Key Concept 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religions

Strayer: Chapter 5

Key Concept 2.2: The Development of States and Empires

Strayer: Chapters 4-7 depending on theme and region

Key Concept 2.3: Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and Exchange

Strayer: Chapters 4, 8

Challenges and Problems with Studying Religious History Change: religions present themselves

as timeless, but historians see development over time – human, not divine phenomena Experience of a divine reality: historians

have trouble dealing with believers’ experiential claims

Which group within a religion is “authentic?” Historians usually refuse to take sides.

It can be difficult to reconcile personal religious belief with historical scholarship.

Strayer, 214-5

• Key point: you may not agree with some of the faiths in this discussion.

• You may even disagree how your teacher or textbook discuss your faith.

• Be respectful and learn to take on a new perspective. No one will be forcing new beliefs down your throat during this lesson.

Why Did these religions emerge during this time?

Some historians point to major social change.

Iron-age technology = higher productivity and deadlier warfare

Growing cities, increased commerce

Emergence of new states and empires

New contacts between civilizations

It’s a mystery why particular societies developed particular answers.

World Religious and Cultural Traditions

China: Confucianism (Confucius) and Taoism (Laozi)

India: Hinduism and Buddhism

Middle East: development of monotheism Persia: Zoroastrianism

(Zarathustra/Zoroaster) Israel: Judaism (Isaiah),

Christianity (Jesus, Paul) Arabia: Islam (Mohammed)

Greece: rational humanism (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, et al.)

Key Concept 2.1

Human responses to physical conditions from 600 BCE to 600 CE shaped

the development of religions and cultural systems in the world’s various

regions. Religions/belief systems provided a bond among the people and

an ethical code to live by in addition to influencing and reinforcing

political, economic, and occupational stratification. Religious and

political authority merged as rulers, some considered divine, used

religion along with military and legal structures to justify their rule and

ensure its continuation. Religious leaders frequently allied with political

leaders.

KC 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and

Cultural TraditionsI. Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions provided a bond among the people and an ethical code to live by.

A. The association of monotheism with Judaism was further developed with the codification of the Hebrew Scriptures, which also reflected the influence of Mesopotamian cultural and legal traditions. The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Roman empires conquered various Jewish states at different points in time. These conquests contributed to the growth of Jewish diasporic communitiesaround the Mediterranean and Middle East.

The Jewish diaspora is something we will unfortunately see throughout history.

When we see it again: the Crusades which triggered the first orchestrated holocaust against the Jewish people as Christian armies marched east to take the Holy Land from Muslim kingdoms.

Hamentash (above): a Jewish pastry popular during the holiday of Purim which commemorates the saving of Judaism from Haman as recorded in the Book of Esther.

Bottom: French Jews are evicted, ca 1100

B. The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of the Vedic religions — developing later into what was known as Hinduism, a monistic belief system. These beliefs included the importance of multiple manifestations of brahman and teachings about dharma and reincarnation, and they contributed to the development of the social and political roles of a caste system.

KC 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions

Hinduism Ancient religion which originated in the Indus Valley

ca. 1500 BCE; no specific founder

500 BCE – 300 CE: “Hindu synthesis,” time period when Hinduism was refined under the Maurya and Gupta Empires

World’s third largest religion and vital to help us understand patterns of human interaction between 600 BCE through present day

Focus: moksha (liberation) of the atman (soul) from samsara (cycle of reincarnation) – most humans will reincarnate but the objective is to be one with god by transcending this state by focusing on the atman

Atman = perfect, Human = imperfect

Hinduism and the Caste System According to the Rig Veda, the foundational

ancient sacred text of Hinduism, the primal man Purusha, destroyed himself to create a human society

Caste = a European word; Varna is the religious word for each caste

Caste is determined by past actions/past lives; reincarnation or samsara occurs – it is the goal of the individual to follow their dharma (duty) to build up good karma in order to be reincarnated into higher castes

Your present caste is based on your past actions

• Reincarnation - Atman spirits are reborn in different people after one body dies. This rebirth has no beginning and no end, and is part of the larger universal spirit that pervades all of life.

• Karma - This widely used word actually refers to the pattern of cause and effect that transcends individual human lives. Whether or not an individual fulfills his/her duties in one life determines what happens in the next.

• Dharma - Duties called dharma are attached to each caste position. For example, a warrior's dharma is to fight honorably, and a wife's duty is to serve her husband faithfully. Even the lowliest caste has dharma attached to it. If one fulfills this dharma, the reward is for the atman to be reborn into a higher caste. Only the atman of a member of the highest caste (originally the priests) has the opportunity to be reunited with the universal spirit.

• Moksha - Moksha is the highest, most sought-after goal for the atman. It describes the reunion with the universal spirit.

Hinduism – Terms to Know

KC 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and

Cultural TraditionsII. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.

A. The core beliefs preached by the historic Buddha and collected by his followers in sutras and other scriptures about desire, suffering, and the search for enlightenment preached by the historic Buddha and collected by his followers in sutras and other scriptures were, in part, a reaction to the Vedic beliefs and rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism branched into many schools and changed over time as it spread throughout Asia — first through the support of the MauryanEmperor Ashoka, and then through the efforts of missionaries and merchants, and the establishment of educational institutions to promote Buddhism’s core teachings.

Buddhism’s Main Tenets Began in India in the Ganges River are during the 6th

century BCE. Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as the Buddha, or the "Enlightened One."

Siddhartha was the son of a wealthy Hindu prince who grew up with many advantages in life. However, as a young man he did not find answers to the meaning of life in Hinduism, so he left home to become an ascetic, or wandering holy man.

His Enlightenment came while sitting under a tree, and the revelations of that day form the basic tenets of Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.

Like Hinduism, Buddhism’s ultimate goal is to end the cycle of reincarnation and achieve liberation, or Nirvana as the Buddhists name the concept

Buddhism’s Four Noble Truths

1. All of life is suffering

2. Suffering is caused by false desires for things that do not bring satisfaction

3. Suffering may be relieved by removing the desire

4. Desire may be removed by following the Eightfold Path.

Key Difference Between

Mahayana Buddhism

& Theravada Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhism turned Buddha into a divine figure to whom one offers devotion.

Adopting a sophisticated form of Mahayana ("great vehicle") Buddhism from monastic centers in northern and northeastern India, Javanese Buddhists created images of the Buddha as well as of members of the Buddhist pantheon.

Tara (right) helps extend the powers of the Buddha-to-be Avalokiteshvara, but she is frequently worshiped as an independent deity- a savior who helps convey the rays of Avalokiteshvara'scompassion to the suffering beings of this world.

“Buddha” vs.

“Budai” Buddhist art often shows many “little b” buddhas –or enlightened beings. Remember that Buddhists only recognize Siddhartha Gautama as the “big B” Buddha.

Left: Budai, a Chinese monk thought to become the next Buddha. Often depicted laughing and often confused in the West as “the Buddha.”

Photos by Mr. Fahler (l: northern Taiwan, r: Hong Kong)

1. Was a simplified and more accessible version of Hinduism2. Buddha as a teacher & model, but not divine.3. Buddha’s later followers would interpret it differently:

Mahayana and Theravada which would debate the nature of the Buddha.

How does Buddhism compare to Hinduism?

Strayer, Ch. 5

China and the Search for Order

KC 2.1.II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged

and spread, often asserting universal truths.

B. Confucianism’s core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessons of Confucius. They were elaborated by key disciples, including rulers such as Wudi, who sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social relationships for all people in China.

The Confucian Answer

Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) was an educated, ambitious aristocrat

• spent much of life looking for a political position to put his ideas into practice

• Confucius’s ideas had enormous impact on China and the rest of East Asia

• his teachings were collected by students as the Analects

Main principle: the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder

• society consists of unequal relationships

• duty of the superior member to be sincere and benevolent

• will inspire deference & obedience from the inferior member

• humans have capacity for improvement: education

• family = model for political life, with focus on filial piety (honoring ones ancestors & parents)

• defined role of women as being humble, serving husbands

Confucianism Primarily concerned with human relationships, with effective government, and with social harmony.

Legalism

Han Fei was a leading Legalist philosopher

a. principle: strict rules, clearly defined and strictly enforced, are the answer to disorder

b. pessimistic view of human nature; only the state can act in people’s long-term interest

c. promotion of farmers and soldiers, who performed the only essential functions in society

d. Legalism inspired the Qin dynasty reunification of China – brutality of unification discredited legalism by time of the Han

勢 (Shì, power)術 (Shù, technique) 法 (Fǎ, law)

In China, Legalism possessed several features of a modern secular political philosophy in its reliance on law and the enforcement of lawto secure a stable society.

The first emperor of China backed Legalist methods in a rather ruthless way. – Term to remember: Realpolitik

KC 2.1.II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged

and spread, often asserting universal truths.

C. In major Daoist writings, the core belief of balance between humans and nature assumed that the Chinese political system would be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the development of Chinese culture.

Taoism (Daoism) Laozi (sixth century B.C.E.), author of the

Daodejing (The Way and Its Power)

Daoism was in many ways the opposite of Confucianism

education and striving for improvement was artificial

urged withdrawal into the world of nature

central concept: dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena

elite Chinese often regarded Daoism as a complement to Confucianism

Daoism entered popular religion

sought to tap the power of the dao for practical purposes (magic, the quest for immortality)

provided the ideology for peasant rebellions (e.g., Yellow Turbans)

D. Core beliefs of Christianity, based on the teachings, divinity and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded by his disciples, drew on Judaism as well as Roman and Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility, Christianity spread through the efforts of missionaries, merchants, and many saints through many parts of Afro-Eurasia, and eventually gained Roman imperial support by the time of Emperor Constantine.

KC 2.1.II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.

• Though it initially rejected Roman and Hellenistic culture, these cultures (and languages: the New Testament is written in Greek and later Bibles would be in Latin) would transform the religion as it entered Europe.

• Notable figures: St. Paul (right), Constantine (first Roman emperor to convert), Theodosius I (Christianized Rome officially)

• Began by being very popular with the lower strata of society, much like Buddhism, because Christianity offered universal salvation regardless of class or gender.

Christianity spread first through the teachers of Jesus and his followers and later through acceptance in the Roman Empire.

Greek intellectuals abandoned mythological framework world is a physical reality governed by natural laws

humans can understand those laws

human reason can work out a system for ethical life

Socrates of Athens (469–399 B.C.E.)

argument, logic, questioning of received wisdom

constant questioning of assumptions

conflict with city authorities over

accused of corrupting the youth, Athenian democracy

executed

E. Greco-Roman religious and philosophical traditions offered diverse perspectives on the study of the natural world, the connection to the divine, and the nature of political power and hierarchy. Some of these perspectives emphasized logic, empirical observation, and scientific investigation.

KC 2.1.II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.

Socrates is remembered chiefly as a philosopher and the teacher of Plato, but he was also a

citizen of Athens,

Soldier – served the military as a hoplite during the Peloponnesian War, where he remained calm while most around him were in a panic

participant in the Athenian democratic Council of the 500

Earliest classical Greek thinkers applied rational questioning to understand human behavior

Herodotus: Greco-Persian War - Historian “Father of History (Lies)”

Plato: (429–348 B.C.E.) outlined design for a good society (Republic) led by a “philosopher-king”

Aristotle: (384–322 B.C.E.) Became a teacher to Alexander of Macedonia (who became Alexander the Great)

F. Art and architecture reflected the values of religions and belief systems (such as Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, Greco-Roman)

KC 2.1.II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.

Sanchi Stupa in India, commissioned by Ashoka, ca. 240 BCE

Jesus Healing the Bleeding Woman, Roman catacombs, ca. 300-350 CE

III. Belief systems generally reinforced existing social structures while also offering new roles and status to some men and women.

A. Confucianism emphasized filial piety

B. Some Buddhists and Christians practiced a monastic life.

NOTE: We will heavily focus on this in Chapter 6

KC 2.1.III. Reinforcement of existing social structures and gender roles

IV. Other religious and cultural traditions continued and in some places were incorporated into major religious traditions.

A. Shamanism, animism, and ancestor veneration continued in their traditional forms in some instances, and in others were incorporated into other religious traditions.

KC 2.1.II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.

How would you define the appeal of the

religious/cultural traditions discussed in this chapter?Traditions such as Judaism appealed to all strata of one ethnic group because they defined a special relationship between that group and a powerful divine entity. Early Christian writers such as St. Paul made Christianity appealing to non-Jews as well as people from all strata of society.

Jews: born into an ethnic religion and have a "Covenant with God."

As we will see in Chapter 6, Buddhism’s popularity was similar in that it included a response to a social order that otherwise could not be questioned. As it moved into China, Buddhism allowed both men and women another option outside of traditional society in the form of monastic life – Christianity would reflect this in Europe.

Hindu caste system: Buddha questions, but does not end it.

• To what extent does religion act as a catalyst for social change? How does

it reinforce social norms? Likewise: how does it inspire political change

and/or reinforce central power over a group of people?

We will be addressing these questions throughout the year.