, stressing as it does some syllables more than others, according to the nature of the metre, through a regular interchange of quantities.

The ictus must not be in contradiction to the rules of syllable quantity, and the metrical intonation of words must be in accordance with the rules governing prose accentuation, as far as possible. Any divergence from these rules has to be within certain limits so that the change of accent under the influence of the ictus is understood bythe listener and does not strike him as something unusual, strange or ridiculous.

The basic assumption is, as already stated above, that accent and ictus are interrelated, because only on this condition is an examination possible. Were that not so, the problem could not be approached at all, as has been stated by Fraenkel, Drexler and others. Our second assumption is, that the Latin accent is dynamic or mainly dynamic, and that therefore the ictus is dynamic as well.

The fact that the Latin prose accent may move from one syllable to another, in the case of inflexion or when an enclitic is added, undoubtedly eased the many difficulties encountered by Latin poets in adapting their language to the Greek metres.

It is not sufficient to explain the clash1) between accent and ictus prevailing in almost every Latin verse by the hypothesis that the poets did not succeed in building verses containing coincidences only - although this was definitely a very real difficulty; but one must take into account the possibility that they did not intend such verses and felt in the tension caused by the clash between the two intonations an essential element of their poetry.

The present study is limited to the examination of the dactylic hexameter. Apparently this is the simplest metre. Since antiquity scholars have been dealing with it, examining and studying it from all angles; but the hexameter presents a number of difficulties, and especially the basic question of the relation between ictus and accent has not yet been satisfactorily resolved.

It is known that in the 5th and the 6th foot coincidence prevails, whereas the four other feet may, but need not, have clash.

x) Coincidence - accent and ictus on the same syllable ; clash - accent and ictus on different syllables.




The question of this relation is connected with other problems1), e.g. the function of the vowels, the relation between long and short vowels, metrical analysis and others.

The subject has been exhaustively treated by Jackson Knight, who summarized the results of his most interesting examinations. He explained coincidence and clash as important elements in the structure of the Aeneid. His stimulating book discloses many facts not generally known to date and presents the problem in a new light; but it seems to us that he could not arrive at convincing conclusions, because his theory2) is based on the examination of one metrical unit alone3).

Another difficulty lies in the fact that he does not sufficiently emphasise the importance of the vowels. The vowels as a basic element of the dactylic hexameter have been successfully dealt with by Herescu4), who concentrated on their sound content, but without regard due to the relation between accent and ictus. He does not give a clear answer to the question as to whether there are rules and a system in the use of vowels in Latin poetry.

1) This paper is part of a research work of wider scope on which the author is at present engaged. The aim of the research is the examination of the dactylic hexameter in Latin poetry from the following points of view: the function of the vowels in the structure of the verse, the influence of enclitics, monosyllables and elision on clash and coincidence ; examination of word- groups showing clash or coincidence, and enquiry into the causes (syntactic, phonetic and others) of clash and coincidence.

2) A. Woodward, The Fourth Foot in Vergil, PhUol. Quarterly, XV, 1936, pp. 126-135, emphasised the importance of the fourth foot within the structure of the hexameter. Although she proved that this foot is particularly important, she did not explain, in our opinion, how the examination of the fourth foot alone justifies the drawing of conclusions on the structure of the hexametric line as a whole. Knight partly based his research on the results obtained by A. Woodward.

8) O. Skutsch, in reviewing Knight's Accentual Symmetry in Class. Review, LIV, 1940, pp. 93-95, accepted the examination of the fourth foot as a proper representation of the complete line, but he doubted whether Knight's theory as a whole was sound. He did not consider that Knight had succeeded in proving that the structural groups recognized by him were intended by the poet. Skutsch considered pauses responsible for such structural groups, if they exist at all.

4) It is obvious that neither in metrics nor in literary science is it possible to arrive at convincing conclusions valid without exception. Herescu emphasised this in the concluding chapter of his book (Chapter 8, pp. 204-209), warning against the indiscriminate use of statistical and mechanical means in literary and stylistic research.



298 E. D. Kollmann

Both these authors stress the essential factors forming the Latin hexameter : the relation between accent and ictus on the one hand, and the vowels on the other. It seems necessary to consider whether the existence of a continuous system and a methodical use of both these important elements can be proved.

As the scholars mentioned above dealt with Vergil (Knight) or mainly with Vergil (Herescu), our examinations have been based on Vergil, especially on the Aeneid. We are, of course, fully aware of the possibility that the conclusions arrived at may not be valid for all Latin hexameters1).

Testimonies on the relation between accent and ictus in ancient metricians are indeed rare, and to our regret, of little im-portance2).

Although coincidence and clash between both intonations are well known to every reader of Latin verse, an example follows:

arma virumque cano Troiae qui primus ab oris How is this verse to be read?

x) Until final results of the examination being carried out by the author are obtained, it is only probable, but not certain, that the conclusions arrived at for the hexameter of Vergil are valid for the Latin hexameter in general.

2) It is supposed that the three testimonies quoted below are not the only ones. It seems that the problem, as seen by later scholars, did not exist for the ancient metricians. Why this was so, I do not know.

Beare, o. c, p. 56 quotes Quintilianus, Inst. orat. I, V. 28, and Sacerdos Oramm. Lot. VI. 448, 20ss.: "hoc tamen scire debemus quod versus percutientes (id est scandentes) interdum accentua olios pronuntiamus quam per singula verba ponentes, Horo9 et ' pater9 acutum accentum in 'to3 et 'pa9, scandendo vero 'inde toro pater9 in 'ro9 et in Her9 " ; neither of these testimonies contribute to a solution of our problem, for different reasons. Q.'s note refers only to the possibility of different accentuation in case of muta cum liquida, whereas the value of S. testimony diminishes because of an error in his note: In the verse quoted the intonation is not 'pater9, as suggested by him, and this does not strengthen our belief in his suggestions.

I should like to add a third piece of evidence : The grammarian Pompeius in his treatise Commentum artis Donati (Gramm. Lot. V. pp. 130-132) dealing with boundary markers states (p. 132,11.12-14): f,ut si dicas: 'viridique in litore conspicitur) sus9, ne erret puer et dicat: 'conspicit ursus9, ad istam 'tur9 addimus)r id est circumflexam virgulam et ita disiungimus"

From this it would appear to be proved that in schools at least pupils intoned conspicitur, i.e. did not use prose accentuation in verse, unless, to our regret, some verses of the Aeneid found on a papyrus in Egypt (A IV 66-68, 99-102), showed exactly the contrary - marks of intonation by prose accent.

These lines appear in Papiri Greci e Latini, Firenze, vol. I, 21. Cp. Cliff. H. Moore, Class. Philology XIX, 1924, pp. 322-325, quoted

by F. W. Shipley, Hiatus, Elision, Caesura in Vergil's Hexameter, TAPA, LV, 1924, p. 138 (note 3).




The verse consists of words built of syllables, these words being accentuated in prose according to the rules of Latin accent - but the verse, being a metrical line, consists of small metrical units. Every verse has a certain rhythm based essentially on the interchange of long and short syllables, or, more correctly, long and short vowels. The syllables or vowels are not equal, because they are partly stressed and partly unstressed. Number and order of these syllables are fixed according to the metre of the verse.

Should the verse, therefore, be read: arma virûmque câno Trôiae qui primus ab ôris

every word being accented according to the Law of the Penult? If so, the ictus would have no influence on the accentuation and the line would not be verse, but prose. Latin poetry is, after all, not based on verses formed automatically by words arranged in a certain order without a change in their prose accent. There are lan-

guages where this is the case: English, German and others base versification on the interchange of accented and unaccented syllables, without regard to their quantity.

Greek and Latin poetry is based on interchange of long and short syllables, and as a rule the stressed ones are long. Latin poetry is not accentual, but quantitative.

It is, therefore, not surprising that verses like

impius haec tarn vûlta novâlia miles habébit (Eel. I70)

are rather rare. Prose accentuation is here fully observed, but these are exceptions and not the rule.

The opinion that Latin hexameters should be read according to the prose accent, as proffered by R.Bentley1), is still held2). Although it is possible to read dactylic hexameters in this way, I have no doubt that they should not be read so.

x) R.Bentley, Schediasma de metris Terentianis (1726): 9iqui perite et modulate hos versus legit, sic eos, ut hie accentibus notantur, pronuntiabit : non, ut pueri in scholis, ad singulorum pedum initia : ,eïtaliâm fatô profugûs Lavi- naque vénitf, sed ad rhythmum totius versus, i. e. Itâliam fâto prôfugus Lavinaque vénit.9" - Cp. Beare's note, o.c, p. 61, and to Bentley 's defence E. Kapp: Bentley's Schediasma de metris Terentianis and the modem doctrine of ictus in Classical verse, Mnemosyne, 3, IX, 1941, pp. 187-194.

2) Shipley (see p. 298,2, at end) denies the existence of ictus. According to his opinion every word in verse retains its prose accent.



300 E. D. Kollmann

Other scholars, however, altogether deny the existence of prose accent in verse1); according to their opinion we should read:

arma virûmque canô Troiaé qui primus ah ôris This verse may be read so ; but what about the following :

Tântae môlis erât Românam côndere géntem Is it possible that erat has been fully accented? Whoever knows how to read Latin verse will not read in this manner, although metrical intonation requires him to do so. Almost every verse contains words which do not bear the prose accent, but should be stressed within the verse. If in verse we abolish the prose accent altogether and take into account the ictus only, we shall encounter difficulties which cannot be overcome.

The right way certainly lies between the two extremes: neither the accent nor the ictus can possibly be abolished, both are valid2). We should, therefore, read8): TrSiaé, cânô.

We must not be discouraged by the fact that we do not know the quantitative relation between the two intonations, and by the additional fact that such reading is not altogether easy4).

From the above the following conclusions may be reached : 1. Accent and ictus, being of the same nature, may combine action. 2. Within the verse there are syllables with different levels of into-

nation5): (a) unstressed, (b) bearing either accent or ictus, (c) bearing accent and ictus.

3. Within the verse there are words intonated contrary to the Law of the Penult.

x) See Herescu, o.c, p. 27-28. 2) Enk, o.c, p. 108 suggests paying attention in reading to the prose

accent which he considers to be musical ; the ictus should also be taken into consideration, but only weakly. He quotes Knight, o.c, p. 11, and F. Cru- sius, Rômische Metrik, l.st éd., Mûnchen 1929, p. 39. - I fully agree with Enk's opinion quoted above, but I do not understand how it is possible to suggest that the Latin accent is musical, while agreeing Crusius.

8) In the following these signs will be used : accentuation - * stress - '

4) Knight, o.c, clearly explains the two waves of intonation, that of accent and that of ictus. He arrives at the highly probable conclusion that neither of them can be disregarded and that both have to be taken into account.

6) See the following, p. (310) [note 1].



Bemarks on the Structure of the Latin Hexameter 301

4. In different verses the same word may be intonated on different syllables according to its respective position in the verse.

5. A word may be intonated on one syllable, on two or on three syllables1). Coincidence and clash are characteristic of Latin poetry. The

question, therefore, to be asked is, what is the meaning of coincidence and of clash from the point of view of the poet's intention, and to what extent are they, especially the frequency of coincidences, a consequence of the structure of the Latin verse or the Latin language.

Knight was the first to draw attention to the fact that in Vergil's Aeneid there is some kind of regularity in the interchange between coincidence and clash2). In the chapter dealing with his theory in general3), he tried to illustrate the meaning of these phenomena by many examples. It is to be regretted that he did not choose to examine coincidence and clash in the whole hexametric line, but limited his inquiry to the fourth foot4). Although it is agreed that this foot is especially important, the conclusions drawn from the examinations of one foot only can hardly be considered as representative of the whole verse.

Before going on, we have to mention something connected essentially with the matter under discussion - the enclitics. In the Aeneid there is quite a large number of words featuring - que especially. These words occupy an intermediate position between coincidence and clash; their accent moves from one syllable to another through the addition of the enclitic, but on the other hand they seem to retain their prose accent even in verse. This intermediate position has been pointed out already by ancient metri- cians5).

x) Enk, o. c, p. 403 quotes E. Vandvik, Rhythmics und Metrum, Akzent und Ictus (Oslo 1937), who objects to Fraenkel's opinion that change of accent is the result of emphasis and states: (p. 20): ,,Das hiefie in der Tat, daiQ ein emphatisches Wort im Latein dreierlei betont sein kônnte : vUicus, vilicvs, wlicûs". - It does seem that exactly this is the case, although a short syllable is not stressed in the hexameter.

2) "Homodyne and heterodyne are in Vergil regularly expressional", o.c, p. 15.

*)Ibid.9 pp. 15-35. *) IUd.9 p. 36. 5) Enk in his above-mentioned paper quotes Audax (Oramm. Lot. VII,

360-361): ,,iUae quoque particulae notandae aunt, eque\ 've\ W, quae semper aliis partibus subiunguntur, ut 'arma virumque* et 'quidve dolens* et 'mené

inceptis desistere victam9, quae iUam novitatem kabent, ut et ipsae fastigium



302 E. D. Kollmann

If it was possible to accent virûmque - as it undoubtedly was - then it was possible to accent virâm1) as well. Knight regards words of the type virémque as coincidences, and this view is generally accepted, but it does not appear to be justified2). For the character of the verse there is no difference at all, whether virûm or virûmque is heard, while the prose accentuation is virum. What counts is not the prose accent virum but the fact that continuity of word-groups showing clash is very often attained by the aid of enclitics8).

Another remark: Words of the type submersasqu(e) in prose appear sometimes as submérsasqu(e) under the influence of the ictus. Here the prose accent is drawn back. Knight counts such words as clash, while we are of the opinion that they should be considered as coincidences, because the prose accentuation sub- mérsas is retained in verse.

On the basis of these considerations we have to challenge Knight's exhaustive statistics to a certain extent4); Essentially his theory seems to us proved, although a few of his results may change5). perdant et illarum partium, quibus subiunctae sunt, levationem in novissimas 8yllabas transférant; verbi gratia 'virum9 in priore acuitur, 'virumque* autem in posterior e erigitur, quae iam non posteriory sed media trium syUabarum in unum redactarum reperitur"

x) Cp. also Vollmer, o.c, p. 1. 2) Here is one example: When analysing the storm scene (A I87), Knight

counts (p. 25) 3 coincidences, including clamorque . . . stridorque, while I do not see more than one (rudentum). The following verse has, according to my opinion, no coincidence at all, because caelumque diemque are to be counted as clashes. This verse is seen to have clashes only, presenting a true picture of the climax of the storm.

8) J. Hellegouarc'h, Le Monosyllabe dans Vhexamètre latin, Paris 1964, proves that the Latin poets made extensive use of enclitics, but he does not think that this use was intended by the poet to reach coincidence in the fifth and sixth feet.

He maintains that pauses and monosyllables had the task of adjusting the rhythm of the verse, while coincidence and clash are meaningless.

4) In reviewing L. P. Wilkinson's Golden Latin Artistry, London 1963, J. A. Richmond, Gnomon, XXXVI 1964, p. 261 quotes inter alia the verse A I85, unaEurusque Notusque ruunt creberque procellis, as containing, in his opinion, many coincidences. His intention is to prove the falsity of W's assertion that coincidence means tranquillity. I believe that R. is wrong, because there are 4 clashes in the verse contrasted with 2 coincidences, and this fits well into the stormy content of the verse.

6) Prof. Seiler kindly drew my attention to the paper "Vergil and the Computer. Fourth Foot Texture in Aeneid I" by Nathan A. Greenberg,




Another point to be mentioned here briefly, is that of monosyllables, which have an intermediate position as well. The

Oberlin College, published in Revue of the International Organization for the Application of Computers to the Ancient Languages, I, 1967, pp. 1-16.

As I could read this article only after my paper had been sent to print, I can at this stage only add some general remarks.

The author intends to prove with the aid of the computer that Knight's theory of Fourth Foot Texture is unfounded. For every line of the first book of the Aeneid a punched card had been prepared and fed into the computer. The output shows among other factors (such as capital letters, length of vowels and of syllables, quotation-marks, semicola, cola, question-marks) the prose accent according to the Law of the Penult.

Also shown are coincidence and clash of accent and ictus. The author states (p. 5) : "Although our sole concern was the examination

of Fourth Foot Texture, the procedure could just as easily have been repeated for any foot of the Vergilian line."

By this analysis, which is in my opinion an important step forward in the right direction, the author arrives at the conclusion (p. 14) "that every test we have employed does not contradict the hypothesis that the arrangement of fourth foot homodyne and heterodyne in Aeneid I is random."

I agree, as far as Fourth Foot Texture is concerned, but in my opinion not this is Knight's main merit, but the fact that he was the first to point out the existence of what he called General Texture in the hexametric line (o. cit. Chapter 4, pp. 15-35).

Fourth Foot Texture is the assumption that verses can be grouped in sense units according to the behaviour of their 4th foot. This is a vertical structure, singling out one metrical unit rather arbitrarily. My doubts that one foot could be representative for the whole verse have been corroborated by the results of Greenberg's research.

On the other hand, I am quite certain that Knight is justified in stressing the existence and the importance of the general texture, the interchange of coincidence and clash within the hexametrical line, i.e. the horizontal structure, taking into account all six feet of the verse. In this paper I hope to have proved that this structure is real and of expressional value, as has been stressed by Knight.

This then is the essence of his theory and I am sure that the computer can be used to ascertain whether the interchange of coincidence and clash within the line or even within a sense-group of lines is an important structural factor.

I should like to sum up as follows :

(1) Greenberg's article is a pioneering research and opens up far-reaching possibilities for metrical studies by use of computer programs.

(2) Greenberg has proved that Fourth Foot Texture does not exist except for a tendency towards alternation at ends of the books of the Aeneid.

(3) He did not touch what seems to me the real problem, the examination by computer of the structure of whole lines in sense-units (Knight's General Texture).



304 E. D. Kollmann

question arises as to what they contribute to the structure of the verse1).

In this chapter the problem has been discussed briefly and some remarks have been made.

In the next chapter we shall look into the function of the vowels in the Latin hexameter.

B. Metrical Analysis as a Means for explaining the Function of the Towels. - Qualified Metrical Analysis

The importance of vowels in Greek and Latin prose, but especially in poetry, is well-known, as is the fact that in Greek and Latin poetry metre is based on the length of syllables. In the traditional method this is represented in two ways : distinction is made between syllables naturally long, i.e. those containing long vowels2), and syllables "long by convention"3), i.e. syllables containing short vowels; in the latter syllables the vowels remain short under all conditions4) and are pronounced short, but as the short vowel in such a syllable is followed by a consonant and the next syllable begins with a consonant (except muta cum liquida) 5), the syllable is considered long for purposes of pronunciation and of metrics6).

(4) Greenberg's approach is rather mechanical : he uses a block-system (p. 6/7) comprising units of 6 or 12 lines without regard to sense, instead of groups of verses of various lengths connected by sense (sentences and para- graphs) as Knight did. As the main aim of metrical research is the interpretation of poetry, and not pure metrics, it does not seem possible to achieve this aim without taking into consideration such sense-units.

(5) The data punched on the cards should be modified somewhat; capital letters, for instance, seem to be irrelevant for our purpose, whereas a combination of vowel-length and coincidence or clash has to be considered.

*) Exhaustive and interesting material is to be found in Hellegouarc'h's book mentioned above (note 32). He claims that monosyllables together with pauses form the basis of the verse. Groups of such words set in metric patterns are the bricks of which the verse is built. H's attitude is essentially contrary to ours, because for him the problem of coincidence and clash does not exist.

2) syUaba natura longa. 3) 8yllaba positione longa. 4) To understand how important to Roman ears was the distinction

between long and short syllables, see Cicero, Orator, 51 (173). 6) The phenomenon was known to ancient metricians, but no explanation

is given for it. 8) Such syllables are mostly closed, but may be open, if they conclude a

word followed by one starting with two or more consonants.




This is explained, quite rationally, as follows: The time required for the pronunciation of a short vowel is one time unit (mora), the pronunciation of a long vowel occupies two time units, whereas the time required to pronounce one consonant is less than one time unit - say one half of it. In order to pronounce two consonants we need therefore one full time unit; if a syllable contains a short vowel followed by two consonants, the time required to pronounce the whole is two units, which is equal to the time needed for the pronunciation of a long vowel. From this it may be understood why the group muta cum liquida does not usually produce syllables "long by convention". The pronunciation of such a group of consonants, if belonging to the same syllable, lasts less than one unit of time and therefore together with the short vowel it does not fill two time units; the result is that the syllable remains short. Only if the two components of such a group belong to different syllables, that is, if the syllable is closed, it is considered long. What exactly determines which way the group muta cum liquida reacts, apart from metrical needs, seems so far to be unknown.

Although it is always pointed out that vowels are the basis of the ancient languages and in particular of ancient poetry and in spite of the fact that there is always a sharp distinction between long and short vowels, the function of the vowels in the formation of poetry has not been given due attention as yet. In general, the importance of the factor of language in ancient poetry has not been fully recognized until recently1).

Whereas a poem (in the widest sense of the term) is a product of language - as distinguished from other forms of art products which present themselves through diverse media, such as stone, colours, tones or rhythmical movements - the material which serves the poet to express himself according to his will and his faculties, is language : that is to say, articulate tones produced as words possessing sounds and meanings. At least as regards ancient poetry, it is undeniable that the sound-content of a word is not less important than its denotative content, i.e. its rational meaning; in other words, the "content" of a word as represented by its sound or by the meaning of its soundform is not less representative of the will of the poet than its denotative rational meaning.

Poetry appeals to the feelings of the listener, and the vowels fulfil an important task in achieving this goal.

1) The first to do this methodically -was Herescu, o. c.



306 E. D. Kollmann

A sharp distinction is necessary between long and short vowels according to their function in a poem; in theory at least this is so. The distinction between syllables containing long vowels and those containing short vowels is theoretically non-existent, although prac- tically observed, in reading ancient verse. But if we are sure, as we should be, that there is a fundamental difference between these two kinds of syllables, we should distinguish between them in metrical analysis as well.

Still another distinction is necessary: A stressed vowel is different from an unstressed one in its specific task within the verse. So we arrive at certain different factors require accurate differentia- tion: stressed syllables containing long vowels, stressed syllables containing short vowels, unstressed syllables containing long vowels, unstressed syllables containing short vowels. From this reasoning it appears certain that the basis of ancient poetry is the vowel, and that it is the vowels which make up the character of the verse, its speed and its flow, its rhythm.

And now we go one step further : we shall try to prepare a metrical scheme, the basis of which will not be the syllable, whether long or short, but the vowel; and we are justified in doing so because we know that there is actually a difference in pronunciation between long and short syllables, a difference recognized even in traditional metrics; on the other hand it is agreed that the vowels are the basis of ancient poetry. We shall therefore distinguish between long and short vowels, moreover, between stressed long, stressed short, unstressed long and unstressed short vowels.

The " Qualified Metrical Analysis", as we shall call this method, distinguishes between vowels (as distinct from syllables) according to their length and to their stress ; this makes it possible to obtain a more accurate picture of the vocal factor in poetry and assists in the comprehension of one of the essentials of rhythm. For, as has already been stated, the speed or slowness of the verse is influenced directly by the relative frequency of short and long vowels, stressed as well as unstressed, and by their relative distribution.

If we distinguish, as suggested above, between vowels long and short, stressed and unstressed, we can observe in the dactylic hexameter six different possibilities, which will be marked in this paper by the traditional signs, but it should be borne in mind that these signs refer to vowels, not to syllables.



Bemarks on the Structure of the Latin Hexameter 307

1) crédita 3) vênit [ad] 5) quo môl(em) ± ë ± ë ± ô w ia \j i - ô

2) vertitur 4) Za#a£ [e£] 6) nam si 6 e vi a 4 a

w iu v, a ï

The forms so obtained look quite strange at first sight ; they hardly seem to fit into our conception of a dactyl, but we should not forget that this is the way we are actually reading, and there seems to be no doubt that ancient verse sounded in the ears of the listeners in some such manner.

The Qualified Metrical Analysis enables us to present a clearer picture of the vowel-system in the verse than the traditional metrical analysis, e.g. the verse:

(A II102) Sin manibus vestris vestram ascendisset in urbem

analysed according to the traditional method presents the following picture :

±w I JL - \ J. \\ - I -£- I £w I ̂ .x

whereas the qualified analysis gives a différent result:

I I II I I I

the traditional (syllabic) analysis shows three spondees, whereas the Q. M. A. demonstrates that the verse does not contain one single spondee, i.e. there is no two-syllabled dactyl having a naturally long vowel in its second syllable. Furthermore, the ictusbearing syllables have twice only a naturally long vowel - these are the only naturally long vowels in the verse.

The verse contains 14 syllables, among them 9 long ones (either natura or positione), 4 short ones and 1 anceps. The Qualified Metrical Analysis shows that out of the 14 vowels only 2 are long, an altogether different relationship.

The difference between the results obtained by the application of the two methods of analysis is shown in Appendix I, where the first 11 verses of the Aeneid are analysed.

The following table shows a summary of the analysis of five passages taken at random from Vergil.



308 E. D. Kollmann

Table: Number of Syllables and Vowels

Syllables Vowels Total 7 7 2

Jl - H-w JL _ + \S v +

1. Aim 66 34(100) 64 41 20 (61) 25 78 (103) 164 2. EI64_74 66 32(98) 68 33 20(53) 33 80 (113) 166 3. AVIH184_194 66 38(104) 56 34 15(49) 32 79 (111)160 4. GI311_821 66 32(98) 68 25 15(40) 41 85 (126)166 5. EIV34_44 66 34(100) 63 33 15(48) 33 82 (115)163

330 170 (500) 319 166 85 (251) 164 404 (568) 819

Explanation :

± long syllable or vowel, stressed _ long syllable or vowel, unstressed t short vowel, stressed w short syllable or vowel, unstressed

+} total of long syllables or vowels, stressed and unstressed

+} total of short vowels, stressed and unstressed

Note: Unlike the traditional metrical analysis there are certain difficulties in the Q. M. A. in ascertaining length or shortness of vowels, in cases where the metre does not assist (when a vowel is followed by two consonants).

It is true that our lack of knowledge, whether the a in infandum or the i in dictus is long or short, may influence statistics, but as these cases are rather rare, they have no real influence on the results of examination.

Generally, these examinations are based on Cicero's remark (Orator 48 (159)) that i in infelix, Insanus is long compared to the quantity of the same vowel in indoctus, inhumanus; other vowels have been measured accordingly. I consider that the vowel in the nom. sing, of the present participle is long, therefore: widens, dolëns.

In words like dictus, dtictus the vowel is long. In the summary of analyses according to the traditional methods, the

ancipites are shown among the long syllables, except for closed syllables having short vowels, e.g. urbem.

The 55 verses analysed and summarized comprise 819 syllables and of course the same number of vowels.

Among these vowels there are :

long stressed 166 short stressed 164 long unstressed 85 short unstressed 404

long vowels 251 short vowels 568

The number of short vowels is more than double that of the long ones.




The summary shows :

1. About half the number of ictus-bearing syllables comprise short vowels.

2. The number of short vowels is four to five times the number of long ones, except in the 6th foot which shows a smaller gap.

3. The number of short unstressed vowels is three to five times the number of long unstressed vowels.

4. The number of true spondees, i.e. the number of naturally long vowels in the second syllable of a two-syllabled dactyl, is very small.

It is interesting to note that the short vowel dominates in the Latin hexameter, in the stressed as well as in the unstressed syllable, a fact which is not borne out by the traditional analysis.

The distribution of long and short vowels in the verse is clearly connected with the content of the verse. This is plain from the summary of the paragraph AIj-n, which contains quite a large number of long vowels, 61 against 103 short vowels1).

Contrary to the traditional method the Q.M.A. makes possible: 1. Distinction between long and short vowels.

2. Grouping of long and short vowels according to stress and lack of stress. By this distinction and this grouping the Q.M.A. enables us:

1. to examine the speed and rhythm of the verse by stating the relation between long and short vowels, in the verse as a whole and in the several metrical units2),

2. to understand the sound structure of the verse by the grouping of vowels according to quantity and to sound.

x) I cannot draw general conclusions, either with regard to Vergil or with regard to other poets, until larger numbers of verses have been examined; but I suppose that it may be possible to discover trends, and more than this will not be attempted at this stage.

2) e.g. the verse A Is: multa quoque et hello passus, dum conderet urbem contains one long vowel only, which cannot be seen in the traditional analysis. At this stage I do not dare comment on this, but it is certainly not chance. - Contrary to this, the verse A Is : Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine daeso contains an extraordinary number of long vowels, all stressed vowels being long; and in addition to that, 3 out of 6 feet contain long unstressed vowels.

Olotta XLVI 3/4 20



310 E. D. Kollmann

It is hoped that the above will suffice to explain the Q. M. A. which is, as stated, in accordance with the actual reading of Latin verse and enables us to understand the importance of the vowels in the structure of the verse.

It should be stressed that this is only the beginning. The new method is expected to be a tool, the use of which could lead to new results in metrical research.

We shall now return to the question of intonation and examine what the application of the Q. M. A. could contribute to the solution of the problem oft he relation between ictus and accent.

C. Sound Levels

Part A dealt with the relation between accent and ictus, and it has been pointed out that this is the central problem in Latin verse, especially in the dactylic hexameter.

This relation will now be reexamined, after the introduction of the Qualified Metrical Analysis.

As mentioned above1), there exist in verse syllables of different sound-strength, from the unstressed syllable to that bearing both accent and ictus.

A syllable intonated by both accent and ictus, i.e. a syllable with double intonation, necessarily has a stronger sound-body than one bearing one intonation only, be it either accent or ictus. This is clear, as is the fact that the sound-body of a syllable bearing either accent or ictus is stronger than that of one having neither.

A scale of syllables can therefore be compiled according to their relative sound-strength, with the strongest syllables at the top and the weakest at the bottom.

This scale of cSound-Levels*2) will read as follows:

Sound-Level of Syllable Containing Vowel

Status of Syllable long short

bearing both accent and. ictus 6 5 bearing either accent or ictus 4 3 bearing neither accent nor ictus 2 1

x) p. 300 (note 5). 2) The term 'sound-level9 should not be understood as referring to the

natur of the Latin accent which I assume to be dynamic, not musical, as explained above.




From this list it is evident that the strongest sound-body is an ictus-bearing syllable containing a long vowel, when this syllable also bears the prose accent according to the Law of the Penult.

It appears, therefore, beyond doubt that words retaining their prose accent within the metre, i.e. words which show coincidence between ictus and accent and whose intonated syllable contains a long vowel, are the strongest within the whole system.

We may be right in expecting that the poet should place important words in such positions1).

Examination of the first verses of the 1st Aeneid (A Ii-n) shows the following words in Sound-Levels 5 and 6, respectively :

a) Sound-Level 5: Coincidence - Short Vowel:

l - ^a, 3_ miïlta, 3 - et Èto \\% 5-m$lta, 6 - c$nderet

$rbem ||, 6 - énde, 7 - altae, 9 - vtlvere, 11 - caelestibvs.

b) Sound-Level 6: Coincidence - Long Vowel

ab $ris ||3), 2 - Lavinaque vtnit ||, 4 - ob vram ]|, 6 - Lahnum ||, 7 - mo$nia R$mae ||, 8 - Musa, 8 - numine l$eso ||, 9 - regvna,

9 - ctfsus ||, 10 - pietate, 10 - adiïre labéres ||, 11 - wae ||. Whereas section a) contains in addition to words important in

sense, such as arma altae condere urbem, caelestibus, unimpor- tant words as well, section b) contains words very important in their sense-content.

Furthermore, it should be noted that most of these words, although not all, are at the end of the line. Verses 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, i.e. 9 out of 11 verses of this group end with words showing coincidence, as is the rule at the end of the hexameter, and containing long vowels on their intonated syllables.

It is obvious that the Latin hexameter tends to gravitate towards its end, which is the natural place in the line for the strongest sound-body.

*) It should borne in mind that we are dealing with poetry, and with poetry in Latin at that. The poets encountered many problems in adapting their language to the verse which was a Greek product. We cannot expect to find binding rules without exceptions, but trends only.

2) The sign || means end of verse. 8) A preposition followed by a noun is regarded as one word.

20*



312 E. D. Kollmann

It is therefore apparent why coincidence usually appears in the fifth and sixth foot, where it is the rule, whereas in all other feet coincidence may or may not appear.

The words mentioned in sections a) and b) together form the essential part of the versé-group, in sense-content as well as in sound-strength. This cannot be chance1).

It appears, therefore, that with the aid of the Q. M. A. we have found one of the principles of the interchange between coincidence and clash in the Latin hexameter. This principle may be formulated :

1. Coincidence is addition of accent and ictus - strengthening of the sound-body of the word.

2. The strongest sound-body in the verse is a word showing coincidence and intonated on a long-vowelled syllable.

3. Such words form the essential part of the verse by combining sense-content with sound-strength. These are the key words of the verse.

Summary

Our enquiry is based on the assumption that the Latin intonation, ictus as well as accent, is dynamic, and that a syllable may, therefore, be intonated by both ictus and accent.

That being so, words may have different sound-levels. The strongest sound-bodies are those words which retain their prose accent within the verse.

These strongest sound-bodies have been proved to be the strongest sense-bearing elements. Words retaining their prose accent in verse, especially those bearing ictus and accent on a long-vowelled syllable, have been found to be the key words of the verse.

This fact seems to prove our basic assumption that both ictus and accent are of dynamic nature.

*) To dispel any doubts that this may be only chance, additional verses have been examined; some of them axe listed in Appendix II.




Appendices I Qualified Metrical Analysis exemplified (.4 I1-11)

II (a) Word-groups - Sound Level 6 (b) Verses A H40-49 analysed according to sound-levels

Appendix I

Verses A I1-11 Analysed According to QMA in Comparison with Traditional Method

(a) Metrical Analysis

Verse Traditional Metrical Analysis Qualified Metrical Analysis

1 \J\J -\J\J _» _ _ \J\J V-/ V-» _ - - _

w uu _ _ uu _

2 _\-*U -\JKJ _ _ -\J\J _ \J _ V«/ _ _

kj\j _ \j\j _ w yj

3 -W _ - _ _ _ _ _WW \J \J - _ V<»

V-»W V-» V W V-»\-/ _

4 -WU __ - _V^W _ _ _V-»V-/ __ V^ __ KJ _ _

O -UU _. _ _ _ _ KJ\J X \J \J __ KJ \J KJ

V->V-/ \J KJ KJ W \J

7 - - _V-»V^ _ __ _ _ _V^V-» \J _ _ V-» _ _

O - wv-> _ __ _v-»v^ - __ __\->v-> _______

\_*W _ V^W _ \JKJ _

9 _V->V-» _ _ _V-»\-» _ _ _V-»W V-» __*-**-/_

\-/v-» _ \syj \J w _

10 _ \-»w _v-»v-* _uu _v-»*_/ __ _ <-/ \j «,

^ <-»W V*>t_/ UU V«»V-» -

11 _WU _ _ _V-»W _ _ -\JKJ \J KJ «. W

\-/«-/ VJ V-»W _ UU •»

(b) Syllables and Vowels According to Quantity and to Metrical Units

Foot _ _ i Total _ _ 5 u u I Total Foot

1 11 3 (14) 16 30 6 1 (7) 5 18 (23) 30 1 2 11 7 (18) 8 26 3 4 (7) 8 11 (19) 26 2 3 11 4 (15) 14 29 10 1 (11) 1 17 (18) 29 3 4 11 9 (20) 4 24 5 6 (11) 6 7 (13) 24 4 5 11 - (11) 22 33 7 - (7) 4 22 (26) 33 5 6 11 9 (20) 2 22 9 7 (16) 2 4 (6) 22 6

Total 66 32 (98) 66 164 40 19 (59) 26 79 (105) 164 Total

Syllables Vowels



314 E. D. Kollmann

Appendix I (contd.)

(c) Syllables and Vowels According to Quantity and to Verses ~~~

I I I , I | i I i I / I à I Total Number VerSe ^-±-U^-.± , /

t à

| ^f yQWels

1 6 3 (9) 6 4 2 3 6 (7) (8) 15 2 6 3 (9) 6 4 2 2 7 (6) (9) 15 3 6 4 (10) 4 3 3 17 (4) (10) 14 4 6 3 (9) 6 4 2 2 7 (6) (9) 15 5 6 3 (9) 5 1 5 - 8 (1) (13) 14 6 6 1 (7) 9 4 2 - 10 (4) (12) 16 7 6 4 (10) 4 4 2 3 5 (7) (7) 14 8 6 3 (9) 6 6 - 3 6 (9) (6) 15 9 6 3 (9) 6 3 3 2 7 (5) (10) 15

10 6 2 (8) 8 4 2 1 9 (5) (11) 16 11 6 3 (9) 6 3 3 2 7 (5) (10) 15

66 32 (98) 66 j 40 26 19 79 (59) (105) 164

Syllables Vowels

(d) Summary

Syllables : Vowels : 66 ± 40 ± 32 _ 19 _ 66 ^ 26 vi

79 w

164 164

These 11 verses comprise 98 long and 66 short syllables; the Qualified Metrical Analysis shows that there are 59 long and 105 short vowels.

Appendix II

(a) Words and Word-Groups in Sound-Level 6 from the 2nd Book

of the Aeneid (verses 1-144)

(1) Single Words - One Word in a Verse: 4r- lamentabile, 5- vidi ||, 6- talia, 9- sidera, 12- refugit ||, 15- divina, 18- sortiti, 21- fama, 24- litore, 25- Mycenas ||, 28- videre, 29- tendebat, 31- exitiale, 32- Thymoetes ||, 36- dona ||, 39- in contraria, 40- primus, 45- Achivi ||, 49- dona, 50- viribus, 51- compagibus, 54- laeva, 55- foedare, 61- paratus ||, 62- versare, 63- Troiana, 67- turbatus, 69- aequora, 70- denique, 74- cretus ||, 75- fiducia, 77- fatebor ||, 78- negabo ||, 82- fama ||, 84-veta- bat || , 88- vigebat ||, 90-pellacis, 92-trahebam ||, 95-remeassem, 96-movi ||, 97- prima, 100- requievit, 101-ingrata, 102- habetis, 104- Atridae ||, 106- tantorum, 107- fatur ||, 109- discedere, 115- dicta, 116- caesa ||, 117- ad




oras ||, 121- fata, 126- récusât |, 128- clamoribus, 131- tulere ||, 132- parari ||, 134- rupi ||, 135- obscurus, 136- vela, 142- mortalibus, 144- miserere.

(2) Single Words - Two or More Words in a Verse: 1- conticuere . . . ora tenebant ||, 3- regina . . . renovare dolorem ||, 15- instar . . . divina, 17- votum . . . fama vagatur, 22- insula . . . manebant ||, 37- praecipitare . . . urere, 38- terebrare . . . temptare, 43- creditis . . . putatis ||, 44- dona carere . . . notus, 53- insonuere . . . dedere, 56- Troiaque . . . maneres ||, 64- circumfusa . . . illudere, 78- vera . . . negabo ||, 80- vanum . . . mendacemque, 83- gloria . . . proditione, 85- demisere . . . lumine lugent ||, 87- pauper . . . misit, 91- ignota . . . ab oris ||, 98- terrere . . . voces || , 103- audire . . . iamdudum sumite poenas ||, 108- saepe . . . cupiere, 1 1 1- interclusit . , . Auster, 113-staret . . , sonuerunt aethere, 120-obstipuere . . . ima, 123- protrahit . . . numina divum ||, 124- flagitat . . . crudele canebant || , 127- prodere voce . . . opponere, 130- adsensere . . . timebat ||, 140- miserorum . . . piabunt ||, 143- intemerata . . . miserere laborum ||,

(3) Groups of Two or More Words in a Verse: I- ora tenebant ||, 3- renovare dolorem ||, 7- duri miles, 8- umida caelo ||, II- supremum audire laborem ||, 17- fama vagatur ||, 20- armato milite, 23- fida carinis ||, 27- ire et Dorica, 30- certare solebant ||, 34- fata ferebant ||, 42- insania, cives ||, 44- dona carere, 46- fabricata est machina muros ||, 47- inspectura . . . venturaque desuper, 48- ne crédite, Teucri ||, 58- clamore trahebant ||, 60- aperiret Achivis ||, 65- crimine ab uno ||, 79- fortuna Sinonem ||, 81- pervenit ad auris ||, 85- lumine lugent ||, 93- indignabar amici ||, 99- quaerere conscius, 101- nequiquam ingrata, 103- iamdudum sumite poenas ||, 105- scitari et quaerere causas ||, 113- sonuerunt aethere, 114- scitatum oracula Phoebi ||, 119- venit ad auris ||, 123- numina divum ||, 124- crudele canebant ||, 125- ventura videbant ||, 127- prodere voce, 129- destinat arae ||, 141- conscia numina veri ||, 143- miserere laborum ||.

(4) Groups of Words Extending over Two Verses or More 21/22- fama || insula, 32/33- Thymoetes || duci . . . hortatur . . . locari ||, 36/37/38- dona || praecipitare . . . urere . . . terebrare . . . temptare, 42/43/44- insania, cives || creditis . . . putatis || dona carere . . . notus, 46/47/48- fabricata est machina muros || inspectura . . . venturaque desuper ... ne crédite, Teucri ||.

(5) Monosyllables: 18- hue, 24- hue, 25- nos, 29- hic ... hic, 30- hic ... hic, 34- sive, 36- aut, 38- aut, 42- o, 45- aut, 46- aut, 48- aut, 50- sic, 54- mens, 60- hoc, 62- seu, 69- heu . . . me, 70- aut, 71- cui, 73- quo, 77- rex, 79- hoc, 79- si, 86- me, 89- nos, 91-haud, 94- me, 101-haec, 104- hoc, 112- hic, 119- vox:, 122- hic, 130- quae, 139- quos.

(b) Verses A //40-49 represented by Sound Levels

Legend Sound Level a word containing a syllable stressed and accentuated

on a long vowel 6 on a short vowel 5



316 E. D. Kollmann

a word containing a syllable stressed ' on a long vowel 4 * on a short vowel 3

40 primus ibi (ante) omnfs magnâ (comitante caterva) Lâocoôn ardéns summâ (decurrit ab arce) (et) procul: o miseri, quae (tanta) insania, civesJ creditis àvectôs hostfs? aut (ulla) putatis dona carere dolls Danaùmî sic notus (Ulbces)?

45 aut hoc fnclusf ligno (occultantur) Achivi aut haec (in) nostrôs fabricate/, est machina muros inâpectura domes venturaque desuper (urbi) aut aliquis latet (error); equô ne crédite, Teucril

(quidquid) id (est,) timeô Danaôs et dona (ferentes).



Documents

Kollmann (1968) Remarks on the Structure of the Latin Hexameter