KEY KNOWLEDGEKEY SKILLS The principles and processes of learning as applied to the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages, including the role feedback

KEY KNOWLEDGE KEY SKILLS

The principles and processes of learning as applied to the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages, including the role feedback plays in assisting learning

The open and closed skill continuum as applied to sports

The effect of environmental stability vs. instability.

Various practice modes and the transfer of practice.

Application of learning principles to everyday sports and physical activity

Understand factors that influence coaching and learning at the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of learning

© Cengage Learning Australia 2011



Skill = the ability to do a task well and some definitions include:• an activity requiring voluntary movements to

achieve a goal• a quality movement that produces success

Motor skills are often categorised under:

• Movement precision - gross or fine

• Type of movement – discrete, serial or continuous

• Predictability of movement - open or closed



Stages of Learning (Fitts & Posner)

• Cognitive (beginner)

• Associative (intermediate)

• Autonomous (advanced)


Cognitive (beginner) stage• an idea of what is required is obtained• focus is on producing movement routines• errors are made but performer doesn’t know how to correct them• rate of improvement is rapid• blocked practice leads to best improvements• practice should be kept as ‘closed’ as possible

Associative (intermediate) stage• movement patterns begin being fine tuned and refined• performance becomes more consistent and errors occur less frequently• concentration on movement routines lessens and more external stimuli can be

considered• performers begin to develop some problem solving strategies of their own• rate of improvement slows as does rate of errors

Autonomous (advanced) stage• movements become ‘automatic’ and typically seen in elite performers• attentional focus shifts to external factors such as opponent moves• players develop anticipation skills• errors are quickly self-corrected


Information processing considerations

Reaction time is the delay between the stimulus and the initiation of movement. Movement time is the time it takes for a movement to be completed from the time it starts and total response time is a combination of these two.

Simple reaction time involves one stimulus and only one response

Choice reaction time involves more than one stimulus and possibly more than one response. As the amount of options increase, so too does reaction time

The greater the stimulus response compatibility, the quicker the reaction time© Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Anticipation – is being able to predict what is going to happen next. It is the ability to ‘read the play’ or pick up on environmental cues and best prepare an appropriate response.

Practice allows performers to recognise cues or certain patterns / stimuli that enable them to predict what will happen next.

Anticipation reduces reaction times in most cases

At a more advanced level, ‘fake’ cues can be given to get an opponent to react to these. Very quickly as they begin to respond to this “fake” another movement is made and this had a delayed response time. This is known as the psychological refractory period.

Timing is critical in the psychological refractory period in terms of presenting two different cues.


Learning styles = (VAK)

Visual learners prefer:• to see or visualise instructions• demonstrations, diagrams, pictures and other visual material• being shown what to do and how to do it

Auditory learners prefer:• hearing instructions• being told what to do• receiving verbal feedback about their performance

Kinaesthetic learners prefer:• doing a task and “feeling” what it’s like• learning by doing


Practice needs to be individualised

Examples of practice methods include:• blocked vs. random practice

• whole vs. part practice

• massed vs. distributed practice

Blocked practice :• involves practicing the same skill repeatedly

without changing to another task. e.g. 50 shots at goal

• often used with beginners needing to understand basic movement principles

• best used in closed environments

Random practice:• uses varied sequencing of motor skills in the same

session e.g. dribbling 5m passing to a team mate and then doing a lay up

• best used at associative or autonomous stages© Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Part practice:• involves breaking a skill down into its various segments and then mastering this• useful when skills involve multiple segments / parts• allows beginners to experience success before attempting other parts of the skill

Whole practice:• used at associative and autonomous stages when basic parts of skill have been

mastered• important when segments need to be performed in rapid sequence (ballistic tasks) © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Massed practice:

• involves long training sessions that occur less frequently• more prone to fatigue and off task behaviour if concentration drops• used by most non-professional performers (including students) because of

other demands

Distributed practice:• involves frequent and short training sessions• has breaks during each session• typically used where high intensity training is involved requiring recovery /

breaks• has greater opportunity for feedback and movement refinement


Feedback = information received about the performance of a task


Internal feedback occurs when the performer’s own senses = visual, auditory, proprioception and touch are used.

External feedback can support a performer’s own internal feedback =Knowledge of results• specific feedback about the outcome of a task• useful for beginners• used less as performance improves and internal

feedback refines

Knowledge of performance• focuses on characteristics of performance not just

outcome• usually offered at completion of task

External feedback has three main aims:• fix errors • motivate continued improvement• reinforce correct processes


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KEY KNOWLEDGEKEY SKILLS The principles and processes of learning as applied to the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages, including the role feedback