Keys to Managing People

• Psychologists and management theorists have devoted much research and thought to the field of managing people at work

• Important areas related to IT management include• Situational Leadership• Motivation• Power• Effectiveness• Rapport and Listening

Situational Leadership

Supporting: S3For people with:•High Competence•Variable Commitment

Coaching: S2For people with:•Some Competence•Some Commitment

Delegating: S4For people with:•High Competence•High Commitment

Directing: S1For people with:•Low Competence•Low Commitment

Ken Blandard & Paul Hersey model

Situational Leadership

S4- High Competence High Commitment

Experienced at the job, & comfortable with their own ability to do it well.

S3- High CompetenceVariable Commitment

Experience & capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the motivation to do it well.

S2- Some CompetenceLow Commitment

May have some relevant skills, but won’t be able to do the job without help. The task or situation may be new to them.

S1- Low CompetenceLow Commitment

Generally lacking the specific skills required for the job in hand, & lacks the confidence to tackle the responsibilities. May be very new to position.

Situational Leadership

S4 - Delegating Leaders are still involved in decisions & problem-solving, but control is with employee. The employee decides when & how to involved the leader.

S3- Supporting Leaders pass day-to-day decisions such as task allocations to employee. The employee will participate in decisions.

S2- Coaching Leaders still define roles & tasks but seek ideas & suggestions. Decisions remain with the leader.

S1 – Telling / Directing Leaders define the role & tasks. Supervise closely. Decisions are made by the leader.

MOTIVATION

What is motivation?

What are the different types of individual

needs?

What are the process theories of motivation?

What role does reinforcement play in

motivation?

What are the challenges of motivation in the

new workplace?

Motivational Concepts

Basic motivational concepts• Motivation—the forces within the individual that

account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

• Reward—a work outcome of positive value to the individual

• Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given to someone by another person.

• Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that occur naturally as a person works on a task.

Achieving Max Motivational Potential

To achieve maximum motivational potential

in linking rewards to performance …

• Respect diversity and individual differences to

best understand what people want from work.

• Allocate rewards to satisfy the interests of both

individuals and the organization.

Types of Motivation Theories

Types of motivation theories• Content theories

• Human needs and how people with different needs may respond to different work situations.

• Process theories• How people give meaning to rewards and make

decisions on various work-related behaviors.

• Reinforcement theory• How people’s behavior is influenced by environmental

consequences.

Motivational Needs

Needs

• Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires

of an individual.

• Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.

• Create tensions that influence attitudes and

behavior.

• Good managers and leaders facilitate employee

need satisfaction.

Motivitional Content Theories

Types of content theories:

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory

• Alderfer’s ERG theory

• Herzberg’s Two-factor theory

• McClelland’s Acquired needs theory

• McGregor’s Theory X and Y

• Ouchi Theory Z

Maslow

• Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs to illustrate his theory that people’s behaviors are guided by a sequence of needs

• Maslow argued that humans possess unique qualities that enable them to make independent choices, thus giving them control of their destiny

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Hierarchy of needs theory

• Developed by Abraham Maslow.• Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace

behavior and attitudes.• Lower-order needs:

• Physiological, safety, and social needs.• Desires for physical and social well being.

• Higher-order needs:• Esteem and self-actualization needs.• Desire for psychological growth and development.

• Deficit principle

• A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior.

• Progression principle

• A need at one level does not become activated until the

next lower-level need is satisfied.

Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.

ERG theory

• Developed by Clayton Alderfer.• Three need levels:

• Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.

• Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

• Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.

• Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time.

• Frustration-regression principle.

• An already satisfied lower-level need becomes

reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.

Two-factor theory

• Developed by Frederick Herzberg.• Hygiene factors:

• Elements of the job context.• Sources of job dissatisfaction.

• Satisfier factors:• Elements of the job content.• Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

Acquired needs theory

• Developed by David McClelland.• People acquire needs through their

life experiences.

• Needs that are acquired:• Need for Achievement (nAch)• Need for Power (nPower)• Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Need for Achievement (nAch)

• Need for Achievement (nAch)• Desire to do something better or more

efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

• People high in (nAch) prefer work that:• Involves individual responsibility for

results.• Involves achievable but challenging goals.• Provides feedback on performance.

Need for Power (nPower)

• Need for Power (nPower)• Desire to control other persons, to influence

their behavior, or to be responsible for other people.

• Personal power versus social power.

• People high in (nPower) prefer work that:• Involves control over other persons.• Has an impact on people and events.• Brings public recognition and attention.

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

• Need for Affiliation (nAff)• Desire to establish and maintain friendly

and warm relations with other persons.

• People high in (nAff) prefer work that:• Involves interpersonal relationships.

• Provides for companionship

• Brings social approval.

McGregor’s Theory X and YOuchi Theory Z

• Douglas McGregor popularized the human relations approach to management in the 1960s.

• Theory X: Assumes workers dislike and avoid work, so managers must use coercion, threats, and various control schemes to get workers to meet objectives.

• Theory Y: Assumes individuals consider work as natural as play or rest and enjoy the satisfaction of esteem and self-actualization needs.

• Theory Z: Introduced in 1981 by William Ouchi and is based on the Japanese approach to motivating workers, which emphasizes trust, quality, collective decision making, and cultural values.

What are the different types of individual needs?

Questions for summarizing the content theories of motivation:• How many different individual needs are

there?

• Can a work outcome or reward satisfy more than one need?

• Is there a hierarchy of needs?

• How important are the various needs?

Comparison of Maslow’s, Alderfer’s, Herzberg’s, and McClelland’s motivation theories.

What are the process theories of motivation?

Process theories of motivation …• How people make choices to work hard or not.• Choices are based on:

• Individual preferences.• Available rewards.• Possible work outcomes.

Types of process theories:• Equity theory.• Expectancy theory.• Goal-setting theory.

Equity theory

• Developed by J. Stacy Adams.

• When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation. • Perceived inequity.

• Perceived equity.

Equity theory and the role of social comparison.

Equity theory

• People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing …• Work inputs.

• Rewards received.

• Comparison points.

• Situation.

Managerial implications of equity theory

• Underpaid people experience anger.• Overpaid people experience guilt.• Perceptions of rewards determine motivational

outcomes.• Negative consequences of equity comparisons

should be minimized, if not eliminated.• Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a

source of equity controversies in the workplace. • Gender equity.• Comparable worth.

Expectancy theory

• Developed by Victor Vroom.• Key expectancy theory variables:

• Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.

• Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.

• Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.

Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation.

Expectancy theory

• Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:

M = E x I x V

•If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.

Managerial implications of expectancy theory

• To maximize expectancy, managers should:

• Select workers with ability.

• Train workers to use ability.

• Support work efforts.

• Clarify performance goals.

• To maximize instrumentality, managers should:

• Clarify psychological contracts.

• Communicate performance-outcome possibilities.

• Identify rewards that are contingent on performance.

• To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:

• Identify individual needs.

• Adjust rewards to match individual needs.

Managerial implications of expectancy theory.

Goal-setting theory

• Developed by Edwin Locke.• Properly set and well-managed task goals

can be highly motivating.

• Motivational effects of task goals:• Provide direction to people in their work.

• Clarify performance expectations.

• Establish a frame of reference for feedback.

• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.

Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:

• Set specific goals.• Set challenging goals.• Build goal acceptance and commitment.• Clarify goal priorities.• Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.• Reward goal accomplishment.

Goal-setting theory - Participation in goal setting

• Unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.

• Management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation.

• When participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.

What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

Fundamentals of reinforcement theory …• Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of

external environmental consequences on behavior.

• Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior.

• Operant conditioning:

• Developed by B.F. Skinner.

• Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

Operant conditioning strategies:

• Positive reinforcement

• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.

• Negative reinforcement

• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.

• Punishment• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent

presentation of an unpleasant consequence.

• Extinction• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal

of an pleasant consequence.

Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on

•Law of contingent reinforcement —•Reward delivered only if desired

behavior is exhibited.

•Law of immediate reinforcement —•More immediate the delivery of a

reward, the more reinforcement value it has.

Guidelines for using positive reinforcement

• Clearly identify desired work behaviors.• Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.• Inform everyone about what must be done

to get rewards.• Recognize individual differences when

allocating rewards.• Follow the laws of immediate and

contingent reinforcement.

Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management.

Schedules of reinforcement:

• Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.

• Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically.

• Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement.

• Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent.

Guidelines for using punishment

• Tell the person what is being done wrong.

• Tell the person what is being done right.

• Match the punishment to the behavior.

• Administer punishment in private.

• Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.

Issues in reinforcement

Ethical issues in reinforcement:• Ignores individuality.

• Restricts freedom of choice.

• Ignores the possibility of other types of motivation.

Key concern is whether it is ethical to not control behavior well enough to serve both individual and organizational goals.

What are the challenges of motivation in the new workplace?

Integrated model of motivation• Motivation leads to work effort that, when

combined with appropriate individual abilities and organizational support, leads to performance accomplishment.

• The motivational impact of any rewards received for this performance accomplishment depends on equity and reinforcement considerations.

• Ultimately, satisfaction with rewards should lead to increased motivation to work hard in the future.

An integrated approach to motivational dynamics.

What are the challenges of motivation in the new workplace?

Pay for performance• Paying people for performance is consistent with:

• Equity theory.• Expectancy theory.• Reinforcement theory.

• Merit pay • Awards a pay increase in proportion to individual

performance contributions.• Provides performance contingent reinforcement.• May not succeed due to weakness in performance

appraisal system or lack of consistency in application.

What are the challenges of motivation in the new workplace?

Incentive compensation systems:• Skill-based pay.

• Links pay to the number of job-relevant skills an employee masters.

• Bonus pay plans.• One-time or lump-sum payments based on the

accomplishment of specific performance targets or some extraordinary contribution.

What are the challenges of motivation in the new workplace?

Incentive compensation systems:• Profit-sharing plans.

• Some or all employees receive a proportion of net profits earned by the organization.

• Gain-sharing plans.• Groups of employees share in any savings realized

through their efforts to reduce costs and increase productivity.

• Employee stock ownership plans.• Employees own stock in the company that employs

them.

Power

• Power is the potential ability to influence behavior to get people to do things they would not otherwise do

• Types of power include• Coercive• Legitimate• Expert• Reward• Referent

Improving Effectiveness - Covey’s 7 Habits

• IT managers can apply Covey’s 7 habits to improve effectiveness on projects• Be proactive• Begin with the end in mind• Put first things first• Think win/win• Seek first to understand, then to be

understood• Synergize• Sharpen the saw

Empathic Listening and Rapport

• Good IT managers are empathic listeners; they listen with the intent to understand

• Before you can communicate with others, you have to have rapport

• Mirroring is a technique to help establish rapport

• IT professionals often need to develop empathic listening and other people skills to improve relationships with users and other stakeholders