Key Concepts and Terms in Quantitative Research

Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of

Linkoping Sweden

Key Concepts and Terms in Quantitative Research

Dr. Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi

An-Najah National University

Faculty of Nursing23-05-03 1

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Quantitative Research

Typically move in an orderly and systematic fashion from the definition of a problem and the selection of concepts on which to focus , through the design of the study and collection of information, to the solution of the problem

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Quantitative Research Quantitative research use mechamisms

designed to control the study

Control involves imposing (dra fördel av) condition on the research situation so that biasis are minimized and precision and validity are maximized

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Quantitative Research Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that

is rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses

Empirical evidence consists of observations, gathered through sight, hearing, taste, touch or smell

Observations of the presence or abscence of skin inflammation, the heart rate of a patient or the weight of a newborn infant are all examples of empirical observations

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Quantitative Research Using formal instruments to collect needed

information- numeric information that analyzed with statistical procedure

Generalizability of the research:the degree to which research findings can be generalized to individuals other than those who participated in the study


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The Faces and Places of Research

Studies with humans involve two sets of people: Those who do the research and those who provide the

information

In a quantitative study, the people who are being studied are referred to as subjects or study participants

Subjects who provide information to researchers by answering questions directly. E.g by filling out a questionnaire- may be called respondents

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Studies are often undertaken by several people rather by a single researcher

Collaborative research involving a team of nurses with both clinical and methodologic expertise (or involving different members of a health care team is increasingly common in addressing problems of clinical relevance

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When financial assistance is obtained to pay for research costs, the organization providing the money is the funder or sponsor

Reviewers are sometimes called on to critique various aspects of a study and offer feedback

If these people are at a similar level of experience as the researchers, they may be called peer reviewers

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Research Setting Research can be conducted in a wide variety of

locales, in health care facilities, in people´s homes, in classrooms

Based on the nature of the research question and the type of information needed to address it

Multisites studies- offer a larger or more diverse sample of study participants as public and private sectors, urban and rural location

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Settings Settings are the more specific places where data

collection occurs

In some cases the setting and sites, as when the selected site is a large hospital and information is collected exclusively within that setting

The nature of setting can influence the way people behave or feel and how they respond to questions, the selection of an appropriate setting is important

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Variables are something that varies

Weight, anxiety level, income and body temperature are all variables

To quantitative research nearly all aspects of human beings and their environment are variables

Quantitative research seek to understand how or why things vary and to learn how differences in one variable are related to differences in another

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Variables E.g. Lung cancer research is concerned with the variable of lung cancer

It is variable because not every´body has this disease

Researchers have studied what variables might be linked to lung cancer and have discovered cigarette smoking is related

Smoking is a variable because not every one smokes

A variable is any quality of a person, group or situation that varies or takes on different values

Variables are the central building blocks of quantitaive studies, there are different types of variables

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Continous, Discrete and Categorial Variables

Sotimes variables take on a wide range of values

A person’s age can take on values from zero to more than 100 and the values are not restricted to whole numbers

Such continous variables have values that can be represented

on a continuum

In theory, a continous variable can assume an infinite number of values between two points

For example, consider the continous variable weight:between 1 and 2 pounds, the number of values is limitless:1.oo5,1.7,1.33333 and so on

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Discrete Variable Is one that has a finite number of values between

any two points variables representing discrete quantities if people were asked how many children they had, they might answer 0,1,2,3 or more

The value for number of children is discrete because the such as 1.5 is not a meaningful value

Between the values 1 and 3 the only possible value is 2

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Categorial variables The variable gender for example has only two values (male & female)

Other variables take on a small range of values that do not inherently represent a quantity

Variables that take on only a handful of discrete non quantitative values are categorial variables

Another example is blood type (A,B,AB,O)

When categorial variables take on only two values they are referred to as dichotomous variables

Examples of dichotomous variables are pregnant /not pregnant, HIV positive/HIV negative, alive/dead

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Active Versus Attribute Variables

Variables are often characteristics of research subjects such as their age, health beliefs, or weight

Variables such as these are attribute variables. in many research situations the investigator creates a variable

For example, if a researcher is interested in testing the effectiveness of patient controlled analgesia as opposed to intramuscular analgesia in relieving pain after surgery, some patients would be given patient-controlled analgesia and others would receive intramuscular analgesia

In the context of this study, method of pain management is a variable because different patients are given different analgesic methods, the researcher cerates as active variables

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Active Versus Attribute Variables

An active variable in one study could be an attribute variable in another

For example a researcher might create an active salt intake variable by exposing two groups of people to different amounts of salt in their diets

Another researcher could examine the salt intake (attributes) of a sample by asking about their consumption of salt

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Dependent Versus Independent variables

Does a nursing intervention cause more rapid recovery?

Does smoking cause lung cancer?

The presumed cause is the independent variable

The presumed effect is the dependent variable

Some researchers use the term criterion variable rather than dependent variable

Others use the term outcome variable-the variable capturing the outcome of interest

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Dependent versus independent variables

Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to depend on variability in the independent variable

For example, researchers investigate the extent to which lung cancer ( the dependent variable) depends on smoking (the independent variable)

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Dependent Versus Independent Variables

Investigator may be concerned with the extent to which patients´perception of pain (the dependent variable) depends on different nursing action (the independent variable)

The terms independent variable and dependent variable are used to indicate direction of influence rather than causal link

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Dependent versus independent variables

If we are interested in studying factórs that influence peopl´s weight, we might consider for example their height, physical activity, and diet as independent variable

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Hetrogenity When an attribute is extremely varied in the group under

investigation, the group is said to be hetrogenous Variable like gender would have two attributes: male and female

If the amount of variability is limited, the group is described as relatively homogeneous

Example: for variable height, a group of 2-year-old children is likely to be more homogeneous than a group of 18-year old adolescents

The degree of variability or hetrogeneity of a group of subjects has implications for study design

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Data Research data are the pieces of information obtained

in the course of the investigation in quantitative studies, researchers identify the variables of interest, develop operational definitions of those variables and then collect relevant data from subjects

The actual values of the study variables constitute the data for the project

Quantitative data that is information in numeric form

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Data Example: suppose we were conducting a

quantitative study in which a key variable was depression; we need to measure how depressed study participants were

We might ask” thinking about the past week, how depressed would you say you have been on a scale from 0-10, where 0 means ”not at all” and 10 means ” the most possible”

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Relationship Researcher are rarely interested in a single isolated

concept or phenomenon except in descriptive studies

As an example of decriptive study, a researcher might do research to determine the percaentage of patients receiving intravenous therapy who experience IV infiltration versus no infiltration

A relation is a bond or a connection between phenomena

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Relationship Quantitative study adress one or more of the following

questions about relationship:does a relationship between variables exist? Is cigarett smoking related to lung cancer?

What is the direction of the relationship between variables E.g. Are people who smoke more likely or less likely to get lung cancer than those who do not ?

How strong is the relationship betwen variables (how powerful is the relationship between smoking and lung cancer? how probable is it that smokers will be lung cancer victims?

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Relationship What is the nature of the relationship between

variables ? (does smoking cause lung cancer?)

One type of relationship is referred to as a cause-effect (or causal) relationship

Functional relationship (association relationship) relationship between preterm neonate´s behavioral competence on the one hand and the infant´s gender and race on the other

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Correlation In statistics, a measure of the strength of the

relationship between two variables.

It is used to predict the value of one variable given the value of the other.

For example, a correlation might relate distance from urban location to gasoline consumption. Expressed on a scale from -1.0 to +1.0, the strongest correlations are at both extremes and provide the best predictions.

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Key Challenges of conducting research

Researchers face numerous challenges in conductingresearch, including the following: Conceptual challenges (How should key conceptsbe defined? What are the theoretical underpinnings of the study?) Financial challenges (How will the study be paid for? Will available resources be adequate?) Administrative challenges (Is there sufficient

time to complete the study? Can the flow of tasks be adequately managed?)

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Reliability & Validity Researchers want their findings to reflect the truth

Research cannot contribute evidence to guide clinical practice if the findings are inaccurate, biased, fail adequately to represent the experiences of the target group or based on a misinterpretation of the data

Quantitative researchers use several criteria to assess the quality of a study, and two the most important are reliability and validity

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Reliability & Validity Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency (the

property of holding together and retaining its shape) of information

The term is most often associated with the methods used to measure research variables

Ex. if a thermometer measured bob´s temperature as 98.1ºF one minute and as 102.5 ºF the next minute, the reliability of the thermometer would be highly suspect

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Reliability & Validity Statistical reliability refers to the

probability that the same results would be obtained with a completely new sample of subjects that is the results are an accurate reflection of a wider group than just the particular people who participated in the study

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Reliability & Validity Validity is a more complex concept that broadly concerns

the soundness of the study´s evidence- that is, whether the finding are cogent (powerfully persuasive), convincing and well grounded

Validity question is whether there is evidence to support the assertion that the methods are really measuring the abstract concepts that they purport to measure

The importance of having solid conceptual definitions or research variables as well as high quality methods to operationalize them should be apparent

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Reliability & Validity Is a paper and pencil measure of depression really

measuring depression?

Or it is measuring something else, such as loneliness, low self-esteem, or stress?

Another aspect of validity concerns the quality of the researcher’s evidence regarding the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable

Did a nursing intervention really bring about improvements in patient’s outcomes or were other factors responsible for patient’s progress?

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Bias It can threaten the study´s validity

Bias is an influence that produces a distortion (Any undesired change in an signal between input and the output) in the study results

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Bias Bias can result from a number of

factors including: Study participants Subjectivity of the researcher Sample characteristics Faulty methods of data collection Faulty study design

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Bias Random bias: a handful of study participants

might fail to provide totally accurate information as a result of extreme fatigue at the time the data were collected

Systematic bias; results when the bias is consistent or uniform. E.g. If a scale consistently measured peopl´s weights as being 2 ponds heavier than their true weight, they would be systemetic bias in the data on weight

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Randomness Each person has an equal probability of

being selected, no systemetic biases in the make up of the sample

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Generalizability Generalizability to assess the extent to which

the findings can be applied to other groups and settings

Design study strong in reliability and validity

The type of people to whom the results might be generalized, select them nonbiased

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Research Control Holding constant other influences on the dependent

variable so that the tru relationship between the independent and dependent variables can be understood

Research control attempts to eliminate contaminating factors that might cloud the relationship between the varaibles that are of central interest

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Research control

Researchers must usually analyze a couple of relationships at a time and put pieces together like jigsaw puzzle – (a puzzle that requires you to reassemble a picture that has been mounted on a stiff base and cut into interlocking pieces)

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Dr. Aidah Abu Elsoud AlkaissiAn Najah National University

Faculty of Nursing42

Overview of the research process in quantitative

studies

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Major classes of Quantitative

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Experimantal research, researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment

Nonexperimantal researchers collect data without making changes or introducing RX

Experimantal studies designed to rest causal relationship

Experimantal offer the possibility of greater control extraneous variables than nonexperimantal

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Major steps in a Quantitative studyPhase 1: The conceptual phase

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Activities with a stong conceptual or intelletual element

These activities include: reading, conceptualizing, theorising, reconceptualizing and reviewing ideas with colleagues or advisers

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Major steps in a Quantitative studyPhase 1: The conceptual phase

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During this stage, researchers call on such skills as: creativity, deductive reasoning (is logic that moves from the

general to the specific), (is the kind of reasoning in which the conclusion is necessitated by, or reached from, previously known facts (the premises).

Insight (penetration: clear or deep perception of a situation, a feeling of understanding )

A firm grounding in previous research on the topic of interest

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Step 1; formulating and delimiting the problem

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Develop a research problem and research questions

Good research depends to a great degree on good questions

Without significant, interesting problem, the most carefully and skillfully designed research project is of little value

How can this question best be studied to yield high quality evidence

The identification and research questions must also take into consideration practical and ethical concerns

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Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature

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Quanitative research is typically conducted within the context of previous knowledge

To bulid on existing theory or research, quantitative researchers strive to understand what is already known about a research problem

A thorough literature review provides a foundation on which to base new knowledge and usually is conducted well before any data are collected in quantitative studies

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Step 2: Reviewing the related literature

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For clinical problems, it is necessary to learn as much as possible about the ”status quo” of current procedures relating to the topic and to review existing practice guidlines or protocols

A familiarization with previous studies is useful in suggesting research topics or in identifying aspects of a problem about which more research is needed

A litterature review sometimes preceded the delineation (To draw or trace the outline of; sketch out) of the research problem

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Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork

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In addition to refreshing or updating clinical knowledge based on written work, researchers embarking on a clinical study benefit from spending time in clinical settings, discussing the topic with clinicians and health care administrators, and observing current practices.

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Sterling (2001) notes that such clinical fieldwork can provide perspectives on recent clinical trends, current diagnostic procedures, and relevant health care delivery models;

It can also help researchers better understand affected clients and the settings in which care is provided.

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In addition to expanding the researchers’ clinical and conceptual knowledge, such fieldwork can be valuable in developing methodologic tools for strengthening the study.

For example, in the course of clinical fieldwork researchers might learn what extraneous variables need to be controlled,

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Step 4: Defining the Framework andDeveloping Conceptual Definitions

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Theory is the ultimate aim of science in that it transcends the specifics of a particular time, place, and group of people and aims to identify regularities in the relationships among variables.

When quantitative research is performed within the context of a theoretical framework—that is, when previous theory is used as a basis for generating predictions that can be tested through empirical research—the findings may have broader significance and utility.

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Even when the research question is not embedded in a theory, researchers must have a clear sense of the concepts under study.

Thus, an important task in the initial phase of a project is the development of conceptual definitions.

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Step 5: Formulating Hypotheses

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A hypothesis is a statement of the researcher’s expectations about relationships between the variables under investigation.

Hypotheses, in other words, are predictions of

expected outcomes; they state the relationships researchers expect to find as a result of the study.

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The research question identifies the concepts under investigation and asks how the concepts might be related; a hypothesis is the predicted answer.

For example, the initial research question might be phrased as follows: Is preeclamptic toxemia in pregnant women associated with stress factors present during pregnancy?

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This might be translated into the following hypothesis: Pregnant women with a higher incidence of stressful events during pregnancy will be more likely than women with a lower incidence of stress to experience preeclamptic toxemia.

Most quantitative studies are designed to test hypotheses through statistical analysis.

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Phase 2: The design and planning Phase

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Researchers make decision about the methods and procedures to be used to address the research questions and plan for the actual collection of data

Methodologic decisions have crucial implications for the validity and reliability of the study findings

If the methods used to collect and analysze research data are seriously flawed then the evidence from the study may be of little value

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Step 6: Selecting a Research Design

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The research design is the overall plan for obtaining answers to the questions being studied and for handling some of the difficulties encountered during the research process

A wide variety of research designs is available for quantitative studies, including numerous experimental and nonexperimental designs

Researchers specify which specific design will be adopted and what controls will be used to minimize bias and enhance the interpretability of results23-05-03

Step 6: selecting a Research Design

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In quantitative studies, research designs tend to be highly structured with tight controls over extranous variables

Designs indicates what types of comparisons will be made and where the study will take place

The research design is essentially the architectural backbone of the study

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Step 7: Developing Protocols for the Intervention

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In experimental research, researchers actively intervene and create the independent variable, which means that people in the sample will be exposed to different treatments or conditions

If we were interested in testing the effect of biofeedback in treating hypertension, the independent variable would be biofeedback compared with either an alternative treatment (e.g. Relaxation therapy)or with no RX

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Step 7: Developing Protocols for the Intervent

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The intervention protocol for the study would need to be developed, specifying exactly what the biofeedback treatment would entail (who would administer it, how frequently and over how long a period the treatment would last, what specific equipment would be used, and what the alternative condition would be)

The goal of well articulated protocols is to have all subjects in each group treated in the same way

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Step 8: Identifying the population to be studied

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Before selecting subjects, quantitative researchers need to know what characteristics participants should possess

Researchers and others using the findings also need to know whom study results can be generalized

During the planning phase of quantitative studies, researcher must identify the population to be studied

The term population refers to the aggregate or totality of those conforming (be similar) to a set of specifications23-05-03

Step 8: Identifying the population to be studied

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We might specify nurses (RNs) and residence in the US as attributes (a construct whereby objects or individuals can be distinguished) of interest:

The study population would then consist of all licensed RNs who reside in US. We could in a similar fasion define a population consisting of all children younger than 10 years of age with muscular dystrophy in Canada

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Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan

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A sample of subject who are a subset (a set whose members are members of another set) of the population

It is practical and less costly to collect data from a sample than from an entire (Having no part excluded or left out; whole) population

The risk is that the sample might not adequatly reflect the population´s behaviors, traits, symptoms, or beliefs.

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Various methods of obtaining samples are available, these methods vary in cost, effort and skills required but there adequacy is assessed by the same criterion:

The representativeness of the selected sample, that is the quality of the sample for quantitative studies depends on how typical, or representative the sample is of the population with respect to variables of concern in the study

Suphosticated sampling procedures can produce samples that have a high likelohood of being presentative

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The most sophisticated methods are probability sampling methods, which use random procedures for selecting subjects

In a probability sample, every member of the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample

With nonprobability sampling by contrast there is no way of ensurig that each member of population could be selected

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The risk of bias (unrepresentative) sample is greater

The design of a sampling plan includes the selection of a sampling method, the specification of the sample size (i.e. Number of subjects) and the development of procedures for recruiting subjects

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Step 10. Specifying methods to measure the research variables

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Quantitative researchers must develop methods to observe or measure the research variables as accurately as possible

Based on the conceptual definitions, the researcher selects or design appropriate methods of operationalizing the variables and collecting data

A variety of quantitative data collection approaches exit

Biophysiologic measurements often play an important role in clinical research23-05-03

Step 10. Specifying Methods to Measure the Research Variables

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Through self reports, another popular method of data collection, subjects are asked directly about their feelings, behaviors, attitudes and personal traits (for example, in an interview with research personnel)

Another technique is observation, wherein researchers collect data by observing and recording aspects of people´s behavior

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Step 10. Specifying Methods to Measure the Research Variables

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Data collection methods vary in the degree of structure imposed on subjects

Quantitative approaches tend to be fairly structured, involving the use of a formal instrument that elicit the same information from every subject sometimes researchers need to develop their own instruments but more often they use or adapt measuring instruments that have been developed by others

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Step 10. Specifying methods to measure the research variables

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The task of measuring research variables and developing a data collection plan is a complex and challenging process that permits a great deal of creativity and choice

Before finalizing the data collection plan, researchers must carefully evaluate whether the chosen methods cupture key concepts accurately

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Step 11: Developing Methods for Safeguarding Human/Animal Right

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Most nursing research involves human subjects, some studies involve animals

In either case procedures need to be developed to ensure that the study adhers to ethical principles

For example, forms often need to be developed to document that subjects´participation in the study was voluntary23-05-03

Step 11: Developing Methods for Safeguarding Human/Animal Right

Each aspect of the study plan needs to be reviewed to determine whether the rights of subjects have been adequatly protected

Often the review involves a formal presentation to an external committee

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Step 12: Finalizing and Reviewing the Resaerch Plan

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Before collecting research data, researchers often perform a number of test to ensure that plans will work smoothly

Example, they may evaluate the readability of any written materials to determine if people with below-average reading skills can comprehend them

They may need to test whether technical equipment is functioning properly

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If questions are used, it is important to know whether respondents understand questions or find certain ones objectionable (Arousing disapproval ) ; this is usually referred to as pretesting the questionnaire

During final study preparations, researchers also have to determine the type of training to provide to those responsible for collecting data

If researchers have concerns about their study plans they may undertake a pilot study which is a small-scale version or trail run of the major study

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Researchers have their research plan critiqued by peers, consultants or other reviewers to obtain substantive, clinical, or methodologic feedback before implementing the plan when researchers seek financial support for the study

A proposal typically is submitted to a funding source and reviewers of the proposed plan usually suggest improvement

Students conducting study as part of a course or degree requirement have their plans reviewed by faculty advisors

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Researchers are well advised to ask individuals external to the project to assess preliminary plans

Experience researchers with fresh

perspectives can often be invaluable in identifying pitfalls and shortcoming that otherwise might not have been recognized

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Pase 3: The empirical phase

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Involves collecting research data and preparing those data for analysis

The empirical phase is one of the most time-consuming parts of the investigation, the amount of time spent collecting data varies from one study to the next

If data are collecting by distributing a written questionnaire to intact groups, this task may be accomplished in a matter of days. Data collection requires several weeks or even months of work

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Step 13: Collecting the Data

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The researcher´s plan specifies procedures for the actual collection of data (where & when the data will be gathered), for describing the study to participants and for recording information

Researchers must be sure that enough materials are available to complete the study

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Step 13: Collecting the Data

That participants are informed of the time and place that their presence may be required, that research personel (interviewers) are conscientios (extreme care and great effort) in keeping their appointments, that schedules do not conflict

Suitable system of maintaining confidentiality of information has been implemented

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Step 14: Preparing the Data for Analysis

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Look through questionnaire if they are usable, sometimes forms are left almost entirely blank or contain other indications of misinterpretation or noncompliance

Another step is to assign identification numbers to the responses or observations of different subjects if this was not done previously

Coding of the data is needed at this point

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Coding involves the translation of verbal data into numeric form according to a specified plan

This mean assigning numeric codes to categorial variables as gender (1 for female and 2 for male)

Coding might be needed to categorize narrative (something told or recounted in the form of a story) responses to certain questions

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Patient´verbatim (the same words used by a writer or speaker ) "a direct quotation” responses to a question about the quality of nursing care they received during hospitalization might be coded into Positive reactions (1) Negative reaction (2) Neutral reaction (3) Or mixed reaction (4)

Another preliminary step involves transferring the data from written document into computer files for subsequent analysis

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Phase 4: the Analytic Phase

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Quantitative data gathered in the emprical phase are not reported in raw form

They are subjected to analysis and interpretation which occurs in the fourth major phase of a project

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Step 15: Analyzing the Data

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Statistical analysis cover a broad range of techniques from simple procedures (computering an evarage) to complex methods,

Some methods are computationally

formidable (extremely impressive in strength or excellence), the underlying logic of statistical tests is relatively easy to grasp

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Step 16: Interpreting the Results

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Interpretation is the process of making a sense (A capacity to appreciate or understand) and of examining their implications

The process of interpretation begins with an attempt to explain the findings within the context of the theoretical framework, prior empirical (Relying on or derived from observation or experiment) knowledge and clinical experience

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If research hypotheses have been supported an explanation of the results may be straightforward because the findings fit into a previously conceived (To be of the opinion that) argument

If hypothesis are not supported, researcher must explain why this might be so, is the underlying conceptualization (the act of creating something by thinking) wrong or was it inappropriate for the research problem?

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Or do the findings reflect problems with research methods rather than the framework (was the measuring tool inappropriate? )

To provide sound explanatios, researchers not only must be familiar with clinical issues, prior research and conceptual underpinning, but must be able to understand methodologic limitations of the study

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The interpretation of the findings must take into account all available evidence about the study´s reliability and validity

Researchers need to evaluate critically the descision they made in designing the study and to recommend alternatives to other interested in the same research problems

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Phase 5: the Dissemination Phase

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The analytic phase brings researchers full circle

It provides answers to the questions posed in the first phase of the project

Researchers´responsibilities are not complete until the study results are dissminated23-05-03

Step 17: Communicating the Findings

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A study cannot contribute evidence to nursing practice if the results are not communicated

Final task of a research project is the preparation of a research report that can be shared with others

Research reports can take various forms: Term papers Dissertation Journal articles Presentations at professional conferences Journal article-reports appearing in such professional journal -

usually are the most useful because they are available to a broad, international audience

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18: Utilizing the Findings in Practice

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The concluding step of a high quality study is to plan for its utilization in practice settings

Nurse researcher may not themselves be in a position to implement a plan for utilizing research findings, they can contribute to the process by including in their research reports recommendations regarding how the evidence from the study could be incorporated into the practice

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Key Concepts and Terms in Quantitative Research