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Sierra Nevada College
MIDDLE SCHOOL CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
AND STUDENT BEHAVIOR
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Masters of Arts in Teaching
by
David J. Keohan
Andrew Martinez Ed. D./Thesis Advisor
May 2013
We recommend that the thesis by David J. Keohan
prepared under our supervision be accepted in
partial fulfillment for the degree of
MASTER of ARTS in TEACHING
________________________________________
Andrew Martinez, Ed.D., Thesis Advisor
_________________________________________
Daniel O’Brien, M.A., Committee Member
__________________________________________
Maria Ojeda, M.A., Committee Member
May 2013
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... v
Abstract ......................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vii
Chapter I
Introduction to the Study ...................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................. 2
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 2
Research Questions ............................................................................................... 3
Significance and Utility of the Study .................................................................... 3
Chapter II
Methodology ......................................................................................................... 4
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 4
Definitions of Key Terms ..................................................................................... 5
Chapter III
A Review of the Literature ................................................................................... 7
Behavior Research Studies: Determining Causes of Misbehavior ....................... 7
Teacher Attitudes and Beliefs/Classroom Management Styles ............................ 13
Classroom Management Research ........................................................................ 27
International Educational Behavior Research ....................................................... 40
Summary Review of the Literature ....................................................................... 46
Common Threads within Each Group ............................................................ 46
Common Threads that Existed Among all the Research ................................ 47
Chapter IV
Critical Analysis of the Literature......................................................................... 49
Behavior Research ................................................................................................ 49
Teacher Attitudes and Beliefs Research ............................................................... 51
Classroom Management Research ........................................................................ 54
International Educational Behavior Research ....................................................... 57
Chapter V
Conclusions and Implications for Teaching ......................................................... 60
iv
Response to Research Questions .......................................................................... 60
What are the Primary Causes of Urban Middle School Students’
Off-Task Behavior? ........................................................................................ 60
How do Teachers’ Attitudes and Beliefs due to Background, Age, or
Teacher Training Programs Influence Classroom Management
Styles/Effectiveness? ...................................................................................... 62
What Type of Management Strategies and Classroom Discipline
are most Successful in Reducing Common Problem Behaviors and
Keeping Students On-Task? ........................................................................... 65
Are There Similarities and/or Differences in Classroom Behavior and
Management Strategies Around the World? ................................................... 67
What These Findings Mean for Teachers ............................................................. 68
Suggestions for Further Research ......................................................................... 71
Self-Reflective Statement ..................................................................................... 71
References ......................................................................................................................... 73
Appendix A ....................................................................................................................... 78
v
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Characteristics of studies related to behavior research……….……….……….50
Table 2. Characteristics of studies related to teacher attitudes and beliefs…….……….52
Table 3. Characteristics of studies related to classroom management/lesson planning...55
Table 4. Characteristics of studies related to international behavior research………….58
Table 5. Teachers vs. students’ city profile……………………….……………………63
vi
ABSTRACT
The goal of this thesis was to provide research-based teaching techniques and behavior
management strategies that can be used by novice teachers in urban middle schools to
improve the behavior in their classrooms. Studies pointed to four main reasons why
chronic misbehavior happens: (1) a difficult personal situation from outside the school
that disrupts a student’s ability to learn; (2) course content or lesson goals that are above
the student’s ability level that bring on escape behavior; (3) environmental situations
within the classroom that inhibit the student’s ability to learn in a mode best suited for the
student; (4) the teacher had not established and reinforced clear behavior and academic
expectations within reachable limits of the students in the class.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the
continual guidance and support of many people throughout the various phases. First I
would like to thank my first advisor Cathy DuFresne, Ed.D. and two committee members
(John Parker, Tiffany Lacombe) who assisted me through the early stages. Following a
hiatus of two years I again resumed this thesis under the direction of my new advisor
Andrew Martinez, Ed. D. with committee members Daniel O’Brien and Maria Ojeda.
Your willingness to spend time going over material and thoughtful sharing of ideas is
most appreciated.
I also would be amiss in not mentioning the expert knowledge and assistance
from my school administrators in my initial years of teaching. Thank you Northey
Henderson for all of your time spent teaching and mentoring me. Thank you for being
someone I could learn from and trust during this transition period in my life.
And lastly, a special thank you, to my dear wife, Song Mi for all of your
persistent, positive energy, many cups of coffee, and urgings to “have fun in school” each
day.
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
“What did you learn in school today?” a parent asks his or her middle school
child. The cost per student per year of middle school at a large southwestern school
district is over $6,000. Each student has six classes. That comes to $1,000 per class for
one year of learning. With an average class size of 35 students then would it be
reasonable to conclude that the teacher is responsible for a $35,000 learning venture.
Multiply that by five classes (sometimes six), and multiply that by five years. The value
of an effective teacher in today’s U.S. public education system can be calculated
monetarily and in this case is in the neighborhood of almost a million dollars. To
calculate the true value of education one does not add up the amount of dollars spent; one
looks at the kind of learning that takes place in the classroom. Students do not learn when
they are misbehaving, off-task, not interested in their work. The blame for poorly
behaved students can be pointed in many directions but in a Google search conducted
using the quotation “learning is the responsibility of the teacher” 1,370,000 results
popped up from a multitude of books, organizations, and state educational guides poised
ready to expound on this view. The teacher is the instructor, mentor, coach, leader,
counselor, the professional in the classroom that is responsible for all the academic
learning, skill building, emotional support and thanks to years of educational research
studies and the shared wisdom of many teaching professionals, there is help for the
novice teacher.
2
Background of the Problem
Before entering the classroom as a middle school teacher, I had a ‘perception’
of the high-achieving science class, the perfect lesson plan, and the ideal student. Soon
enough this vision of the ideal was replaced by reality. I needed to teach, manage, and
discipline a population of students in a way that I had not expected or entirely prepared
for.
As an alternate licensure middle-school science teacher in an urban, high
English as a Second Language (ESL), low Socioeconomic Status (SES) school, one of
the greatest feelings going to school on my first day of teaching was that of providing
students a quality public school education in preparation for attending college. Not too
many weeks after, I realized that many of my students felt there was no purpose in going
to school. Many could not read, write, or perform basic math skills at grade level. The
annual local high school graduation rates ranged from 45-60%. As I tried to present
accurate science content, discuss grand ideas, concepts, discoverers, and inventors, it
became harder and harder to maintain a focused, controlled, academic environment. I had
studied classroom management, the school’s progressive discipline plan, and prepared
numerous lesson plans for middle school science. There was something missing, and my
need to find the cause of the classroom misbehavior became a key concern and the
eventual focus for this thesis.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to present a critical analysis of the current research
3
available on middle school classroom behavior and research-based methods on improving
it. At the outset, this appears to be a broad topic but with careful filtering, selection, and
analysis of the research, the specific attributes associated with a well-behaved, high-
achieving classroom should be readily apparent and attainable for any novice teacher.
Research Questions
The primary questions for this research were:
(a) What are the primary causes of urban middle school students’ off-task behavior?
(b) How do teachers’ attitudes and personal experiences influence their choice of
classroom management systems?
(c) What type of management strategies and classroom discipline are most successful in
reducing common misbehaviors and keeping students on-task?
(d) Are there similarities and/or differences in classroom behavior and management
strategies around the world?
Significance and Utility of the Study
The significance of this critical review of the literature is to provide snapshot
of the body of knowledge that currently exists on middle school classroom behavior. The
intended user is any educator, education specialist, counselor, administrator, parent, or
community leader seeking research-based studies on instructional strategies and
interventions for improving middle school classroom behavior.
4
CHAPTER II
METHODOLOGY
The method used to find literature was primarily online databases. The most
frequently accessed database was Gale’s remote database Info Trac. Two other
searchable databases used were Gale’s Student Resource Center College Edition
Expanded Student Resource Center and Academic OneFile. The College Edition
Expanded database features a premium selection of references; more than 2,300 full-text
periodicals, academic journals, and newspapers; primary sources; creative works; and
multimedia, including hours of video and audio clips. Academic OneFile’s searchable
dates were from 1980 to 2012 and included 33,098,327 articles. Academic OneFile is the
premier source for peer-reviewed, full-text articles from the world's leading journals and
reference sources. With extensive coverage of the physical sciences, technology,
medicine, social sciences, the arts, theology, literature and other subjects, Academic
OneFile is both authoritative and comprehensive.
Limitations of the Study
To help provide focus and direction to the research, while still being broad
enough to include the many diverse studies that encompass educational behavior
research, limitations were imposed. Resources were limited to peer-reviewed academic
journals with full text articles on classroom behavior.
5
Definition of Key Terms
Alternate certification-A route to teacher licensure other than a traditional 4-5 year
formal college teacher education program (Sokal, Smith & Mowat, 2003).
Antecedent-behavior-consequence-What precedes the inappropriate behavior, what is
the behavior and what will the consequence be for the inappropriate behavior (Barbetta,
Norona & Bicard 2005).
Authoritative classroom management-Teacher enforces a specific and reasonable set of
classroom rules using private teacher responses, gentle reminders of agreed upon
behaviors, redirecting aberrant students in a non-confrontational way using polite
redirecting comments (Traynor, 2002).
Best practices-Develop consistent behavior expectations and involve the student in
setting academic and personal goals.
Classroom order-The state of collective student behavior in a classroom that allows
effective teaching and learning to occur.
Coercive classroom management-Characterized by intimidation and expressions of
anger, use of sarcasm, yelling, threatening and demeaning students (Traynor, 2002).
Consultation services-Services for families with a student who is struggling in his or her
current academic environment (Reinke, Lewis-Palmer & Merrell, 2008).
Culturally Responsible Classroom Management (CRCM)- CRCM includes creating a
proper physical environment, setting clear behavioral expectations, keeping consistent
communications, developing caring classrooms, and proactively working with families.
6
(Weinstein, Curran & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003).
Effective learning-Quality of understanding rather than on the quantity of information
presented.
Function-based assessment-Descriptive and experimental assessment methodologies
that generate hypotheses regarding the function of problem behavior (Scott, Anderson &
Spaulding, 2008).
Intrinsic classroom management-Where the goal is to have the student increase student
control over him/herself…rewards may be present in this approach (Traynor, 2002).
Laissez-faire classroom management-Highlighted by geniality and teacher tolerance of
disruptive behavior and a friendly approach in which teachers attempt to become
accepted as a peer of their students (Traynor, 2002).
Low socioeconomic status-Families that lack financial, social, and educational supports
Pedagogical content-Teaching skills teachers use to impart the specialized
knowledge/content of their subject area(s).
Progressive discipline plan-Based upon the belief that an individual does not have the
right to infringe upon the rights of others and each infraction is countered with harsher
consequences.
Research-based methods-Reliable measures of student achievement in major subject
areas before and after model implementation.
Task-oriented classroom management-The teacher selects and distributes materials
solely for keeping students uniformly occupied (Traynor, 2002).
7
CHAPTER III
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Using these online engines and databases, the amount of peer-reviewed studies
and articles gained from credible sources in professional journals was astounding. The
task now was to review, summarize, analyze, code, sort, and explore relevant themes that
would most help resolve the key questions. The research produced articles that fit into
four main topics: (a) middle school behavior research; (b) teacher beliefs and classroom
management styles; (c) lesson planning and classroom management; and (d) international
educational research studies. Summaries of the articles presented are in the order listed
above.
Behavior Research Studies: Determining Causes of Misbehavior:
To reveal already-performed researchers, Geiger (2000) conducted his own
literary review of behavior to answer two fundamental issues of classroom behavior: (a)
what type of misbehavior was happening in the classroom and (b) what was being done
to correct the misbehavior? In the literary research section of the article, Geiger pointed
out that most studies on classroom behavior are survey-based which leads to poor
accuracy of information. A teacher’s own account of what happened in classroom
following student misbehavior can often be misinterpreted, misreported or mistakenly
omitted. Geiger (2000) used direct observation and later the results were compiled and
quantified. With the help of 35 students from the New Jersey State College teacher-
education program, Geiger randomly selected 35 K-8th grade teachers for 40 hours of
8
field observation. Prior to the field placements, Geiger (2000) conducted training for
observers to ensure inter-coder reliability of data were kept above 80%. Results revealed
changes in behavior patterns from grade to grade. The most often noted misbehaviors in
all grades were simply disruptions (talking and fidgeting), and the correction methods
most often used by teachers in each grade were similar (redirection) and paralleled in
frequency with the fluctuating curve of occurrences in each grade. These findings are
interesting because this across the board correlation helps explain student actions to the
newly hired teacher that wonders: are my students misbehaving because of how I teach in
the classroom? In Geiger’s opinion, students have an ingrained need to talk in order to
discover and solve their problems so every time teachers tell students to stop talking
students ‘turn off’ and indulge in wrong behavior or talk about things that are non-school
related (p. 10). Secondly, the desire for students to move around and interact with their
environment is natural and part of the learning process. As the requirement for students to
sit longer without moving about increases, the harder it is for students to comply and stay
on task. Again, by planning activities that allow for socialization and safe, planned
movement, teachers, in turn experience less class disruptions (p.11).
Many times problem behaviors are the result of students not being able to
accomplish the task set before them by the teacher. Filter and Horner (2009) looked at
how function-based interventions improved the behavior of two particular students. Even
if an academic task (be it reading-based, mathematical, or other) is accomplishable in a
limited way, the type of medium, length of time, or students’ interest can set up an escape
9
mode that brings about intended misbehavior (p. 1). This study was comprised of
functional analysis observations with a single-subject A-B-C-B design. Filter and Horner
(2009) found it critical to obtain baseline measurements with no external manipulations
of the environment. Task engagement consisted of looking at instructional materials,
looking at the teacher, engaging in task-relevant vocalizations directed at the teacher, and
raising one’s hand. Problem behavior consisted of being out of one’s seat, bottom out of
contact with chair for more than one second, talking out, vocalizations heard from more
than five feet away, and poking peers. Through careful observation if it was determined
that problem “escape” behaviors were caused by limited skills in math, the student would
be provided instruction in the deficit math skills. Eventually the math tasks were doable
and problem behaviors decreased. Similarly, in reading deficit areas, students identified
with escape behavior were provided pre-reading vocabulary lists with other reading cues
to assist in maintaining their academic focus. The results showed that function-based
interventions were more successful in keeping students on task than non-function based
interventions. It is very likely that many times problem behaviors result from the inability
of a student to achieve the specific tasks assigned by the teacher.
Another tool used help to resolve classroom behavior problems researched by
Scott, Anderson & Spaulding (2008) included Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA). In
their report on the development and implementation of FBA teams in schools, they used
the Target, Evaluate, Apply, Monitor, and Suggest (TEAMS) strategy to enlighten school
board members, educators, and administrators of the key factors in making FBA work.
10
Although FBA is required by law (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004),
little guidance is available to regulate the key features of FBA in schools. As students
display more aggressive and disruptive behavior at earlier ages, he or she is routinely
placed into a special education program that eventually become limiting factors in his or
her educational achievement. The goal of functional based assessment is to identify
events that are causal factors for misbehavior and teach students behavior modification
techniques. This strictly followed strategy is integral to its success.
The above study by Scott et al (2008) identified and solved problem behavior
using specific guidelines with the ultimate goal of having the student control his or her
own behavior and maintain an academic focus. Classroom discipline can be a difficult
task to accomplish by novice teachers who must simultaneously teach unfamiliar content,
manage time and materials, and check for understanding. To tackle the issue of classroom
management Reinke, Lewis-Palmer, and Merrell (2008) collaborated to conduct a
quantitative study. The researchers used direct observation of classroom teachers by
trained observers, teacher interviews, and visual feedback to inform educators of their
findings. The study took place in four classrooms in the Pacific Northwest, and the
teachers selected were those who had requested help with classroom management. The
teachers’ experience in the classroom ranged from 5-25 years. The five-phase study
revealed that the teachers’ use of general and specific praise led to a decrease in student
disruptions. Because of direct feedback received daily, teachers’ perceptions of the value
and time spent on consultation services changed dramatically. The study differentiated
11
between positive praise and a teacher’s affirmation of a student’s correct response. An
important feature of this study was to focus on the class as a whole and not each student
as an individual. Daily visual feedback to each teacher via a graphic chart indicated the
number of positive praises delivered versus the number of student disruptions on the
previous day. As each teacher saw the positive effects in black and white, each realized
the value of this intervention and applied it more wholeheartedly thereafter (p. 21).
Dowd (1997) proposed a different approach in examining classroom behavior
with an informal action-research activity conducted in her own classroom. She introduced
a paradigm shift that forced her students to have a say in solving the problem. Typically,
when there is an obvious behavior issue with a student (or entire class) the teacher is the
one in charge of developing and communicating the course of action to correct the
behavior. This could mean following a school-wide behavior policy or the teacher’s own
progressive discipline plan. In this case she did neither and used the students own
interpretations of the “event” to help each one see their mistakes and own up to them. As
an English teacher, she employed a writing style known as free-write to allow each
student in the class time and energy to reflect on his or her own involvement in the
situation and express it in a way that was most meaningful to him or her. Through class
discussion and evaluation of all parts of the problem, the class as a whole came to a
reasonable solution to their problem (Dowd, 1997). Sometimes flipping something
completely upside-down gives rise to new understanding and great possibilities.
A 2003 New York Daily News article entitled “Off Their Rockers: Wacky
12
Rules for Teaching Class” expounded on the seemingly ridiculous notion that seating
arrangements, lighting, temperature, and sound relate to quality education. The 1.1
million New York City school students (largest district in the U.S.) were part of a
progressive plan put in place by Schools Chancellor Joel Klein to teach reading, writing,
and arithmetic in new ways that considered classroom spaces key components in
learning. Research in this area began more than thirty years ago. Now evidence shows
students achieve higher and/or their attitudes improve when their learning environment
reflects their learning style (Burke, Burke-Samide, 2004). New Yorkers nicknamed it the
“rocking chair rule.” In effect, teachers followed basic concepts from over seventeen
more recent educational studies focusing on environmental elements known in
educational circles as the Dunn and Dunn Learning Model. More than just a comfortable
couch and rocking chairs, the elements included, light, sound, temperature and formal
and informal classroom designs. Similar to Andrew Boon’s (2010) findings while
teaching English in Chiba, Japan, the setting does play a large part in students’
willingness to participate and stay on-task. One student is annoyed by another’s tapping
pencil, a third is bothered by colder temperatures, and a fourth is disturbed by lighting
that is too bright and reflects wrongly onto the page. With others, it is the hard surface of
an uncomfortable chair. We all have experienced these things in our own homes and
workplaces and know it is true but what has been considered (or ever attempted) to
remedy these aches and worries for our students sitting in classrooms six to seven hours a
day? Individual needs and learning styles must be considered and addressed if all
13
students are to perform at their best.
Teachers’ Attitudes and Beliefs: Classroom Management Styles
One’s personal experience, training, and age play a role in one’s choice and
carrying out of classroom management. The cultural, ethnic, and regional background of
a teacher in an urban middle school may be very different from the students they teach.
Education training programs and administrators can make novice educators aware of
these attitudes and behavior differences and shape them in a way that in the end make
them more effective in the classroom. The studies in this section reveal the different
styles of classroom management teachers choose, and highlight the efficacy different
education training programs have in preparing would-be teachers for high-risk urban
middle schools.
Dr. Bobby Jeanpierre (2007) from the University of Central Florida conducted a
quantitative study with the objective of improving middle school science education by
collecting and analyzing information from nine first year teachers. Jeanpierre gathered
data through field notes, observations, teachers’ journals, and interviews over a single
school year in nine separate science classrooms. Using case studies validated by a
triangulation of the findings, Jeanpierre blended each real world case with others to
develop generalizations. Careful considerations were given to data to avoid coming to an
impulsive conclusion. Each participant was a first-year teacher in an intern position at a
low socioeconomic school as part of an alternate licensing program in Florida. At the
conclusion of the nine case studies, two themes emerged that were key to each teacher’s
14
success in the interim positions. First, the teacher had to believe that each student could
achieve and illustrate that belief outwardly. Second, the novice teachers needed the full
support of administrators, parents, and mentors during their initial years of teaching.
What was also interesting was that the follow-up information indicated all nine were still
teaching science, and four were still at the schools in which they interned (Jeanpierre,
2007).
Adding insight to the teacher preparedness situation, Bischoff, Hatch, and
Watford (1999) from Georgia Southwestern State University utilized a longitudinal
qualitative study of ten junior level education students to analyze the effect of confidence
in the educators within their working environments. In the study ten future middle school
science teachers prepared a 6th
grade science lesson to develop and teach to a middle
school class. Afterwards, each had to assess his or her own performance. One of the ten
successfully accomplished the task. The results confirmed that most entry-level teachers
did not possess the required pedagogical content knowledge and that they lacked the
confidence to teach the material to their students (p. 24).
To learn more about how age difference and experience affect novice teachers
and training, Sokal, Smith, and Mowat (2003) studied classroom management styles of
Alternate Routes to Licensure (ARL) pre-service teachers. Pre-service and experienced
teachers both cite classroom management as a key concern in education (Johns,
MacNaughton, & Karabinus, 1989; Smith, 2000; Weinstein, 1996). Socal et al indicated
the attrition rate of alternative licensure teachers is double (60%) that of traditionally
15
trained teachers (30%), or even higher when compared to traditional 5-year teacher
training programs (10-15%); and classroom behavior is most often the reason given for
leaving the classroom (p. 11). This survey with 82 pre-service teachers undergoing
training at various points of an alternate certification program utilized surveys. Immediate
entry, first-year, and second-year ARL teachers revealed that age differences and time in
the alternative certification program shaped the type and importance of classroom
management styles preferred by the participant. This contrasted with those in traditional
teacher training programs where no noticeable difference appeared in the type of
management style preferred throughout their training. Socal et al indicated that, as the
teacher education students progressed through their three years of training, they became
generally less interventionist and firmer in their classroom management style. Another
interesting discovery was that the age differences in the participants mattered as well.
Those in their middle ages held on to a less structured, less interventionist style, whereas
those in their twenties adapted a stricter classroom management style with more
intervention as they progressed through their training (p. 12). This study also indicated
that intervention attitudes varied more drastically in alternative licensure teacher-training
programs as compared to traditional education programs; thus, one should be aware of
how peers and mentors trained and the affect age differences has on their classroom
management philosophies.
In a one-year study conducted in southwestern school district, Cothran, Darst,
Kulinna, McMullen, Van der Mars, (2011) surveyed seventeen middle-school teachers to
16
determine the acceptance, implementation, and success of activity breaks in the
classroom throughout the day. Questionnaires, reflections, semi-structured interview data
were inductively analyzed and triangulated in a systematic fashion to uncover patterns.
Teachers were provided training through workshops, given simple physical activity
equipment, and offered external support via mentors and coaches. The teachers provided
feedback on this experience including their opinions of its effectiveness, students’
reactions, and difficulties encountered. Three major themes emerged: (1) Some teachers
were not comfortable with the chaotic activity in the classroom; (2) All teachers
undoubtedly accepted the simple, easy-to-perform activities; and (3) Most teachers
believed in the reasons for using activity breaks during the day. In the end, whether each
teacher kept using activity breaks was not mentioned. It was easy to see that even when
introducing a relatively simple but new idea that agreeably has clear benefits, teachers’
reactions, comfort level, and implementation were very different. Relating this to
curriculum, daily-lesson-planning, discipline, and classroom management, a few
generalities can be made. Teacher buy-in has to be 100% to make a program effective.
Teacher training has to be straightforward yet thorough and have long-term support.
Lastly, the outcomes should be meaningful and measurable to merit their continued use.
Like students, teachers walk into their classrooms with all their baggage; good teacher
training programs have to sort out this baggage and highlight what works and throw out
what doesn’t.
In a year-long qualitative study of four higher education Chinese students
17
attending North American universities, Huang (2009) explored the differences between
Chinese and North American teaching styles and identified the realities the students faced
in trying to adapt to them. Huang conducted semi-structured interviews and selected four
participants using a random purposive sample strategy. A questionnaire was used in
another portion of the study with 78 Chinese students to learn how classroom
instructional factors affected lecture understanding. Five differences were identified:
(1) The teacher’s role.
(2) The student’s role.
(3) The form of class organization.
(4) The teacher’s expectations.
(5) The student’s expectations.
When looking at the five ideas that emerged from this study, one would think each one
was very basic and for the most part understood by most teachers and students in U. S.
classrooms. With a student population that is growing more diverse in so many ways
(language, culture, ethnicity, religion, and background experience to name a few), and a
teacher population coming from so many different places it is highly unlikely the
teacher’s classroom expectations would match the student’s classroom expectations.
Huang’s research points that out in fine detail. The most striking disparity identified by
the participants was the overall difference in philosophy that was apparent in all classes.
As their earlier education was in China, their eastern influence stemming from the ways
of Confucius (551-479 BC) shaped how they learned and behaved. These principles
18
included stressing hard work over ability; essential knowledge in preparation of a civil
service job; respectful learning where students respect and obey authorities; and behavior
education integral in education because of its value in creating individual success and
societal harmony. One responded commented, “Chinese teachers are very serious and
focus on lecturing.” “Chinese teachers are not only as authorities in their field of study
but also the students’ moral mentor” (p. 336). Dissimilar to these ideas would be the
western teaching model of Socrates (469-399 BC), where questioning beliefs, evaluating
others’ knowledge, self-generated knowledge, instruction by implanting doubt, and self-
directed tasks are more common. The Chinese students were uncomfortable in the North
American classrooms because of the great difference in attitude U. S. students and
professors had. Students could be late, they often asked questions and challenged the
teacher, they were encouraged to be independent thinkers, and they made jokes in class
(p. 337). If the Chinese classroom was considered formal and directed (or centered) on
the teacher, then the American classroom would be considered informal and directed (or
centered) on the student. The amount and type of student participation varied with much
more student participation in the N. American classroom. The time and degree of student
preparation for each class was also different in the western classes (more of each). In the
end, all four students had to acquire new skills and strategies to be successful in their new
arena. This study is important because it reveals to a large degree the importance of
student- teacher roles and expectations play in learning. Well-defined teacher beliefs,
suitably translated into course expectations at the beginning of the year could help clarify
19
student/teacher roles and prevent behavior problems in the future.
Weinstein, Curran, and Tomlinson-Clarke (2003) explains the facets of
Culturally Responsible Classroom Management (CRCM) and then provides five ways to
promote learning equally in the classroom. Specific examples of culturally based
classroom behavior and the teacher’s reactions are given to help understand different
cultural ‘norms’. Weinstein says to be culturally responsive the teacher must first
understand ‘the self’, ‘the other’, and ‘the context’ (Weinstein et al., 2003). Self is
recognizing and accepting where the teacher comes from and how ones beliefs, biases,
and assumptions are imprints from of our life experience. Other refers to the students’
family background, educational experience, communication, disciplinary, and
relationship norms common to one’s culture or ethnic group. Context refers to the way
schools are a reflection of society and its broader views that may be inherently restrictive
or limiting to certain individuals, economic classes, or ethnic groups. Weinstein’s five
tasks for ensuring CRCM include creating a proper physical environment, setting clear
behavioral expectations, keeping consistent communications, developing caring
classrooms, and proactively working with families. Again, real-world accounts of
classroom observations directly tell the story. The study highlights African, Asian,
Hispanic, Native American and Island cultures differences and shows how these
differences influence student behavior. Teachers who understand and recognize these
differences are more successful in their classroom management (p.276). Having a
culturally responsive “frame of mind” is the key; a minority-themed poster and a one-
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word phrase for hello in a foreign language are not enough.
Weiner (2003) conducted research in urban classrooms and uncovered a
dominant mindset that leads to academic underachievement. He called this the deficit
paradigm and pointed out the pitfalls of this framework. This mode of thought believed
students’ lack of success is due to their community, culture, and family background.
Directly opposite this idea is that student non-success is the result of teacher failures (p.
306). There is a lack of data in this area of educational research and Weiner presented
some specifics to help clear up some of the issues. A study in Milwaukee found the three
main reasons for teachers leaving the school district were: (1) problems with discipline;
(2) problems working with underachieving students; and (3) difficulties working with
students of varying backgrounds (p. 307). Weiner also believes educators need to clarify
the definition of an urban school. The non-descriptive labels attached to the term make it
harder to understand the causal factors of urban school problems. Inner city, poor, and
minority are commonly used descriptors. These labels do not aptly describe the social,
cultural and learning needs of the students. All these misconceptions and preconceived
beliefs add up to students not getting the help they truly need when faced with academic,
behavioral, or social problems. “Jana, who won’t stop talking…” “Frank, who plays the
clown…disrupts the class,” “Paco is angry,” are descriptions of chronic misbehavior that
teachers immediately put a label on without trying to understand the underlying causes
(p. 312). Weiner explains many times inexperienced preservice teachers and experienced
professionals miss other possible reasons for the misbehavior: anger at unfair
21
discriminatory school practices; boredom with a subject or lesson; or a lack of trust in
teacher-student relationships. Reframing behavior problems to include other outside
realities are vital to all parties in coming to agreeable workable solutions. The deficit
paradigm has to be squashed by doing away with incorrect cultural assumptions that are
continually reinforced by school traditions, procedures, and managerial measures.
Oh, Ankers, Llamas, and Tomyoy’s 2005 California State University study
surveyed 204 teachers to determine the effect pre-service student teaching had on their
teaching decisions. More specifically: did student teaching influence their job-
satisfaction, confidence in teaching, enjoyment in the classroom, and did their level of
supervision during student teaching play a role in the quality of their teaching.
Descriptive analysis revealed 49% of the respondents completed their student teaching.
Of these 67% stated they were supervised daily or at all times. Those with five or more
years of teaching reported greater job satisfaction, efficacy, and enjoyment of teaching.
Those with less than five years of teaching but with student teaching reported having
greater job satisfaction when compared to those without student teaching experience. In
regards to staying in the profession, 90% of the teachers who were supervised weekly
stated they would remain teaching. For those without regular supervision the numbers
dropped to 40%. The area of teaching that student teaching helped to solidify the most
was lesson planning. The area that student teaching helped the least was building
professional relationships. Oh et al’s (2005) study reminds us that urban schools have the
highest teacher turnover rates and discipline problems but the evidence says well-
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supervised student teacher internships develop more confident teachers with a better
sense of well-being that choose to remain in the field longer.
Graziano and Litton (2007) participatory research study utilized 25 first-year
teachers and their cameras to focus on conditions and attitudes dealing with diversity in
Los Angeles County’s urban schools. The study uses the photo voice method that is
based on the use of photography to dialogue events, people, and conditions. Using digital
media as part of the curriculum has proven to have an effect on the learning process in a
way that is relevant, productive, and lifelong (Graziano et al, 2007). In this study,
cameras were used by the teachers to collect data on the school surroundings they worked
in. The photos were put together into PowerPoint presentations along with each teacher’s
personal reflections. From the results of each teacher’s project the group as a whole
collaborated to find common themes and devised action plans to promote change in their
schools and communities. At the close of one semester of shooting film, several themes
emerged:
(1) Safety, and how the devices to ensure safety are barriers to education.
(2) Adolescent development and academic achievement.
(3) Community values.
The advantage of reporting and collecting data based on photographs was that each story
was accurately based on the photographic evidence. In addition, each participant could
reflect on what was recorded and make decisions regarding personal change or projects
that could help many. Action plans included organizing after school programs that
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recognize cultural differences; setting up more opportunities where casual conversations
could be shared between students, parents, and teachers; and integrating culture into
lesson-plans. Also noted by observers and participants was the feeling of empowerment
this project allowed each participant to have. They became very connected and concerned
about their individual work, which carried over into the larger group setting. Graziano et
al (2007) also noted that besides initiating action plans, the respondents voiced concern
over the need for educators to “…be more sensitive to students’ beliefs, learn to respect
different family names, languages, and cultures, and address their own biases towards
students and education” (p. 14).
In a qualitative research study of 50 Florida preservice teachers, Laframboise
and Shea (2009) investigated the reason preservice teachers have difficulty transferring
newly learned research-based practices and effective pedagogy into classroom teaching.
In the literature review it was hypothesized many new teachers have a ‘silent’
preconceived belief of teaching based on their years of learning in the classroom (p. 107).
This is termed educational common sense. When preservice teachers learn new
instructional methods, they may or may not implement them depending on whether they
fall in line with their existing beliefs in teaching (p. 107). The research design used field
study two days a week to allow preservice teachers to plan, implement, receive feedback,
and reflect on unfamiliar strategies learned in their university courses. A criterion-
sampling scheme was used to select six interns for extensive interviews (p. 111).
Observations and interviews were conducted by researchers unrelated to each participant
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to avoid researcher bias. No contact or communication was made between observers and
teachers by any means during the study. Data were triangulated using interviews,
transcripts, and reflections to maintain trustworthiness (p. 114). Researchers labeled,
coded, and documented themes that became apparent. The first theme that surfaced was
ways of learning. The interns described how they were introduced to each method and
discussed how they practiced each one. The most common responses were:
(1) PowerPoint slides documenting steps.
(2) Professors modeling the strategy and later deconstructing it.
(3) Role-playing, termed the “fishbowl technique.”
“I understood the strategy, I just wasn’t sure I could do it (p. 117)”. In role-playing,
many times the interns could not get enough participants in their groups to play along so
it became many on the outside looking in (fishbowl). The reluctance to try new methods
in the classroom fell into three broad categories:
(1) Anticipation of failure for a variety of reasons.
(2) Lack of practice time and critical observation of the new strategy.
(3) A disparity with what they experienced in the field.
The second theme that became apparent was support for investigating new strategies. It
was hard to receive direct feedback from the mentors because many times the
experienced teacher was teaching in another area of the room at the same time (p. 118).
The third theme to come out was what the preservice teachers learned from the planning-
implementation-self reflection framework used in the study. Laframboise et al notes that
25
although the participants used a level of introspection that considered solely their own
experience, and not a higher level where alternatives and implications are explored, the
value of reflection was great. Reflections from student teachers included the following,
“…another thing I’ve learned about teaching…it’s much more than teaching. You’re
watching your students; you’re watching the time, [always] thinking of stuff you have to
do” (p. 119). Other themes that became apparent included teacher talk, importance of
planning, self-confidence, teaching as performance, and student engagement as an
indicator of learning. Interns stated repeatedly they would have liked to have had more
time practicing their new strategies and have observed the techniques modeled by
experienced professionals more often. The result for the participants was an expanded
teaching repertoire, an increased understanding of the complexities of teaching, and
greater self-confidence (p. 119).
A qualitative three-year case study was conducted to find out what role
personal qualities played in teachers’ realization and application of classroom strategies
learned in collaborative groups and how teacher dissimilarities influence collaborative
teaching groups (Brownell, Adams, Sindelar, Waldron, Vanhover, 2006). All the
participants were certified or endorsed according to state regulations and their experience
ranged from two to 22 years. Each was specifically chosen because of their varying
abilities in adopting Learning Cohort (LC) methods (p.174). The list of strategies
included class-wide peer tutoring; cooperative learning structures; cognitive strategies for
reading and writing; positive reinforcement; behavioral contracts; self-monitoring
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strategies for changing behavior; peer mediated conflict resolution; phonological
awareness and fluency-building strategies; strategies for solving basic mathematics
operations; curriculum-based measurement; and responsive classroom strategies (p. 173).
Themes were listed and researchers verified them with individual examples to ensure
trustworthiness. Observers wrote yearly reports from analyzed data and presented them to
participants for feedback. Researchers categorized participants into three separate levels
of adoption; high adopters, moderate adopters, and low adopters. Five characteristics
were used to categorize the participants’ degree of adoption:
(1) Knowledge of curriculum and pedagogy.
(2) Managing student behavior and having student-friendly principles.
(3) Student-focused view of instruction.
(4) Ability to accurately assess students’ learning.
(5) Ability to adapt new strategies to fit the needs of students (p. 180).
Brownell et al gives concrete examples to illustrate how the high adopters incorporated
new strategies into their teaching. Barriers to adopting the LC methods were also
highlighted by the researchers. One might assume the high adopters reached high levels
of learning and success with their students but there was no recorded data to quantify that
fact. Perhaps future studies will measure student achievement against the successes of
teacher collaboration and team planning.
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Classroom Management: Organization and order in the classroom
To study classroom management styles one must observe and recognize the
inherent styles that exist and analyze why and how well they work. Traynor’s research on
classroom management considered this and broke down classroom management into five
basic strategies or styles (2002). They were: (a) coercive; (b) task oriented; (c) laissez-
faire; (d) authoritative; and (e) intrinsic. Traynor then listed the two criteria he used to
show effective teaching and learning was taking place: (a) practice and development of a
desired learning skill; and (b) maintenance of a student’s emotional well being. Next, he
scientifically analyzed each control strategy and determined whether the two criterions
each maintained effective methods of teaching and learning. Traynor deduced the only
acceptable styles of classroom management were the authoritative and intrinsic styles.
Both of these styles maintained behavior in proper fashion and concluded that if the
teacher’s goal is to develop and practice a learning skill, it is possible to accomplish.
Through this direct observation approach Traynor provided data on classroom
arrangement, primary mode of instruction, and discipline strategies used. Following the
descriptions, he presented short clips and phrases of the teachers he observed to give a
better image of each teacher’s motives and attitudes.
Moving beyond classroom management skills, Doherty and Hilberg (2007) from
the University of California directed a correlation research to determine the relationship
between pedagogy, classroom organization, and student achievement gains. Using
nonequivalent pretest and posttest control-group design, the authors were able to perform
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planned, goal-directed instructional conversations between themselves and a small group
of students. The findings revealed using standards for lesson planning consistently led to
outstanding achievement on year-end standardized tests of comprehension, reading,
spelling, and vocabulary. Along with this ability to predict student outcomes, the overall
gain achieved by all students was well beyond others in non-standards-based pedagogy
instruction.
Along with a number of improved techniques for inside the classroom, there
were those actions schoolteachers and staff should avoid. The following 2005 article in
Preventing School Failure unveiled twelve of the most common classroom management
mistakes, and provided the correct way the teacher should handle the situation (Barbetta,
Norona & Bicard):
(1) Mistake #1: Defining Misbehavior by How It Looks
Instead: Define Misbehavior by Its Function
(2) Mistake #2: Asking, "Why Did You Do That?"
Instead: Assess the Behavior Directly to Determine its Function
(3) Mistake #3: When an Approach Isn't Working, Try Harder
Instead: Try Another Way
(4) Mistake #4: Violating the Principles of Good Classroom Rules
Instead: Follow the Guidelines for Classroom Rules
(5) Mistake #5: Treating All Misbehaviors as Won't Dos
Instead: Treat Some Behaviors as Can't Dos
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(6) Mistake #6: Lack of Planning for Transition Time
Instead: Appropriately Plan for Transition Time
(7) Mistake #7: Ignoring All or Nothing at All
Instead: Ignore Wisely
(8) Mistake #8: Overuse and Misuse of Time Out
Instead: Follow the Principles of Effective Time Out
(9) Mistake #9: Inconsistent Expectations and Consequences
Instead: Have Clear Expectations That Are Enforced Consistently
(10) Mistake #10: Viewing Ourselves as the Only Classroom Manager
Instead: Include Students, Parents, and Others in Management Efforts
(11) Mistake #11: Missing the Link between Instruction and Behavior
Instead: Use Academic Instruction as a Behavior Management Tool
(12) Mistake #12: Taking Student Behavior Too Personally
Instead: Take Student Misbehavior Professionally, Not Personally (p. 15).
Barbetta et al relied on many resources for each common mistake presented, and brought
much clarity to the cases. Barbetta and his colleagues also described the Antecedent-
Behavior-Consequence (ABC) functional assessment form and stated how it analyzed
classroom behavior patterns. Having useful tools and knowing how to use them make
difficult classroom situations much easier to handle.
At times core subject teachers use various classroom activities that require
students to think creatively, analyze, solve problems, write, draw, team with others, and
30
perform in front of the class. The response from the students (or parents) often arises,
“Why do I have to do this? This isn’t theater or art class; this is English, [Science],
[Math], [Social Studies].” Although the use of Multiple Intelligences (MI) in the
classroom is too broad a topic to be discussed in depth here its value in developing higher
level thinking and engaging students in their own learning styles is similar to what Baker,
Barstack, Clark, Hull, Goodman, Kook, Kraft, Ramakrishna, Roberts, Shaw, Weaver, and
Lang (2008) did in this study. Baker et al used active research to observe the effects of
writing to enhance understanding of science for college students. By identifying, solving,
and evaluating problems, he was able to show that writing is a critical instrument for
developing science understanding. It requires the writer to retrieve, organize, and
synthesize information-skills that take considerable practice and commitment. Although
the writing process may confuse students and cause a series of questions that pertain to
the relativity of writing in a science class, one must consider the close relationship of the
thinking process involved in learning science through inquiry and writing. The various
tools used by students included portfolios, research notebooks, group work, lab
worksheets, drawings, student observations, self-evaluations, and answers to assigned
questions. Writing is an engaging activity and with the right premise can be effectively
used in science inquiry classrooms; an activity that promotes understanding, socialization
(group write), and classroom behavior conducive to learning (Baker et al., 2008).
Pachiano (2000) analyzed teachers’ behaviors within their classrooms and
discovered a variety of interesting trends. This research focused on using assessment
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tools to evaluate the instructional conditions of the classroom. The type of research
design was a correlation research. The key instrument in this research was an assessment
tool for gauging the instructional process. Using the tool a teacher or evaluator effectively
understood what was or was not taking place in the classroom that could affect a
student’s ability to focus, learn, and behave properly. The first section entitled, How
Teachers Teach included the following subgroups: (a) overview; (b) sequence; (c)
momentum; (d) how to learn; and (e) practice. The second section, What Teachers Teach
included these subgroups: (a) monitoring and progress; (b) matching to instructional
level; and (c) choice of tasks. In the end, the author found that as long as the teacher
provided a sound roadmap for instruction, engaging activities, and content fitting the
students, students remained interested and on task 70-90% of the time. The heart of the
assessment tool centered on the student and how the teaching related to the student’s
needs, interests, background, strengths, and weaknesses. Pacchiano (2000) argued that
much of the behavior problems teachers experience are due to poor teaching practices
that do not take into consideration the students’ abilities, skill level, interests, and
background knowledge. Teachers could use the tool as a planning guide or check-off list
for activities to ensure each lesson provides the best opportunity for students to learn
(Appendix A).
“Having a sense of order, predictability, and trust in your classroom … [will
help students] … understand that respect, kindness, and learning will prevail.” This
statement is the foundation for the practical six-point plan developed by Kathryn Brady
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(2003) that integrated social skills and academic learning throughout the day. The six
rules were basic and broad in nature but covered 95% of everyday classroom situations:
(1) model behavior you want to see; (2) create rules with your class; (3) keep rules
simple; (4) teacher language guidelines; (5) logical consequences; and (6) take time for
reflection. For each of the above rules Brady et al provided clarification of its meaning
and the reason why it is helpful in maintaining order and discipline. For example in the
first case, modeling behavior, she listed in order the steps to take in accomplishing this
task correctly. The specific modeling technique used was also named and described
(explicit modeling technique). She stressed that many times we as adults think students
know what we mean when say things or describe events. In reality, it is far from true.
Many students do not have the same background experiences, vocabulary, or the intuition
for piecing small bits together into a big picture. In explicit modeling, the teacher first
stated the term and described the action. Second, student volunteers acted out the correct
actions. Third, classmates described what they saw, heard, felt, and discussed what was
correct, incorrect, or missing. Lastly, the group practiced the skill until it was mastered.
In the end, modeling was not only a fun activity; but also helped build assertiveness and
empathy within the class (p. 26). The second and third rules are clear-cut and focus on
rules. Again, the procedure for doing this is (a) make a preliminary list together; (b)
reword sentences into positive statements; (c) categorize rules; and (d) create a few
global rules from the categorized lists. Instead of long lists of does and don’ts, the teacher
has guiding principles to remind and shape behavior. Rule number four, teacher
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language, was also broken down and thoroughly explained. The most important concept
was what to say and how to say it. Teachers’ speech should be clear and direct,
nonjudgmental, and positive in nature. Very little language is required in some cases if
visual cues, proximity, and refocusing/redirection are part of one’s daily teaching
techniques. Logical Consequences, Brady et al’s fifth point, reminded teachers to be fair
and respectful and to match the punishment with the crime. Sometimes the least possible
measure is all that is needed to have a student reflect, regain self-control, and atone for
their actions. Reflection covers a few different ideas sometimes not associated with
reflection. Brady et al includes forgiving yourself for minor mistakes; “take a breath” to
recover from bad moments or days; and asking for and providing support to colleagues
on those hard days. Brady et al concludes with a facsimile quote from a student heard on
one of the last days of school, “…people are nice to each other in this class, and it is a
nice place to be…” Combine that with “this was my favorite class,” “I liked Reading
[Science] [History] this year,” and “we learned allot about Space this year,” (p. 4) and it
is quite likely the rules, procedures, and classroom environment had a hand in making the
year a positive learning experience.
Barbetta et al’s twelve rules (2005), Brady et al six points (2003), and now
Simpicio’s three tips (1999) are all similar in that they are ‘global’ in nature and
simplistic in their wording. Barbetta et al’s rules focused on behavior and classroom
management; Brady et al described how to construct classroom rules and teacher
communication; and Simplicio’s three tips are a very mixed bag of big ideas that all fall
34
under just plain good teaching:
(1) Know Students’ Names.
(2) Utilize Cooperative Group-work Correctly.
(3) Understand the True Purpose of Testing.
Knowing students’ names breaks down boundaries and passes on a positive and powerful
message; I care about you. This Simplicio says is the first and very crucial step in
building an effective learning environment (p. 111). Methods to help in master this task
are given. The second tip, using cooperative group-work correctly, is one that applies so
often in so many situations. Buzzwords like cooperative learning, differentiation,
collaboration, team building, group-work, partnering, cooperation and a professional
development day (or curriculum guide) drive teachers to assign group-learning projects
and grade the outcome. Simplicio’s article informs us, if the groups are the wrong size,
the wrong students, doing the wrong project, very little if any learning will come out of it.
Research says teachers make three big mistakes when assigning group-work (p. 116).
First is the group size. Research says for group projects with students, three is the optimal
number. The second mistake is in the way members were selected to be in groups. Using
random haphazard methods, just letting friends work together, or relying on very limited
knowledge of students to form groups lead to trouble. Simplicio suggests using very well
defined parameters for choosing groups. Use learning styles, interests, levels, multiple
intelligences, skills and abilities to gain the best results. The third common mistake made
in group-work is the project or assignment itself. The project should be by design one in
35
which the group needs to use higher-level thinking and collaboration to complete it
successfully. If it is just an extension of what one-person can do alone over a longer
period of time, the group aspect is wasted and all of the members will not fully take part.
Have absolute goals, appoint specific tasks to members, and assign strict deadlines with
consequences. The last tip is one that seems at first to be out of place with classroom
management, behavior, and discipline, but when looked at again, definite ties can be
seen. For many students the unit test is a dreadful thought. It stirs up anxiety, feelings of
helplessness, and general hatred towards school. During the period of a few days or
weeks of an assigned or unit of instruction students’ may feel as if they know what is
going on (or they may feel like they don’t). They may be comfortable in thinking they are
grasping the main ideas and concepts. The teacher may as well imagine that the students
are on track with what they should know by reflecting on how a few questions are asked
or answered by a few students. Then comes the one-time high stakes assessment on a
certain date with restrictive time limits. You either know it or you don’t. Simplicio says,
“…by and large, the emphasis on the proper use of testing has for the most part been
focused in the wrong areas…” (p. 116). Rarely in the real world does one have to learn
one certain task in only one certain way in just one predetermined space and time. Rather,
there is a multitude of ways of receiving the information, time to practice, and repeated
attempts to show mastery. Simplicio believes teachers should incorporate new strategies
to faithfully test for comprehension. True/false, even-numbered matching option items,
fill in the blank, and multiple choice tests do not ascertain what a student was taught or
36
understands if wrongly constructed (p. 117). Test items should be constructed that require
higher-level critical thinking skills and demonstrate comprehension of concepts not just
rote memory of facts. Lastly, Simplicio states if we really want students to learn
something before moving on to more advanced content, we need to keep reviewing and
retesting to make sure it is learned before going on any further. This means more
individualized instruction and multiple attempts to show one’s mastery. Both require
more resources, time, and effort. Besides the three tips just discussed Simplicio’s article
is worthwhile because of his introduction and background paragraphs that highlight some
common education issues that trouble teachers, administration, community leaders, and
society as a whole. People judge the quality of an education system on the end product
that is produced-the student. Unfortunately, the front-line force that gets the blame (or the
credit-sometimes) is most often the teacher. Today’s teacher has to have a wide array of
skills and talents to be successful. The requirement to be a moral role model, counselor,
bureaucrat, accountant, mediator, coach, babysitter, and academic mentor that is
understanding, compassionate, and fair is a large order to handle. To be up to this
challenge teachers must share ideas and learn through their experiences, successes, and
failures. Simplicio’s research and collaboration of ideas from many experienced teachers
shows new teachers what to do and provides a simple review for veteran teachers.
In a 2009 Science Scope article, Donna Sterling discussed the basic tenets
learned from a National Science Foundation grant on teaching science (2009). The key is
in planning, preparation, material set-ups, and the ongoing analyzing of mistakes, so that
37
classrooms remain respectful, productive, successful workspaces for learning science.
Also discussed was the value of student reflections after each lesson and peer evaluations.
A typical student reflection questionnaire included:
(1) What was the main idea of the lesson in which you just participated in?
(2) What did you learn today that you did not know before?
(3) What else would you like to know about this topic?
(4) What about this lesson helped you understand science better?
(5) How could this lesson have been more effective for you?
When the student answers these questions it helps both the student and the teacher realize
what is working or not working in the learning process. Peer evaluations help bring up
ideas that start conversations on how to improve lesson plans and teaching techniques. A
typical peer evaluation is illustrated (p. 32):
Beginning the Lesson
(1) Time Bell Rang.
(2) Time Learning Started.
(3) What evidence is there that students knew what to do to start class?
(4) How did this lesson connect to or build on previous learning?
During the Lesson
(1) What evidence was there of student-centered learning?
(2) How was the lesson differentiated or adapted for different learners?
Closure
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(1) What science concepts were explicitly connected?
(2) How does this lesson connect and prepare students for the next lesson?
Overall Learning
(1) What was the main idea of the lesson you just observed?
(2) How did the physical setup of the classroom and routines support or
hinder learning?
(3) What about this lesson helped students understand science better and
its connection to the real world?
(4) How could this lesson have been more effective?
Reviewing the questions one can see where the focus is here: order; timeliness;
efficiency; big ideas; real world; production; relationships; and accountability. Even
though some of the issues are science-related, they can be adapted to any course content.
Finally, ensure all your routines, policies, and procedures are ready to go and initiated
right at the first week of school (p. 29). If the first week is the most important week for
establishing expectations and a class environment, the first day is even more so and the
first 10 minutes are the most important 10 minutes of the entire year. Arrangement of
student desks with relationships to classroom geometries, equipment location, and teacher
positioning were discussed as well.
Bowers (2000) cites low achievement, disruptive behavior, absenteeism,
transiency, lack of parental support, negative personal and family situations, economic
stresses, school overcrowding, lack of school funds and quality resources, high teacher
39
absenteeism and turnover, and lack of classroom management skills commonplace in
urban schools. The goal to score higher on standardized tests is a one-track theme that
does not consider all the above concerns. As far back as 1987 researchers saw these
educational barriers in urban schools as real concerns and some pushed for broad changes
in educational training programs (p. 236). The need to form collaborative links between
school, home, and community agencies is necessary in communities that struggle
educationally, economically, and socially (p. 237). A six-step guide is introduced to
enable urban teachers to foster culturally relevant classrooms. Its highlights include:
1) Help the most underprivileged students to academic success.
(2) Focus developing learning communities over individual knowledge skills.
(3) Students life experiences are valued and included in the education process.
(4) Students and teachers participate in the literacy and oratory endeavors.
(5) Teachers and students collectively battle the status quo.
(6) Teachers view themselves as part of a bigger picture to support education
and learning (p. 238).
Bowers described the pedagogy of poverty that exists in some urban schools like so.
Teachers teach, students learn. Basic skills are necessary for living. When students follow
directions, behavior is taught. Ranking is necessary (p. 239). Lacking is the instruction
and practice of problem solving, critical thinking, and discovery learning. If students are
going to be successful in life beyond school, they need to be deeply enriched. Ten
activities were cited that promote this kind of success:
40
(1) Students use their knowledge to solve school problems.
(2) Teachers teach concepts and principles, not just facts.
(3) Students learn fairness, consistency, and equality.
(4) Teachers and students inquire, research, and investigate together.
(5) Students have academic classroom discussions to solve problems.
(6) Students use technology to inquire, explore, and communicate.
(7) Students edit, proof, and refine their work as part of their academic
achievement, not a result of punishment.
(8) Instruction is based on standards and is delivered in a culturally relevant context.
(9) Teachers provide avenues for students to learn about their communities
as they relate to prescribed curriculum.
(10) Teachers provide a format for students to recognize and track their
academic and behavioral progress (p. 241).
Bowers believed these ten observable tasks go a long way in ensuring urban middle
schools are aptly preparing young adolescents to become strong, independent, thinkers
who can achieve in the competitive 21st century environment.
International Educational Behavior Research
International classroom research provides comparison data that helps assess the
validity of previous national studies and corroborate findings of educational specialists
(Paisey & Kobayashi, 2007). While cultural and national values have some affect in
41
classroom behavior, as students develop their learning modes, capabilities, and social
norms, their behavior also changes. The K-12 teacher must consider this natural
developmental change and reflect it in their lesson planning. Some of the following
studies could have been added to the behavioral research section above, while others
could have been slotted into the teachers’ beliefs and attitudes section. Because of their
uniqueness in having an international sample of students from one or many foreign
countries they are included here. A backdrop of studies from around the world helps to
understand different age groups from a variety of cultures.
In a study conducted in Japan, Paisey et al. (2007) teamed up to analyze students’
on-task behavior and academic success. The study was a quantitative survey adopted by
Paisey et al from similar research studies conducted in the United States and the United
Kingdom. This survey consisted of 298 students in Japan using a 16-item questionnaire to
determine students’ perceptions of teachers’ behaviors. The goal was to determine if a
positive correlation existed between students’ perception and their success. Interestingly,
the study uncovered dissimilar results across three general categories: (a) subject taught
by the teacher; (b) gender of the teacher; and (c) gender of the student. The most
important finding was that students who responded favorably towards their teachers on
the teacher behavioral evaluation also performed better on end-of-year exams in that
class. That seems obvious, but how does this translate into worthwhile results? Is it
possible for a teacher become a “favorite teacher” for 150-175 different students? The
researchers also stated that this study corroborated research done previously in very
42
different settings.
In another international study by Rescorla, Achenbach, Ginzburg, Ivanova,
Dumenci, Almqvist, Bathiche, Bilenberg, Bird, Domuta, Erol, Fombonne, Fonseca,
Frigerio, Kanbayashi, Lambert, Liu, Leung, Minaei, Roussos, Simsek, Weintraub, Weisz,
Wolanczyk, Zubrick, Zukauskiene, and Verhulst (2007) researchers tested the validity of
2001 Teacher’s Report Form (TRF) developed by Achenbach and Rescorla. This form
has 118 specific behavior problems listed to rate students’ behavioral and emotional
problems in the classroom. The research design was a confirmatory factor analyses, and
the method of selecting participants was through a stratified representative sample of
households and students or randomly selected teachers and his or her students. The
countries included United States, China, Netherlands, Greece, Portugal, Italy, Denmark,
and Thailand (among others). Grade strata K-8 results obtained across the board from all
countries revealed similar data. Besides the confirmation of the TRF as being reliable,
another finding was that higher problem behavior scores directly correlated with lower
socioeconomic status climates. The TRF was translated once to each foreign language
then translated back to English and evaluated a second time by separate rating specialists
for similarity in meaning with the initial test instrument. Behavior pattern trend shifts up
and down noted in the different grade strata suggested many behavior problems are age-
specific in nature (Rescorla et al., 2007).
Like the research of Paisey et al., 2007, the following study correlated
classroom environment with student achievement. The authors of this study (Van
43
Petegem, Aelterman, Van Keer, & Rosseel, 2008) performed a quantitative survey to
analyze students’ on-task behavior. They surveyed 594 students from 13 vocational and
technical secondary schools. The goal was to determine if a correlation existed between
positive classroom environments and students’ sense of well-being. The survey revealed
that classroom environment and positive student-teacher relationships were important
factors in shaping a student’s comfort level. Another finding was that highly motivated
learners also had a greater feeling of security. Effective classroom management and close
relations between teachers and students lead to students’ acquiring a greater sense of
happiness. Thus, the student’s perception of the teacher’s behavior is important to the
student’s sense of well-being and ability to succeed. Students feel better under a less
authoritarian rule but still need exacting discipline and order (Van Petegem, et al., 2008).
The teacher must perform a balancing act between friendly and firm with all the
components carefully understood.
A yearlong qualitative descriptive study conducted in twelve public middle
schools in ten randomly selected districts of Gujranwala and Lahore Pakistan sought to
find out the teaching techniques used by middle school teachers and identify the students’
opinions about the teaching techniques (Iqbal, Shahbaz, Naseer, Rehman, Khaleeq,
Ishfaq, Ud Din, 2012). The participants were equally divided between urban and rural,
and male and female schools. Five teachers and twelve students were selected from each
school. Iqbal et al., need year used chi square analysis to sort data from two
questionnaires. First, the study’s review of the literature highlights academic principles
44
(and problems) familiar to school districts all over the world:
(1) The need for teachers to adapt to students and use a variety of techniques
depending on the situation.
(2) The right of students to have teachers who are knowledgeable, capable, and
committed.
(3) Teachers need to provide a supportive environment that fosters a love of
learning and the strong link between teacher behavior and student behavior.
(4) Students should not be given the chance to sit idle and should be involved
in purposeful activities throughout the class period.
(5) “[The] teacher is really the role model for his [and her] students…can help
the students in the solution of psychological as well as academic
problems…capable of guiding his students in every sort of situation.”
6) Secondary education is an important because it provides middle-level
workers for the economy as well as feed higher-level education (p. 385).
The majority of the students in the study reported that teachers used techniques that held
their interest, explain ideas using real-world concepts, and used a variety of methods
throughout their lessons. The students also reported that a majority of the teachers did not
help build their self-confidence, use series teaching to develop complex ideas, or use
small groups as a teaching method (p. 388). Iqpal recommends the following to be
effective teachers:
(1) Teachers know the objectives of the lesson.
45
(2) Preparation has been made before hand.
(3) Positive interaction between teacher and students in the form of
questions from both sides.
(4) Students cooperate with each other.
(5) Students are accountable for their work.
(6) The student is busy in some kind of learning activity.
From the findings, the following recommendations were made to improve the learning
process in secondary schools: teachers should use a series when teaching complex topics
and teachers should arrange and apply small group tutorials more often as a teaching
technique (p. 385).
In Andrew Boon’s (2010) classroom action research, the spotlight shifted to
the utilization of classroom space, physical seating arrangements, and structured student
movement. Borrowing from behavioral psychologist’s research findings that one’s setting
positively or negatively influences one’s behavior and interactions with others, he
described various ways the physical classroom environment and daily activities could be
tailored to motivate, improve achievement, and shape the behavior of students (p. 22). As
an English teacher in Chiba, Japan, Boon’s goal was to increase student interaction, class
involvement, and learning by providing the most comfortable environment for each
student. He collected responses from student surveys to identify common obstacles to
learning. He found that many seemingly small annoyances greatly interfered with
students’ ability to focus and willingness to participate. For one student it may be sitting
46
in long rows and columns of desks that do not facilitate the easy sharing of ideas, for
another, sitting in the same space with the same person for an extended period of time,
for a third it may be the content or topic of discussion. In each case by providing options
that agree with each student’s learning preferences, students stayed on task and achieved
greater success. Boon also included diagrams of various classroom layouts and discussed
the benefits and downsides of each from the point of view of the student, the teacher, and
the type of instructional activity.
Summary review of the literature
Common Threads Within Each Group
Common attributes present in the first group included: (1) all were relatively
recent studies based on long-standing antecedent behavior research models; (2) the
conclusion that many teachers do not correctly identify the causes of student
misbehavior; and (3) the realization that engaging, hands-on classroom activities with
attainable goals result in an overall decrease in student misbehaviors.
Similarities within the second category of nine studies included: most were
long-term qualitative observational or survey studies of preservice teachers (interns)
undergoing some type of formalized teacher training; subject matter expertise and
familiarity of benchmarks/standards brought confidence to interns and better enabled
effective presentations of difficult concepts; most teachers’ beliefs on education were
formed long before entering the classroom as licensed teachers; teachers who recognized
differences in student ability, language, culture, and learning styles enabled them to plan
47
and connect more effectively with students.
Parallels in the third group of nine classroom management articles were: recent
quantitative studies of one year in length or more that found a positive correlation
between pedagogically sound teaching, and academic achievement and student behavior;
teachers who are organized, prepared, and clearly communicate classroom policies have
fewer discipline problems along with students who have a better sense of wellbeing.
Shared elements of the international studies group included: student
misbehavior was similar in frequency and type in many diverse countries; a positive
correlation was found between students’ performance and student’s opinion of teachers’
behavior; and last, teachers who use relevant and engaging teaching methods allow for
greater student success.
Common Threads That Existed Among all the Research
(1) Teachers who knew their subjects, had high expectations, strict class
guidelines, and genuine care for their students while at the same time, allowed
flexibility in student learning, had the happiest, most well adjusted, confident,
and high achieving students.
(2) Successful teachers continued to reflect on their teaching methods, learned
new techniques, and shared with others all the lessons learned in their
classrooms.
(3) The highest achieving students were self-motivated individuals with one or
48
more of the following: strong family, cultural, community, support, and/or
close relationships with positive role models such as teachers, coaches, and
counselors.
49
CHAPTER IV
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LITERATURE
When searching for peer-reviewed sources on the topic of classroom behavior
(behavior management), four broad categories became readily apparent:
(1) Quantitative observational research studies focusing on the causal
components of classroom misbehavior and the validity of specific behavior
tracking tools. (2) Qualitative longitudinal research studies focusing on the
effect teachers’ attitudes had in establishing classroom environments and
implementing new teaching styles. (3) A mixed variety of research studies and
instructional guides on classroom management/lesson planning that raise
student achievement and enforce proper classroom behavior.
(4) International quantitative and qualitative survey research studies on
classroom environment and student behavior.
Behavior research
The following pages present four Tables that summarize each of the research
studies presented in hapter three (Review of the Literature). Each table consists of four
columns with the following headings: (1) Author(s); (2) Purpose; (3) Research Design;
and (4) Contributions to the Research. Table 1 includes the Behavioral Research Studies
found on pages 7-13.
50
Table 1
Characteristics of studies related to behavior research
Author(s)
Purpose
Research Design
Contributions to the
Research
Geiger, B.
(2000)
Discover causal
factors and
corrections in
classroom
misbehavior.
Quantitative,
direct observation
of 35 teachers.
Teachers who plan engaging,
hands-on, socially interactive
lessons experience less
problem behaviors by fulfilling
student’s desire to socialize.
Filter &
Horner
(2009)
To assess function-
based interventions
and problem
behavior.
Quantitative,
functional
analysis
observations of
two students.
Student misbehavior is often-
times the result of student’s
inability to perform the
assigned task.
Scott,
Anderson&
Spaulding
(2008)
Assess Functional
Behavior
Assessment &
TEAMS strategies
in accordance with
IDEA regulations.
Quantitative,
direct observation
by teams.
Using TEAMS strategy by
school administrators,
behavioral specialists, and
teachers to uncover causes of
misbehavior and find workable
solutions.
Reinke,
Lewis-
Palmer, &
Merrell
(2008)
To show a
correlation between
specific praise and
student classroom
disruptions.
Quantitative, 5 -
phase direct-obs.
study of four
teachers with
visual feedback.
In the Pacific Northwest
teachers were taught a
technique that centered on
specific daily verbal praise and
saw immediate results.
Dowd
(1997)
To examine the
efficacy of the free-
write style in
solving class
misbehavior issues.
Informal, action -
research activity
by a single
teacher in a single
classroom.
Students use self-reflection and
writing to express their
involvement in a situation and
give possible solutions.
Promotes ownership of one’s
actions.
51
Burke,
Burke-
Samide
(Jul-Aug
2004)
Evaluate effect of
physical classroom
environment with
academic learning
and performance.
Hypothetical
informal,
qualitative study
based on
quantitative
research of Burke
& Dunn (2002).
Adapting the physical
classroom environment to
individual student needs
enables them behave, learn,
and achieve higher scores on
standardized tests (temp, light,
seating, background noise).
Teacher attitudes and beliefs
The following table (Table 2) includes the eleven studies found on pages 13-26 in
chapter three (Review of the Literature) that primarily focused on teachers’ choice of
classroom management. It is arranged in the following manner. Four columns with the
following headings: (1) Author(s); (2) Purpose; (3) Research Design; and (4)
Contributions to the Research.
52
Table 2
Characteristics of studies related to teacher attitudes and beliefs
Author(s)
Purpose
Research Design
Contributions to the
Research
Jeanpierre
(2007)
To improve
middle school
science education
with a focus on
novice teachers.
Quantitative, formal
1-yr triangulated
survey of nine first-
year Florida science
teachers.
Teacher must believe student
can achieve and show it.
Novice teachers need full
support from admin, mentors
and parents to have success.
Bischoff,
Watford &
Hatch
(1999)
To determine the
confidence level
of middle school
interns to prepare
and teach one 6th
grade lesson.
Qualitative
longitudinal study
of 10 preservice
middle school
teachers.
Rarely did pre-service
teachers have the pedagogical
content and techniques needed
to confidently prepare and
teach a 6th
grade science
lesson. (1 out of 10)
Sokal, Smith
& Mowat
(2003)
To find diff-
erences in class-
room manag-
ement styles of
ARL trainees.
Qualitative, 4-yr
longitudinal study
of 82 pre-service
teachers.
Age and experience greatly
influence classroom
management styles and
behavior intervention
techniques in ARL trainees.
Cothran,
Darst,
Kulinna,
McMullen,
Van der
Mars (2011).
To discover the
acceptance,
implementation,
and ultimate
success of activity
breaks in MS
class.
Qualitative, 1-yr
triangulated formal
survey of 17 middle
school teachers in
southwestern U.S.
Programs have varying
degrees of success due to
teachers’ beliefs, experience,
buy-in, training and support
from peers and administration.
Huang,
(2009).
To learn how
cultural beliefs of
teachers and
students affect
ability to learn in
different higher
education setting.
Qualitative, 1-yr
survey of 78 higher
education Chinese
students in N.
American schools.
Cultural norms and academic
expectations may clash with
institutional norms and
expectations making it harder
for students to succeed if not
properly counseled and
trained in new skills.
Weinstein,
Curran,
Tomlinson-
Provide teachers
specific examples
of Culturally
Qualitative,
observational
survey of students
Culturally Responsive Class-
room Management provides
all students with an equal
53
Clarke,
(2003).
Responsive
Classroom
Management.
of various cultures
in U.S. classrooms.
Rutgers Graduate
School of Educ.
opportunity to learn.
Compliance & control is not
the goal. CRCM classes
furthers social justice.
Weiner, L.
(2003).
Illustrate deficit
paradigm
mentality of urban
schools in U.S.
cities and its
causal effects on
education.
Qualitative, direct
observation of
urban public school
teachers, students,
administration, &
community.
The blame for failing urban
schools is divided sharply :
1- students, their families &
culture; 2- teachers. To assess
the problem accurately both
student & teacher character-
istics have to be analyzed in
context with surroundings.
Oh, D.,
Ankers, A.,
Llamas, J.,
Tomyoy, C.
(2005).
Determine the
effect of student
teaching, conf -
idence, job satis-
faction, efficacy,
& desire to remain
teaching in urban
schools.
Quantitative,
longitudinal survey
of 204 K-12 pre-
service teachers in
4 urban schools.
Teachers had 1-36
yrs prior teaching
experience.
Student teaching had a great
effect on gaining teaching
credentials, job satisfaction, &
confidence. Those supervised
daily/weekly plan to remain
teaching (71%/90%). If under
limited supervision the desire
to remain teaching fell to 40%
Graziano,
Litton,
(2007).
Begin a discussion
on the educational
issues of Los
Angeles County
secondary schools
& initiate change
through action
projects.
Qualitative, partic-
patory photographic
research study of
Los Angeles
secondary schools
using 25 first-year
teachers.
Using photovoice, personal
reflections, & collaboration,
teaching interns could view
their school conditions in an
unbiased way to formulate
ideas about change. Through
sharing & collaboration, few
voices became powerful.
Lafram-
boise, Shea,
(2009).
Determine if pre-
service framework
of planning,
implementation,
feedback, & reflec
tion was effective
in training
teachers .
Qualitative,
descriptive study
using interviews,
questionnaires, &
reflections of 50
interns over a 15-
week period.
First-year teachers in survival
mode are not able to plan,
implement, and reflect
properly on their teaching.
Teacher training focusing on
practicing new strategies and
modeling by professional was
most needed by interns.
54
Brownell,
Adams,
Sindelar,
Waldron,
Vanhover
(2006).
To know what
role personal
qualities played in
teachers’
attainment & use
of skills learned in
collaborative
groups as well as
their ability to
function in the
group.
Qualitative, 3-yr
case study by
Teacher Learning
Cohort in two urban
Florida schools. 8
GENED teachers
were purposefully
selected from 20
TLC participants.
High Adopters (HA) shared
beliefs regarding teaching. HA
were consistently the most
knowledgeable teachers. HA
were most willing to adopt
new techniques. HA thought
about all students in the class
& acquired new ideas quickly.
HA created new tools by
synthesizing content.
Classroom management/lesson planning
The following table (Table 3) includes the nine studies found on pages 27-40
in chapter three (Review of the Literature) that primarily focused on classroom
management. It is arranged in the following manner. Four columns with the following
headings: (1) Author(s); (2) Purpose; (3) Research Design; and (4) Contributions to the
Research.
55
Table 3
Characteristics of studies related to classroom management/lesson planning
Author(s)
Purpose
Research Design
Contributions to the
Research
Traynor,
(Spring-
2002).
To determine the
most effective
classroom
management
strategies for
learning.
Quantitative, 1-yr
direct observation
and data collection
of two middle
school teachers at
S. Coast MS.
Of 5 disciplinarian styles
noted (coercive, laissez-faire,
task-oriented, authoritative*,
and intrinsic*, only two are
pedagogically sound(*),
because they 1-allow student
to practice high-level skills, 2-
maintain student emotional
well-being.
Doherty &
Hilberg
(2007).
To find a
correlation
between high
achievement and
standards-based
instruction.
Quantitative, 1-yr
study of 23 teachers
and 394 students in
two low-income,
ELL public
elementary schools
1 mile apart.
Teachers using 5-standards
pedagogy (TP) and specific
classroom organization (TO)
enabled linguistic and
culturally challenged students
to perform better on standard-
ized tests.
Barbetta,
Norona &
Bicard
(2005).
Provide a guide
to the most
common
disciplinary
mistakes novice
teachers make
and provide
solutions.
Special Education
Assoc Professor,
school psychologist
and Director of
Research & Staff
Development
present guidelines
from 23 sources.
Teachers have the greatest
influence over everything that
goes on in the classroom.
Knowing what mistakes we
make and what to do instead is
invaluable knowledge when
developing and implementing
a comprehensive behavior
management plan.
Baker,
Barstack,
Clark, Hull,
Identify
roadblocks in
writing-to-learn
Quantitative,
semester-long
survey of a group of
Problems using writing-to-
learn strategies in science
include: scheduling & time
56
Goodman,
Kook, Kraft,
Ramakrishna,
Roberts,
Shaw,
Weaver,
Lang (2008).
strategies in
middle school
science.
southwestern
middle school
science & writing
teachers.
constraints, teacher & student
attitudes about writing, and
evaluation/feedback.
Pacchiano
(2000).
Develop a
functional assess-
ment tool for
evaluating
teacher’s
instruct- tional
methods.
Qualitative,
correlation research
from 20-year
history of
instructional
practice vs. on-task
classroom behavior.
The advantages of using a
functional assessment tool to
determine instructional
conditions for teachers
experiencing various problem
behaviors in the classroom.
Brady,
Forton,
Porter, Wood
(Aug 2003).
Provide teachers
a six-point plan
for maintaining
class- room
behavior and
delivering
instruction.
Most- practiced &
straightforward
strategies from
responsive
classroom.org. &
Northeast Foun-
dation for Children.
Basic classroom management
techniques that integrate
learning social skills with
academic learning throughout
the day lead to less behavior
problems & higher achieve-
ment.
Simplicio
(Jun 1999).
Provide a check
– list of common
accepted
practices in
teaching to both
neophytes and
seasoned pros.
Qualitative,
informal survey
research approach.
J. Simplicio, Ph.D.,
Caldwell College,
NJ.
Society judges education by
how well teachers meet all the
needs presented by the ever-
increasing mix of students.
Teachers need to be skilled,
caring, adaptable, & always
sharing ideas to have success.
Sterling
(Summer
2009).
To outline
lessons learned
from National
Qualitative, self –
observation survey
method. Science
Effective teachers prepare
well before the first day to
have the physical environment
57
Science
Foundation
research on
estab- lishing
routines &
procedures for
teaching science.
teachers in NSF
education Grant #
0302050.
properly setup, routines and
policies established, materials
available. The first 10 min
may the most important 10
minutes of the entire year.
Bowers, R.
(2000).
To explain the
challenges of
urban middle
schools &
provide examples
of success.
Quantitative, direct
observation.
Accumulated data
from multiple
sources.
College of Educ.,
Old Dominion
Univ., Norfolk, VA
Urban school challenges – low
achievement, transient pop-
ulation, absenteeism, lack of
parental guardian, economic,
overcrowding can foster a
pedagogy of failure. Teachers
that focus on student under-
standing in a student- centered
classroom can bring success.
International classroom behavioral research
The following table (Table 4) includes the five studies found on pages 40-46
in chapter three (Review of the Literature) that primarily focused on international
classroom behavioral research. It is arranged in the following manner. Four columns with
the following headings: (1) Author(s); (2) Purpose; (3) Research Design; and (4)
Contributions to the Research.
58
Table 4
Characteristics of studies related to international classroom behavioral research
Author(s)
Purpose
Research Design
Contributions to the
Research
Paisey,
Kobayashi&
Li (2007).
To understand the
role students’
perceptions of
teacher behavior
play in student
achievement.
Quantitative, survey
of 298 Japanese
students using 16
item Teacher
Evaluation
Questionnaire.
The study indicated a positive
relationship between students’
perceptions of teacher
behavior and achievement in
end-of-year examination
results.
Rescorla,
Achenbach,
Ginzburg, Iva-
n ova, Dum-
enci, Almqvist,
Bathiche, Bilen
berg, Bird,
Domuta, Erol,
Fombonne,
Fonseca, Frig-
erio, Kanba -
yashi, Lambert,
Liu, Leung,
Minaei, Rous-
sos, Simsek,
Weintraub,
Weisz, Wolan-
czyk, Zubrick, Zukauskiene &
Verhulst(2007)
.
To determine the
consistency of the
TRF used to
report
behavior/emotiona
l problems by
teachers in 19
countries.
Quantitative survey
using Teacher’s
Report Form (TRF)
in 19 countries of
30,597 students
ages 8-16.
Behavior problems such as
externalizing, rule-breaking,
attention, aggressiveness,
ADH & others were similarly
reported in 19 very diverse
countries using the TRF.
Van
Petegem,
Aelterman,
Van Keer, &
Rosseel
(2008).
To determine if a
correlation existed
between student
characteristics,
interpersonal
teach-er behavior,
achiev- ement &
student wellbeing.
Quantitative, multi-
level analysis of
594 students in 55
classes in 13 tech /
votech high schools
in Belgium.
A positive relationship
between teacher and student
can promote student sense of
wellbeing. Highly motivated
learners report a higher sense
of wellbeing compared to
those attending school out of
duty. Relationships &
expectations matter in school.
59
Iqbal,
Shahbaz,
Naseer,
Rehman
Khaleeq, ,
Ishfaq, Ud
Din
( 2012).
To determine the
students’ opinion
of their teachers
teach- ing
techniques and
ability to build
student self conf-
idence.
Qualitative,
descriptive survey
of students and
teachers in 120
randomly selected
schools from 10
Pakistani school
districts.
Successful teachers have a
generalized plan for their
lessons that include structure,
desired behavior, and edu-
cational goals. Students’
reported favorably on teachers
that hold their interest, use
real-world examples, & use a
variety of teaching techniques.
Boon, A.
(2010).
Report on the
effect of physical
class- room
setting & various
daily learning
activities on
student learning.
Qualitative; survey
of randomly
selected English
learning students in
Chiba, Japan.
Providing options that agree
with student learning styles
resulted in students staying on
task longer, improved well-
being and higher achievement.
60
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
Response to Research Questions
What are the Primary Causes of Urban Middle School Students’ Off-Task
Behavior?
Classroom misbehavior is a complex issue because it stems from many
possible sources. The teacher in a classroom of 30 or more students has to understand that
the cause for all misbehavior is not the same, and cannot always be solved in the same
manner. Research showed that many times the teacher misinterpreted misbehavior
situations, and then misreported them with omissions, bias, or other mistakes (Geiger,
2000). Direct observation from experienced outsiders determined the true cause or
function of misbehavior was crucial in T.E.A.M.S. finding the correct interventions for
misbehavior (Scott, Anderson, & Spaulding, 2008). Studies pointed to four main reasons
why chronic misbehavior happens:
(1) A difficult personal or family situation from outside the school that disrupts
a student’s ability to learn.
(2) Course content or lesson goals that are above the student’s ability level that
force the student into escape behavior.
(3) Environmental situations within the classroom that inhibit the student’s
ability to focus or learn in a style or mode that is best suited for the student
(Boon, 2010; Burke & Burke-Samide, 2004).
61
(4) The teacher had not established and reinforced clear behavior and
expectations within the reachable limits of the students in the class.
In a hypothetical classroom, Anthony gets up out of his seat more than once
each class and walks in an indiscriminate path to the pencil sharpener without permission.
It could be for any one of the four reasons above: stressed out from home issues; the
academic goals are above his level; classroom environment; or no clear understanding of
classroom routines, policies, and procedures. The teacher has a choice when confronting
Anthony about his off-task behavior. The choices are: (1) The teacher may or may not
consider any of the above reasons for his misbehavior; (2) The teacher may or may not
address Anthony in a courteous, professional, respectful manner that focused on the
action; (3) The teacher may or may not be humorous, sarcastic, or demeaning in
correcting classroom issues that involve rules, respect, and the learning environment. So
many times, we as teachers try to have students realize they have choices and they need
to make the right ones to be successful…and make places better for everyone; meanwhile
we forget as educators that we have choices in how we act as role models in shaping the
behavior of young people. The students in more than one study showed improved sense
of wellbeing and higher achievement gains in classrooms where they highly rated their
teacher’s behavior (Paisey, 2007; Van Petegem et al., 2008). This is not to suggest that
the teacher is the primary cause of student misbehavior; nevertheless, how teachers
respond to misbehavior matters a great deal. This researcher suggests the following six
tips for mitigating misbehavior:
62
(1) From day one communicate behavior expectations and classroom
procedures; have the students demonstrate the rules explicitly and reinforce the
rules regularly.
(2) Learn your student’s names, their backgrounds, and favorite activities to
help build relationships of understanding and trust.
(3) Always remain alert; be proactive in resolving minor classroom behavior
issues before they develop into major ones.
(4) Address all behavior problems or student conflicts as soon as they happen
(or become known to you) in a simple, respectful way.
(5) Collaborate and plan with other teachers to ensure lesson activities are
student-centered, engaging, relevant, and the goals are within grasp of student
abilities.
(6) Provide specific verbal praise and random rewards for student success.
How do Teachers’ Attitudes and Beliefs due to Background, Age, or Teacher
Training Programs Influence Classroom Management Styles/Effectiveness?
Just as the first question regarding the cause of student behavior lead to
complex issues in solving problem behavior, the question of teachers’ attitudes and
beliefs reaches into the heart of many educational areas of concern with classroom
behavior being the focus here. In the Background section of Chapter I, it was proposed:
What if I as a novice teacher … had a better understanding of the students I was teaching.
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The largest part of that problem lies in who I am and where I am from. As Jeanpierre
(2007) notes, “middle-level [science] teachers, in many cases, must orchestrate teaching
and learning in an environment that is culturally and economically much different from
their own (p.46). In many under-achieving, urban, low socio-economic, culturally diverse
middle schools, the novice teachers trained by professional training programs come from
backgrounds very different from the students they are teaching (Weiner, 2003). This was
definitely true in my case as shown below:
Table 5
Teacher vs. Student city profile
Teachers’ town profile (as a youth) Students’ city profile:
Population
Median income
Median home value
Population diversity
Did not complete H.S.
Completed College
Graduate Degree
34,000
$78,000
$360,000
W-89% A-7% B-2% H-1%
6%
26%
19%
600,000
$50,000
$197,000
W-47% H-31% B-10% A-5%
26%
6%
4%
(all statistics from year 2010, city-data.com)
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The total population where I teach is twenty times that of where I grew up. The
income levels, home values, and education completed all greatly differ as well. In
addition, if one were in a school classroom just looking around at fellow students, the
diversity would be the most striking difference between the two. Sokal et al (2003) states,
as the number of older novice teachers (now enrolled in Alternate Certification (AC)
programs to make up for the shortfall of teachers) increases, their entrenched attitudes
(due to age and background) of classroom management (and culturally responsive
environments) become more noticeable roadblocks to effective teaching (2003). Not to
mention the most-offered reason for AC teachers leaving the profession is classroom
behavior (Oh et al., 2005). I most certainly did not attend secondary schools that looked,
felt, and behaved like the one I am teaching in now. So, what do I think (and say) when I
see students talking a certain way, acting a certain way, or even thinking a certain way?
Teachers’ beliefs and attitudes have to be self examined and evaluated for biases
(Weinstein et al., 2003). Culturally Responsive Classroom Management (CRCM) ensures
that all students feel welcome, appreciated, safe, and free from culturally biased
misunderstandings that get in the way of learning. A poster on the wall that says, “ Perro
que no camina, no encuentra hueso,” (transl. “The dog that doesn't walk doesn't find a
bone,”) does not satisfy the requirement for being sensitive to diversity. The second
group of eleven qualitative longitudinal studies brings many of these concerns into full
light. This researcher suggests the following to raise the bar of cultural awareness and
affect positive change:
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(1) Find topics within your content area that contain various countries,
cultures, languages, religions, and races and include them into engaging,
meaningful lessons with dialogue.
(2) Know the various cultures, races, and languages represented by the students
in your classes and promote them as being valuable.
(3) Do ice-breaking activities at the start of the year that enable students to
share their diverse backgrounds with others (i.e. mobiles).
(4) Read, watch movies, or attend events with other teachers or family to learn
more about different cultures.
(5) Form a Culture Awareness Club or other like activities at your school to
spread the knowledge and acceptance of culture.
What Type of Management Strategies and Classroom Discipline are most Successful
in Reducing Common Problem Behaviors and Keeping Students On-Task?
As classroom behavior is the focus of this research project, the third group of
nine studies of mixed design goes a long way in providing concrete answers to this
problem. But, in saying providing answers one must realize there is no one way to solve
anything this involved and with so many variables. How many generalizations can you
recall ever being said about the 6th
hour class, or the after lunch class, or the first class of
the day, or any other stereotypical class; in some ways it may have seemed to have fit the
mold, but no two classes are alike. The most important thing to recognize in discussing
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the how to’s of classroom management is understanding the value that years of classroom
experience hold and how willingly this experience is shared by so many teachers,
administrators, and other education experts. When considering all of the expert advice
from carefully constructed research studies, and the opinions of many seasoned
professionals, five generalities for classroom management are provided:
(1) Classroom management should never be thought of as one size fits all; the
individuality of every student necessitates the need to adapt, modify, or omit
activities, homework, course content, seating, and assessments, which all
heavily play into classroom management.
(2) Classroom rules, routines, policies, and consequences should be well
thought out and part of a unified school-wide plan put in place the first day of
school.
(3) Lesson planning that focuses on academic learning and practicing skills
while at the same time teaching social skills and sustaining the emotional well-
being of students.
(4) The teachers with the best classroom management were experts in their
fields (what to teach), and outstanding in their interactions with students (how
to teach). With these two basics covered, behavior issues fade into the
background.
(5) Reflection and the sharing of ideas with peers, counselors, and others
resolves problems in ways not thought of before. The least drastic course is
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probably the best one to begin with.
Are There Similarities and/or Differences in Classroom Behavior and Management
Strategies Around the World?
In the five foreign research articles presented that discussed school behavior,
three were quantitative, two qualitative, two were in Japan, one in the Middle East, one in
Europe, and one covered 19 countries and over 30,000 students. All were surveys that
used a questionnaire to collect data. The intent of most were to determine the relationship
between the students’ perception of the teacher (the way the teacher behaves or teaches)
and academic achievement, student wellbeing, happiness, or confidence. In all cases
students responded better to teachers who were organized, caring, and varied their styles
of delivering and working with content. Five standouts of international research were:
(1) Parallels in the kinds of behavioral issues focused on. What do high-
achieving students think of their teachers? How do successful teachers teach?
(2) The consistency acquired by the Teachers’ Report Form (TRF) used by
Rescorla et al in 19 countries of very different backgrounds, and the similar
results of the kinds of misbehaviors identified worldwide (2007).
(3) Results of many studies highlighted the correlation between positive
student-teacher relationships and student achievement.
(4) Student surveys from foreign countries indicating a desire for real-world
examples, and clear, step-by-step instruction by teachers.
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(5) Students expressing concerns regarding classroom environment and the
importance of setting the right conditions for learning.
What These Findings Mean for Teachers
In review of all the acquired articles and data one would appear overwhelmed
by the multitude of information. The goal of this thesis was to provide research-based
teaching techniques and behavior management strategies that can be learned, practiced,
and implemented by novice teachers in urban middle schools to improve the learning and
behavior in their classrooms. I believe the quality, breadth, and depth of studies presented
here provides novice teachers a better understanding of middle school student behavior,
and a diverse choice of effective research-based classroom management strategies that
increases their confidence and ability in teaching at low income, ELL, ethnically diverse
middle schools. For any teacher, the collection of various themed articles touching on
behavior should help to:
(1) Bring a deeper level of specific knowledge based on behavior research.
( 2) Introduce a broader realization of the many questions that have to be asked
and answered to solve classroom behavior problems.
When a teacher is presented with their own classroom behavior problem or
learn of a behavior issue elsewhere, being aware that it is not just one student’s problem,
or one teacher’s problem; is something significant to teachers. Because this one problem
then effects the learning of other students who interact with this problem student all day
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long. It also distresses the teacher who interacts with many other teachers and students all
day long. This multiplying effect runs exponentially and ultimately creates ripples that
interfere with student learning in many places at many times. Teachers must work as a
team with school administrators, counselors, hall monitors, parents, and other volunteers
to solve behavior problems in a sensible and timely way.
When the school year begins, school behavior policies should be in place so
teachers can formulate their own classroom rules and procedures and communicate them
on the first day. High expectations for academics and classroom behavior cannot be met
if there not set right away in stone. It also means for teachers the need to collaborate and
establish plans and policies (and consequences) they believe to be attainable and
enforceable. Start planning early and be ready on day one.
There are many curriculum guides, lesson planning templates, state standard
listings, district benchmarks, online engines, teaching associations, national foundations,
teacher websites, books, and more for teachers to use as tools for planning lessons and
finding resources. It is apparent from all the behavior research that relevant, engaging,
student-centered lessons with specific learning goals are secret weapons in preventing
student misbehavior. Teachers that provide variation in delivery and options for
practicing and working with others have students that are more confident and have a
better sense of wellbeing. Teaching the socialization skills (how we learn) along with the
academic content (what we learn) creates an atmosphere of ready and willing learners.
What it means is teachers have to be firm, professional, leaders, and simultaneously be
70
patient, understanding, role models. The lessons need to be within the reach of the
student (with help if required), and the students need to be held accountable for their
work. Work with experienced teachers to learn what has worked for them and be creative
in modifying activities as needed. Well-prepared lessons means well behaved students.
Lastly, what the research means to teachers is no one person or place has all
the answers to solving student behavior problems. Studies are ongoing and when they
confirm previous work, it means we are more confident we are on the right track; when
the results conflict with earlier research, it means there is still a lot up in the air. If a
teacher was interested in finding new ways to solve their classroom behavior problem,
perhaps being creative unlocks a door and shines the light on an area or issue not
recognized by others, and shifts the paradigm of classroom behavior. Learning your
students’ background, strengths, and weaknesses, along with knowing your own
background, strengths, and weaknesses is indispensable in proactively preventing and
solving student misbehavior in the classroom. The reality is, all students want to do well
and experience success, but for many the pathways to get there are crooked, winding, and
even missing; our job is to clear them and provide the support and guidance needed to
make their ultimate dream come true.
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Suggestions for Further Research
Two topics not researched in this thesis but have been getting more and more
attention in the news, is bullying and cyber-bullying. They both have ties to classroom
misbehavior because as stated previously, any home, or social problem can become a
barrier to learning and a causal agent for misbehavior. Bullying that happens within
families, on the bus, in the park, during after school activities, passing periods, and even
in the classroom have long-lasting and grave consequences if not recognized and stopped.
Possible questions to explore include:
1) What are the underlying causes of bullying? 2) What are the most effective
strategies for recognizing and reporting bullying? 3) What are the most
effective techniques to counter bullying? 4) What kind of bullying prevention
programs currently exist and how effective are they? 5) Does cyber-bullying
harm students in ways different from physical bullying? 6) How can schools
keep technology on campus and protect its students from the harmful
consequences of cyber-bullying?
Self-Reflective Statement on the Research
In reflecting on the whole process, the following thoughts came to mind. The
formulation of a relevant problem statement about an education issue was relatively
simple because of my initial years in the classroom. That experience made it very
apparent that classroom order and student misbehavior were my biggest concerns.
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Interestingly, the structure of the research project enabled me to develop and
refine my research questions based on sources I found that focused on certain aspects of
classroom behavior that appeared most interesting and fitting in fulfilling the purpose of
the study.
Next, the process of summarizing, analyzing, and coding of each source was
helpful in discovering similarities between studies. When they existed, each group of
studies became clearer in purpose and their results more meaningful. As the sorting and
final assembly of each theme took place, the detailed data from each study became less
important and the overall conclusions researchers brought forth became more important.
Chapter IV (Critical Analysis Tables) were helpful in further condensing the
key components of each article to usable pieces of information. The tables also made it
easier for me to see correlations and dissimilarities between the studies.
Making all the data easily usable for teachers was the goal in Chapter V.
Having another opportunity to further mesh ideas and compose workable answers to the
questions posed at the outset helped me to synthesize at another level. In this final
section, where different researchers results could be compared and mixed with others, I
could finally think of ways of using all that I had discovered in the research in my
classrooms of the future. Those musings naturally developed into five tips for mitigating
misbehavior, five suggestions for raising the bar on cultural awareness, five generalities
for classroom management, and five standouts of international research.
Finally, both the electronic copy (with folders of all the full-text resources) and
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the hard copy are invaluable as I go forward in my career in education. I see in the end a
product to be used as a reference tool in the future as a source for review, further self-
reflection, and a springboard for new ideas in classroom management.
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APPENDIX A
Instructional Variables to Consider During a Functional Assessment
How teachers teach
Effective instructional presentations
Overview--Does the overview inform students of:
1. what they will be learning?
2. how content is organized?
3. how they will be moving through content?
4. how they will be practicing with the information and skills?
Sequenced format--Does the format:
1. break down the objectives into smaller components?
2. present information in brief periods of instruction?
3. present components from concrete to increasingly abstract?
4. explicitly point out how the information relates to previous information?
5. use multiple types of examples?
6. ensure redundancy through repetition of examples?
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Momentum--Is momentum maintained by:
1. providing advanced organizers?
2. referencing advanced organizers as presentation proceeds?
3. managing off-task behavior in non-verbal and non-disruptive ways (e.g., eye contact,
circulating through the room, touching on the shoulder, verbal praise)?
Teaching how to learn--Does the teacher teach the student how to learn by:
1. stating aloud the sequence of how to problem solve (e.g., first, second, last) while
going through examples?
2. modeling how to begin, proceed, and know when the task is done?
3. prompting the student who is confused or unproductive to recite the steps needed to
problem solve or begin and finish a task?
Interspersed supervised practice--Are practice opportunities characterized by:
1. being interspersed with brief periods of instruction?
2. the teacher circulating to check progress within the first few minutes of assigning the
task?
3. the teacher providing direct feedback to the student individually?
4. the student achieving high rates of accurate responses on practice activities?
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What teachers teach
Monitoring skills and progress--Are monitoring procedures characterized by:
1. the teacher interacting with the student daily to quickly check understanding and
progress?
2. the teacher's ability to detail what the student's instructional levels are in reading and
math? How the information presented and assignments need to be designed to meet the
student's individual needs?
Matching to instructional level--Do assignments match the student's instructional level?
1. Can the student successfully complete practice activities and independent seatwork?
2. Can the student complete homework independently or with minimal assistance?
3. Is reading material adapted to the student's instructional reading level when assistance
is given and to his or her independent reading level when working independently?
Choice of tasks--Does the student have choices for:
1. completing one of two similar assignments?
2. demonstrating mastery through various outputs (e.g., writing, speaking, role-playing,
project)?
3. where in the room to work?
4. working in pairs, a group, or sitting with peers, working independently?
5. completing assignments on the computer, dictating to a peer, or recording responses?
(Pacchiano, 2000)
