KETAHANAN LINGKUNGAN: Environmental Hazards & Human Health

KETAHANAN LINGKUNGAN:

Environmental Hazards & Human

Health

Apakah bahaya lingkungan ?

'Environmental hazard' is a generic term for any situation or state of events which poses a

threat to the surrounding environment.

This term incorporates topics like pollution and natural hazards

such as storms and earthquakes.

Sumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari: www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-...... 15/12/2012

http://www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-

Sumber: http://peer.tamu.edu/curriculum_modules/properties/module_4/index.htm….

Diunduh 16/12/2012

BAHAYA DAN RISIKO

BAHAYA = Hazard:Is “a factor or exposure that may adversely

affect health” it is a qualitative term expressing the potential of an

environmental agent to harm the health of certain individuals if the exposure level is

high enough and/or if other conditions apply.

RisikoIs “the probability that an event will occur, the

probability of unfavorable outcome e.g that an individual will become ill or die within a

stated period of time or age. It is the quantitative probability that a health effect

will occur after an individual has been exposed to a specified amount of a hazard.



KONTAMINASI

Contamination -- Introduction into water, air, and soil of

microorganisms, chemicals, toxic substances, wastes, or wastewater in

a concentration that makes the medium unfit for its next intended

use.

Also applies to surfaces of objects, buildings, and various household and

agricultural use products.



PENCEMARANPollution is the introduction of

contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or

discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms.

Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise,

heat, or light energy.

Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or

naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered

contaminants when they exceed natural levels.

Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.



POLUTAN = PENCEMAR• A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes

air, water or soil. • Three factors determine the severity of a

pollutant: – Sifat kimianya, – Konsentrasinya– Persistensinya.

Sumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari:

www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-...... 15/12/2012

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_Pollution-Causes%26Effects.svg


http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Air_Pollution-Causes&Effects.svg

"Pollution" is generally used when you're talking about something big, like a

whole environment, or an entire river, or something else really large.

"Contamination" can refer to very small quantities of something - contaminated food, medicine, drinking water supply; it

can also mean a very small amount of foreign or harmful material, such as bacterial contamination, or a toxin,

especially when it's not readily visible or noticeable.

For instance, a surgical suite could be contaminated simply because someone

walks into it when they're not sterile, and it would be completely invisible.


POLUTAN & KONTAMINASI


ANY external factor that negatively affects your health can be

considered an environmental health “hazard." Common environmental health hazards include indoor and

outdoor air pollution, and contaminated food and water. Less commonly discussed environmental health hazards

include lack of sidewalks, crime, insufficient physical activity, poor nutrition, social isolation, noise,

stress, and the lack of aesthetically pleasing living environments.


BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN BAGI KESEHATAN ?


JENIS BAHAYA KESEHATAN LINGKUNGAN

Bahaya Tradisional

• Disease Vectors• Infectious agents• Housing and Shelter• Drinking Water &

Sanitation• Indoor air Pollution• Dietary Deficiencies• Reproduction• Injury hazards

Bahaya Modern• Tobacco smoking• Alcohol and drugs• Transport hazards• Environmental

pollution• Outdoor air

pollution• Chemical hazards• Occupational

Hazards• Unbalanced Diet• Stress



Jalur masuknya bahaya EH• Inhalation

– airborne contaminants• Absorption

– penetration through the skin• Ingestion

– eating– drinking

Sumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari: www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-

...... 15/12/2012

Routes of intestinal exposure to air pollutants. Urban and industrial air pollutants can contaminate food and water, which are then ingested by humans or indirectly

enter the human food chain through consumption of contaminated animals.

Pollutants are also inhaled and then either absorbed systemically and delivered through the blood stream

to the gut or cleared by airway cilia and then ingested.

Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187399461100078X


http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187399461100078X

• Acute– Short term period between exposure and

onset of symptoms

• Chronic– Long time period between exposure to

an agent and the onset of symptoms


www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-...... 15/12/2012

PAPARAN BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN

Mechanisms of intestinal injury by air pollutants.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187399461100078X


http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187399461100078X

There are five types of environmental hazards:• Chemical ; Physical ; Mechanical ; Biological ; Psychosocial


JENIS-JENIS BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN

The system of environmental health. The human living environment consists of home, work and recreational environments. The interaction

between these environments and human activities results in various types of hazards that may adversely affect human health. (Source: adapted

from Bassett, 2004)

Sumber: http://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=452284&extra=thumbnail_id392363134945...... 15/12/2012


Pesticides; Acids and Bases; Metal fumes ; Solvents; Gases

BAHAYA BAHAN KIMIA

Sumber:. http://aquaticpath.umd.edu/appliedtox/module1-termin.html..... 15/12/2012


BAHAYA BAHAN KIMIA


• Insects; Rodents; Animals• Microorganisms:

– Bacteria– Viruses– Parasites– Yeasts– Molds

Sumber: Environmental Health

Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh

dari: www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-

...... 15/12/2012

BAHAYA BIOLOGIS

Biological risk assessment and risk management

Sumber: …. Diunduh dari: http://www.biosafety.be/CU/RA_Fiches/Intro_and_menu.html...... 17/12/2012



Tipe Bahaya Fisika:• Noise and Vibration• Ionizing Radiation• Non-ionizing Radiation• Light, Lasers• Pressure• Extremes of Temperature


www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-

...... 15/12/2012

BAHAYA FISIKA

Characteristics of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.

Sumber: gtcceis.anl.gov …. Diunduh dari: ...... 18/12/2012



• Uncertainty• Anxiety• Lack of feeling of control over one own

life• Homesickness• Isolation


BAHAYA PSIKOSOSIALCommon Signs of Anxiety

Anxiety itself could also be a result of a deeper physiological or psychological cause. That is why the

possible manifestations that are associated with anxiety are numerous and can be classified into the specific areas

of the body affected. Anxiety is often difficult to identify in a person. Extreme cases present with severe symptoms.

This makes stress or anxiety exercises and treatments an essential for anyone going through

anxiety attacks.

Read More Here: http://relieveanxietynow.com/common-signs-of-anxiety/


http://relieveanxietynow.com/common-signs-of-anxiety/

– Stress is a human response to stressors

– Stress is a specific event or situation that causes a mental or psychological reaction.

– Stress is a process resulting from the interaction between humans and the environment.

– Stress process consists of 2 stages:

• Deciding whether or not an event (stressor) poses a hazard

• Appraising the possibilities of dealing with the situation.


APAKAH STRESS ITU?


• Penyakit Kardiovaskular– Hypertension– Ischemic heart diseases– Increase heart rate

• Peptic ulcer• Asma Bronchial


www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-...... 15/12/2012

EFEK STRESS THD KESEHATAN

http://womenonthefence.com/2012/12/03/new-research-on-stress-how-you-react-today-effects-your-health-in-the-future/


http://womenonthefence.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/StressSymptoms.gif

BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN YANG SERIUS

• Polutan Udara– Indoor air pollutants– Outdoor air pollutants

• Kelangkaan air & Polutan air• Bahaya makanan• Bahaya rumah hunian• Bahaya permukiman• Bahaya serangga & Rodents• Pestisida• Bahaya lingkungan global



EFEK KESEHATAN AKIBAT PENCEMARAN UDARA

Sumber: Diunduh dari: http://www.gits4u.com/envo/envo7.htm...... 15/12/2012

Climate change and health Climate change has a range of complex interlinkages with health. These include direct impacts, such as temperature- related illness and death; the health impacts of extreme weather events; the effect of air pollution in the

form of spores and moulds.

BAHAYA KESEHATAN YANG PENTING? Do We Face?

The effects of environmental exposures on health depend on the social settings in which the exposures occur and on individual behaviours.

Behavioural risk factors are sometimes closely related to physical risk factors (e.g. hygiene is related to sanitation) and modify the health impacts

of the physical risk factors. Indeed, the specific contributions of related behavioural and physical risk factors sometimes cannot easily be separated,

as for example in the risk factor "water, sanitation and hygiene".

Sumber: https://apps.who.int/peh/burden/9241546204/9241546204chap2.htm.diunduh 15/12/2012

http://www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh

APAKAH PENCEMARAN UDARA?

• Addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in damage to the environment, human health and quality of life

• Can occur indoor or outdoor, in cities and across continents and even globally

• Air pollutants consist of: gaseous pollutants, odors, suspended particle matter (dust, fumes, mist and smoke)



POLUSI UDARA DI DALAM RUANGAN

• Indoor air can be defined as any non-industrial indoor space where a person spends a period of an hour or more in any day.

• This can include the air space in the office, classroom, motor vehicle, shopping centre, hospital and home.



PENCEMAR UDARA DALAM RUANGAN

• second-hand tobacco smoke; • airborne mold and mildew; • lead-impregnated dust from old paint

cockroach shedding; • dust mite particles; • combustion gases released by stoves,

heaters, candles and fireplaces; chemicals released by – dry cleaned clothes; – cleaning products; – room deodorizers; – office supplies; – paints and sealers; – new furniture and pressed wood; – personal care products; and – pesticides.



SUMBER PENCEMAR INDOOR



PENCEMAR UDARA OUTDOOR• Ozone (O3); Particulate Matter (PM)• Carbon Monoxide (CO(; Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2); Lead (Pb)• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)• Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs(

Sumber: http://www.epa.gov/apti/course422/ap3.html...... 15/12/2012

SUMBER PENCEMAR UDARA

• Transportation (Mobile sources )– Motor vehicles, rail, shipping,

aviation.• Industry sources

– Power stations, petroleum refining, chemical manufacturing.

• Power Plants• Central heating • Incineration of domestic wastes



EFEK KESEHATAN – PENCEMAR UDARA

• Irritation of nose, eye, and throat• Respiratory diseases (Bronchitis, Asthma,

cough, nausea …etc.)• Cardiovascular diseases• Toxicity (CO)• Decrease of pulmonary function and

restricted activities)• Cancers (Benzene)• Neurological impairments, such as seizures,

mental retardation, and behavioral disorders (Pb).

• kidney/liver damage, CNS disorders (Arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, and chromium)

• Increased hospital admissions and ER visits.• Premature death




Efek Polusi thd KesehatanPolusi Udara Polusi Air

Kontaminasi Tanah

Pestisida

Ozon

BakteriParasit

Bahan Kimia

Pb


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Health_effects_of_pollution.png


Piramida efek

kesehatan

EFEK KESEHATAN POLUSI UDARA


PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA

• Reduce emissions (conservation and improved efficiency); e.g., refineries

• Collect, capture, and retain pollutants before entering the atmosphere; e.g., gas stations

• Regulating automobile exhaust using catalytic converter, control of sulfur dioxide through scrubbing

• Varied pollutant-control strategies and new and improved technologies



Risiko biasanya dinyatakan dalam “Peluang”

• Risiko • Probability and possibility • Pendugaan Risiko• Pengelolaan Risiko

Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012




http://www.ileviathan.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/risk-management.jpg

• Regulatory control– Standards (process and

emission)• Engineering control

– Ventilation (general and local)– Process change

• Work practice control• Administrative control• Personnel protective

equipment


PENGENDALIAN POLUSI UDARA


PENTINGNYA KESEHATAN AIR

• There are 4 billion cases of diarrhea worldwide each year and 2.2 million avoidable deaths-that's a death every 14 seconds.

• Most diarrheal deaths occur in the Majority World and just being able to wash one's hands with soap and water can reduce diarrhea by 35%.

• Insect-related diseases Malaria, is the biggest killer, causing 1-2 million deaths a year. At any given time 100 million people suffer from the disease.

• Parasites Intestinal worms infect about 10% of the majority world population. About 200 million people are affected by schistosomiasis (bilharzia), with 200,000 dying each year.

• After a peak in the late 1980s, guinea-worm infections have been declining as water sources are better monitored.



• Every day, diarrheal diseases cause some 6,000 deaths, mostly among children under five: in 2001, 1.96 million people died from infectious diarrheas; 1.3 million were children under five.

• Diarrheal diseases have killed more children in the past ten years than all the people lost to armed conflict since World War II.

• Between 1,085,000 and 2,187,000 deaths due to diarrheal diseases can be attributed to the 'water, sanitation and hygiene' risk factor, 90% of them among children under five.

• With simple hygiene measures such as washing hands after using the toilet or before preparing food, most of these deaths are preventable.


PENTINGNYA KESEHATAN AIR


• Biological• Chemical• physical

Sumber:. Diunduh dari: http://www.idph.state.ia.us/WhatWeDo/Profiles.aspx?category=Environmental%20Hazards...... 15/12/2012

BAHAYA AIR & EFEK KESEHATAN

Volatile organic compoundsHydrophobic organic compoundsEndocrine disruptorsPetroleum AdditivesPesticides

Heavy metalsOther inorganic elementsAcids/basesOxidants/reductantsChlorination by-productsCombustion by-products

39


BAHAN BERBAHAYA DALAM AIR


Typhoid fever ; Giardia ; Dysentery ; Cholera ; Diarrhea (caused by a variety of pathogens) ;

Hepatitis ; Polio ; Worms Sumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari:

www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-...... 15/12/2012

PENYAKIT DARI AIR

Classification of water-related diseases

Sumber; http://helid.digicollection.org/en/d/Jwhow01e/2.1.html


JASAD PATHOGENIK

41



42


JASAD PATHOGENIK


PENYAKIT YANG BERHUBUNGAN DNEGAN AIR

43



TINGKAT PENYAKIT & RISIKONYA

44



PENDUGAAN RISIKO & PENGELOLAAN RISIKO


PENDUGAAN RISIKO

PENGELOLAAN RISIKO




Fig. 17-3, p. 440

Risk Assessment

Risk Management

Hazard identification What is the hazard?

Risk reduction How much should it be reduced?Probability of

risk How likely is the event?

Risk reduction strategy How will the risk be reduced?

Consequences of risk What is the likely damage?

Financial commitment How much money should be spent?


TINGKAT PENYAKIT & RISIKONYA

Identifikasi bahaya

Apa bahaya itu?

Analisis komparatif risiko

Bagaimana dibandingkan dg risiko mlainnya?




KONTROL PENCEMARAN AIR

Pencegahan pencemaranMeminimumkan pencemaran

– recycling and re-use; treatment; encourage cleaner production technologies; encourage good housekeeping

Disinfection (Chlorination)Disposal or discharge of waste water

– only under specified conditions; precautionary approach; differentiated approach; polluter pays

47



BAHAYA MAKANANAbout risk analysis in food

The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) are in the forefront of the development of risk-based approaches for the

management of public health hazards in food. The approach used is called risk analysis, and is made up of

three components: Risk assessment; Risk management; Risk communication

Sumber: …. Diunduh dari: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/micro/riskanalysis/en/...... 15/12/2012

http://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/micro/riskassessment/en/index.html

TIPE-TIPE BAHAYA MAKANAN

• Biologis: bacteria, viruses, parasites• Bahan Kimia: heavy metals, natural toxins,

sanitizers, pesticides, antibiotics• Fisika: bone, rocks, metal


Diunduh dari: http://www.agnet.org/htmlarea_graph/library/20110717204233/eb496f5.jpg


BAHAYA BIOLOGIS DALAM MAKANAN

Biologis = Organisme hidup• Dalam daging dan unggas: • Salmonella bacteria (poultry and eggs)• Trichinella spiralis parasite (pork) On Fruits and Vegetables:• E. coli bacteria (apple juice)• Cyclospora parasite (raspberries)• Hepatitis A virus (strawberries)

Sumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah

Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari: www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-

...... 15/12/2012



http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369527411001834







Pencegahan pertumbuhan mikroba– Holding at low temperatures

(<40oF)– Cooling from 140o-40oF quickly

“Memasak” membantu mematikan mikroba– >165oF(73o C) for poultry and

eggs– >155oF (68o C) for ground beef– >160oF (71o C) for pork


MENCEGAH BAHAYA BIOLOGIS DALAM MAKANAN


Bahaya Kimiawi: a toxic substance that is produced naturally added intentionally or un-intentionally

• Naturally-occurring: – Natural toxins (aflatoxins, marine

toxins) • Added intentionally:

– Antibiotics, preservatives• Added non-intentionally:

– Cleaning agents, Pesticide Residues


BAHAYA KIMIA DALAM MAKANAN



BAHAYA KIMIA DALAM MAKANAN

Bahaya kimia yang tidak nampak

pada makananResidu

Pestisida

Residu Veteriner

Bahan kimia

pembersih


Lima faktor siriko gangguan penyakit akibat dari makanan:– Makanan dari sumber yang tidak

aman– Waktu dan suhu penyimpanan

makanan yang tidak tepat– Higienis personal yang buruk– Memasak yang tidak tepat– Kontaminasi silang.


FAKTOR RISIKO MAKANAN


SISTEM KENDALI MAKANAN• To guarantee quality and safety of the

foods traded at the national and international level;– Protecting the health of the consumers and

ensuring fair practices in the food trade;– Facilitating food trade.


Diunduh dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/X2805E-4.gif


REGULASI MAKANAN• Consumer protection, facilitate the

production of safe food and fair trade practices. – Simple, coherent, transparent, result of process

of consensus among the food chain actors.– Based on risk assessment through the food

chain. Sumber: Environmental Health Hazard . Atallah Z. Rabi …. Diunduh dari: www.sawa2006.com/.../22%20-...... 15/12/2012

Diunduh dari: http://www.kfda.go.kr/eng/index.do?nMenuCode=4


Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

• To monitor and control production processes

• Identify food safety hazards and critical control points

• Production, processing and marketing

• Establish limits• Monitor

• Applied to meat, poultry, and eggs



PENGENALAN DAN KONTROL BAHAYA DI HUNIAN

• Determine if personnel have potential occupational exposure to environmental hazards.

• Obtain training. • Voluntarily notify supervisor or OMC

of any pre-disposition to environmental hazards that can create medical emergencies.

• Use personal protective equipment, administrative controls, and engineering controls when exposed to environmental hazards.



MENGURANGI / KONTROL BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN

• Prevent the creation of a hazard in the first place

• Reduce the amount of hazard brought into being

• Prevent the release of existing hazard• Modify the rate or spatial distribution of

release of hazard from its source• Separate, in time or in place, the hazard

and that which is to be protected.• Separate the hazard and that which is to

be protected by interaction of a material barrier.

• Modify the basic qualities of the hazard.• Make that which is to be protected more

resistant to damage from the hazard• Counter damage already done by the

environmental hazard• Stabilize, repair, and provide

rehabilitative corrective measures



Kita menghadapi banyak macam bahaya Lingkungan

• Lima tipe-utama bahaya– Biologis: pathogens– Kimiawi– Fisika– Kultural– Pilihan Gaya hidup

Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….

www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental

.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012

Diunduh dari: http://www.acdirect.com/images/imgUV/lightspectrum2.jpg




JENIS-JENIS BAHAYA BIOLOGIS Do We Face?

In terms of death rates, the most serious infectious diseases are flu, AIDS, diarrheal diseases, malaria, and tuberculosis; most

of these deaths occur in developing countries.


Diunduh dari: http://www.zandair.com/library/norovirus/




Bbrp penyakit dapat menular dari satu orang ke orang lainnya

1. Nontransmissible disease2. Infectious disease3. Transmissible disease

(contagious or communicable disease)

Sumber: Environmental

Hazard and Human Health. ………….



http://www.rims.edu.in/HealthCareCDACKolgksaha/Zoom-%20Infectious%20Diseases%20-%20Ringworm-Jock%20Itch-Worms-Amebas-Malaria.html




Sejak 1950, kematian akibat penyakit infeksi telah menurun, karena :– Perawatan kesehatan lebih baik– Antibiotika– Vaksin

Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh

15/12/2012

Bbrp penyakit dapat menular dari satu orang ke orang lainnya

Diunduh dari: http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/immune-system/vaccination-and-immunisation.php#




Penyakit infeksi masih menjadi ancaman utama

• Penyakit infeksi menyebar melalui:– Udara– Air– Makanan– Cairan tubuh

• Epidemik dan Pandemik• Resistensi bacteri dan serangga




Global warming has various effects on human health. The main indirect effects are on infectious diseases. Although the effects on infectious

diseases will be detected worldwide, the degree and types of the effect are different, depending on the location of the respective countries and

socioeconomical situations.

Diunduh dari: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2210909910000056?via=sd




JALUR PENYAKIT INFEKSI PADA MANUSIA





RESISTENSI GENETIK THD ANTIBIOTIK

• Bacteria: rapid reproduction, easily spread• Penggunaan antibiotika yg berlebihan• Penggunaan pesticida yang berlebihSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. …………. www.bergen.edu/.../

Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012

Antibiotic Resistance is the adaptation of bacterial strains to certain of the ANTIBIOTIC MEDICATIONS doctors prescribe

to treat infections the BACTERIA cause, rendering the antibiotic ineffective.

Sumber: http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/antibiotic-resistance.html _...diunduh 15/12/2012





• Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)– Resistant to most antibiotics– Symptoms of MRSA– How will it be controlled?

Sumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health.

…………. www.bergen.edu/.../

Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh

15/12/2012

RESISTENSI GENETIK THD ANTIBIOTIK

Sumber: http://www.scq.ubc.ca/attack-of-the-superbugs-antibiotic-resistance/ _...diunduh 15/12/2012

Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance.





ANCAMAN GLOBAL AKIBAT TUBERCULOSIS

• Why is tuberculosis on the rise?– Not enough screening and control

programs– Genetic resistance to a majority of

effective antibiotics– Person-to-person contact has

increased– AIDS individuals are very

susceptible to TB





BEBERAPA PENYAKIT VIRUS SANGAT MEMATIKAN

• Influenza or flu virus– #1 Killer– Transmission

• HIV– #2 Killer– Antiviral drugs




Diunduh dari: http://www.influenzareport.com/ir/images/image26.jpg




• Global strategy to slow down the spread of HIV– Reduce the number of new

infections– Concentrate on those most likely

to spread HIV– Free testing– Education for prevention– Provide free or low-cost drugs– Research






• Hepatitis B virus (HBV)– #3 Killer– Mode of transmission

• Viruses that move form animals to humans– West Nile virus– Severe acute respiratory

syndrome (SARS)

• Reduce chances of infection: Wash your hands






PENYEBARAN PENYAKIT INFEKSI DARI BINATANG KE

MANUSIA

• Ecological medicine• Human practices that

encourage the spread of diseases from animals to humans

• Emerging infections– HIV– SARS– West Nile virus– Lyme virus





Malaria— oleh NYAMUK PEMBAWA PARASIT

• Malaria– Caused by Plasmodium sp. carried by

Anopheles mosquitoes – Penyebaran– Gejala-gejala– Siklus Malarial

Malaria transmission cycle

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/medical/IM00175

• Malaria on the rise since 1970– Drug resistant Plasmodium– Insecticide resistant mosquitoes – Effect of global warming– AIDS patients particularly vulnerable

• Prevention of spread and current research




Malaria— oleh NYAMUK PEMBAWA PARASIT

http://www.radar-sulbar.com/mamuju/mamuju-matra-zona-rawan-malaria/




Mengurangi penyakit infeksi• Good news

– Vaccinations on the rise– Oral rehydration therapy

• Bad news– More money needed for medical research in

developing countries




Diunduh dari: http://www.medicalook.com/Infectious_diseases/




SOLUTIONS

Infectious Diseases

Increase research on tropical diseases and vaccinesReduce povertyDecrease malnutritionImprove drinking water quality

Reduce unnecessary use of antibioticsEducate people to take all of an antibiotic prescriptionMengurangi penggunaan antibiotik

dalam budidaya unggas

Require careful hand washing by all medical personnel

Immunisasi anak-anak thd penyakit virus

Provide oral rehydration for diarrhea victimsConduct global campaign to reduce HIV/AIDS


Solusi: Penyakit Infeksi, Cara-cara untuk mencegah atau mereduksi kejadiannya

Memperbaiki kualitas air minum




MENGHADAPI BAHAN KIMIA BERBAHAYA

Managing the risks of toxic substances is an ongoing, integrated process

Sumber: http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/English/parl_cesd_200911_02_e_33197.html

_...diunduh 15/12/2012


BEBERAPA BAHAN KIMIA DAPAT MENYEBABKAN KANKER, MUTASI, DAN GANGGUAN JANIN

Bahan kimia toksik:CarcinogensMutagensTeratogens

Sumber:_http://risk.arizona.edu/healthandsafety/chemicalsafetyinfo/index.shtml...diunduh

….. 15/12/2012


PCB ADA DI BERBAGAI TEMPAT

• Kelompok senyawa kimia yang mengandung khlor:– Sangat stabil– Nonflammable– Break down slowly in the environment– Travel long distances in the air– Larut dalam lemak– Biomagnifikasi– Food chains and webs

• Banned, but found everywhere





Potential Pathways on Which Toxic Chemicals Move Through the Environment





Bbrpa bahan kimia mempengaruhi sistem immune, Nervous, dan Endocrine

Some natural and synthetic chemicals in the environment can weaken and harm– Sistem Kekebalan– Sistem Syaraf– Sistem Hormonal


www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012

Some conditions that have been attributed to chemical sensitivity.

Diunduh dari: http://www.herc.org/news/ehp/miller.html




• Hormonally active agents (HAAs) – Gender benders– Pengganggu kelenjar Thyroid– Bahan kimia Toksik

• Phthlates • Efek pada sistem hormonal• Kanker




15/12/2012

Bbrpa bahan kimia mempengaruhi sistem immune, Nervous, dan Endocrine

Schematic representation of possible interactions between Hg exposure and immune function in autoimmunity.

Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0041008X05003248




http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0041008X05003248

EFEK TOKSIK AKIBAT MERKURI

• Hg: teratogen and potent neurotoxin– Once airborne, persistent and not

degradable– 1/3 from natural sources– 2/3 from human activities– Enters the food chain: biomagnification


Hazard and Human Health.



15/12/2012

Biomagnification, also known as

bioamplification or biological magnification,

is the increase in concentration of a

substance that occurs in a food chain as a consequence of:

1.Persistence (can't be broken down by environmental processes)2.Food chain energetics3.Low (or nonexistent) rate of internal degradation/excretion of the substance (often due to water-insolubility)

http://flyfishingconsultant.blogspot.com/2010/07/i-do-not-eat-fish-why-is-that.html






http://bp3.blogger.com/_JaDVFdQMdwc/R5eREcDJypI/AAAAAAAAFeU/Z9htnzGiZ3Y/s1600/accumulation.gif

• 2007: Hg hotspots identified

• How are humans exposed?– Inhalation: vaporized Hg or

particulates of inorganic salts– Eating fish with high levels of

methylmercury

• Effects of Hg on humans

• Who is most at risk?


EFEK TOKSIK AKIBAT MERKURI




Siklus merkuri dalam lingkungan akuatik





Fig. 17-B, p. 451

SOLUTIONS

Pencemaran Merkuri

Prevention ControlPhase out waste incineration

Sharply reduce mercury emissions from coal-burning plants and incinerators

Remove mercury from coal before it is burned

Tax each unit of mercury emitted by coal-burning plants and incinerators

Switch from coal to natural gas and renewable energy resources such as wind, solar cells, and hydrogen

Require labels on all products containing mercury

Convert coal to liquid or gaseous fuel

Phase out use of mercury in batteries, TVs, compact fluorescent lightbulbs, and all other products unless they are recycled

Collect and recycle mercury-containing electric switches, relays, and dry-cell batteries


PENYELESAIAN PENCEMARAN MERKURI

Pencegahan

Kontrol




Bisphenol A • Menyerupai

Estrogen• Found in

many common products

• Laboratory findings

• Effects on human health

• Should it be banned?




Diunduh dari: http://www.bisphenol-a.org/pdf/BPAsafe.pdf




Bagaimana Evaluasi dan Menangani Bahaya Kimia ?

Scientists use live laboratory animals, non-animal tests, case reports of poisonings, and epidemiological studies to estimate

the toxicity of chemicals, but these methods have limitations.

Many health scientists call for much greater emphasis on pollution

prevention to reduce our exposure to potentially harmful candidates.





EFEK BERBAHAYA DARI BAHAN KIMIA

• Toxicology• Toksisitas tergantung pada:

– Dose – Age– Genetic makeup – Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) – Kelarutan dan persistensi bahan kimia– Biomagnifikasi




Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014579308001166




http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014579308001166

KECELAKAAN KIMIA

Sumber: http://www.hrdp-idrm.in/e5783/e17327/e27015/e27708/_...diunduh 15/12/2012

“Chemical accident" means an accident involving a fortuitous, or sudden or unintended occurrence while

handling any hazardous chemicals resulting in continuous, intermittent or repeated exposure to death, or injury to, any person or damage to any property but does not include an

accident by reason only of war or radio-activity


Estimasi Paparan Manusia thd bahan kimia dan mengukur efeknya


Pengukuran &

Pemodelan Ilmiah

Ramalan kandungan toksik

dalam manusia

MetabolismeAkumulasiEkskresi




Studi Kasus: Melindungi anak-anak dari bahan kimia toksik

• Analysis of umbilical cord blood: significance

• Infants and children more susceptible to the toxic effects of chemicals than adults– Eat, drink water, and breathe more

per unit of body weight than adults– Put their fingers in their mouths– Less well-developed immune

systems and body detoxification processes


Estimasi toksisitas: Hewan uji di Lab dan Uji non-hewan

• Dose-response curve: median lethal dose (LD50) – Nonthreshold dose-response model– Threshold dose-response model

• Can the data be extrapolated to humans?


• More humane methods using animals

• Replace animals with other models– Computer simulations– Tissue culture and individual

animal cells– Chicken egg membranes

• What are the effects of mixtures of potentially toxic chemicals?


Estimasi toksisitas: Hewan uji di Lab dan Uji non-hewan

Kurva Hipotetis Dose-Response untuk menentukan LD50


Tingkat Toksisitas dan Rataan LD untuk manusia


Fig. 17-15, p. 456

Nonlinear dose-responseLinear dose- response

Effe

ct

Effe

ct

Threshold level

Dose Dose

No threshold Threshold


KURVA RESPON DOSIS

ESTIMASI EFEK BERBAHAYA BAHAN KIMIA

• Case reports and epidemiological studies

• Limitations of epidemiological studies– Too few people tested– Length of time– Can you link the result with

the chemical?– Can not be used for new

hazards


APA BAHAYA DOSIS RENDAH DARI BAHAN TOKSIK?

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969711001136_...diunduh 15/12/2012

Acute-based Predicted No-effect Concentrations (PNECacute), as well as two existing EQSs for the pesticides chlorpyrifos and

chlorfenvinphos compared to a correlation of observed effects on community structure of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities, expressed as SPEAR index (SPEAR[%]) and a measure of toxic

stress, calculated as Toxic Units (TU) for the most toxic compound (based on data from von der Ohe et al., 2009).

The two red dots represent sites at which chlorfenvinphos was responsible for the TUmax.

BAHAN KIMIA BERBAHAYA DI RUMAH


Vinyl toys contain phthalates

Imported fruit may contain pesticides banned in the U.S.

Fig. 17-16, p. 458

Shampoo Teddy bear Clothing Baby bottle

Nail polish

Perfluorochemicals and phthalates

Some stuffed animals made overseas contain flame retardants and/or pesticides

Perfluorochemicals to add shine

Can contain perfluorochemicals

Can contain bisphenol-A

Mattress

Perfume

Flame retardants in stuffing

Phthalates

Hairspray

Carpet

Phthalates

Padding and carpet fibers contain flame retardants, perfluorochemicals, and pesticides

Food

Some food contains bisphenol-A TV

MilkWiring and plastic casing contain flame retardantsFat contains

dioxins and flame retardants

Sofa

Frying pan Foam padding contains flame retardants and perfluorochemicals

Nonstick coating contains perfluorochemicals

Tile floor Fruit Water bottle Computer Toys Tennis shoes

Contains perfluorochemicals, phthalates, and pesticides

Can contain bisphenol-A

Flame retardant coatings of plastic casing and wiring

Can contain phthalates


EFEK BERBAHAYA DARI BAHAN KIMIA• Severe limitations estimating toxicity levels

and risks • Acceptable levels vary between 1/100 and

1/1000 of the estimated harmful levelsSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….


Diagram illustrating dose response curve for Chemical A

Diunduh dari: … http://www.stewardshipcommunity.com/?id=339

PENCEGAHAN Polusi & Prinsip Ke-hati-hatian

• Those introducing a new chemical or new technology would have to follow new strategies– A new product is considered harmful until it can be

proved to be safe– Existing chemicals and technologies that appear to

cause significant harm must be removedSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….


Dose-Effect and Dose-ResponseSince the basic question in toxicology is how dose is related to toxicity, most toxicology studies are designed to investigate how living creatures

react as doses vary incrementally, from low to high levels.

Diunduh dari: http://toxlearn.nlm.nih.gov/htmlversion/module1.html

Individuals Matter: Ray Turner and His Refrigerator

• 1974: Ozone layer being depleted by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

• 1992: International agreement to phase out CFCs and other ozone-destroying chemicals

• Ray Turner: citrus-based solvents to clean circuit boardsSumber: Environmental Hazard and Human Health. ………….


The cycle of the ozone depletion and how its shown to be depleted.

Diunduh dari: http://optioneenvirochemblog1.wordpress.com/2012/03/28/e4-ozone-depletion/

Risiko dan Menghindari Bahayanya

We can reduce the major risks we face if we become informed, think

critically about risks, and make careful choices.



www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../ch

apter_...diunduh 15/12/2012

The relationship between risk assessment and selection of controls

Sumber: http://security.practitioner.com/introduction/infosec_5_5.htm ... diunduh 17/12/2012

Risiko kesehatan datang-dari Kemiskinan, Gender dan Gaya-hidup

• Analisis Risiko• Risiko Kesehatan “terbesar”:

– Kemiskinan– Gender– Pilihan Gaya Hidup

Sumber: http://www.uic.edu/sph/prepare/courses/ph420/resources/pt2analysis.htm_...diundu

h 17/12/2012

Analyzing Health Problems for Risk Factors


Analisis Komparatif Risiko: Problematik ekologis dan kesehatan

BAHAYA AKIBAT MEROKOK

• Most preventable major cause of suffering and premature death

• Nikotin: bahan adetif (tambahan)• Efek merokok pasif (secondhand

smoke)



www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../ch

apter_...diunduh 15/12/2012

Secondhand smoke is a complex mixture of gases and particulates containing as many as 4800 chemicals including

formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, nicotine, carcinogenic tars and others.

Of the chemicals identified in secondhand smoke, more than 50 have been found to cause cancer.

Diunduh dari: http://www.whatyoudomatters.org/Substance_Abuse/Tobacco/Secondhand_Smoke.

aspx

• Bagaimana mengurangi merokok– Pajak– Ban– Klassifikasi dan Regulasi nikotin– Pendidikan

Sumber: http://ginfomation.blogspot.com/2008/09/smohing-hazards-danger-info.html_...diunduh 17/12/2012

BAHAYA AKIBAT MEROKOK

Estimasi risiko dari teknologi Hal ini tidak mudah

Sumber:. http://www.aist.go.jp/NIRE/eco_tec_e/hyouka_e.htm…………. _...diunduh 15/12/2012

Technologies for Risk Assessment and Risk Management of Chemical Substances

Banyak orang tidak mengerti bagaimana Evaluasi Risiko?

• Fear• Degree of control• Whether a risk is catastrophic• Optimism bias• Unfair distribution of risks


…………. www.bergen.edu/.../Environmental.../chapter_...diunduh 15/12/2012

Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1517-83822000000100002&script=sci_arttext ……. 17/12/2012

Beberapa prinsip Evaluasi dan Reduksi Risiko

• Membandingkan Risiko• Determine how much you

are willing to accept • Determine the actual risk

involved• Concentrate on evaluating

and carefully making important lifestyle choices


Documents

KETAHANAN LINGKUNGAN: Environmental Hazards & Human Health