OUTLINE: A History of Music Education in the United States

~James A. Keene~

A. Preface a. The history of music education in the US cannot exist independently since

it relates and feeds upon societys influence and music history on a global scale.

b. Most think of music education as musical terms and music teachers. i. This limits and omits some trends in the general history of

education, which have affected the direction and development of the profession itself.

B. Chapter I: Colonial New England a. Pilgrims in Plymouth and Puritans in Massachusetts Bay

i. Were musical people who liked to sing Psalms. ii. Both groups were English separatists who followed religious

teachings of John Calvin b. Ainsworth Psalter

i. Main source for Pilgrim and Puritan song ii. Compiled by Henry Ainsworth especially for the separatists

iii. First printed in 1612 and contained 39 different tunes for men-led unison voices and used diamond notes with no bar lines

Tunes were borrowed from French/Dutch psalm tunes and the Sternhold & Hopkins Psalter

iv. First real competition to the Sternhold & Hopkins Psalter v. Ainsworth favored long stanzas and so the use of the selections

was paired down from 39 to 12 that were shorter and easier to remember

c. Music across the US and Europe shifting to more simplicity. i. Movement from Renaissance to Baroque

Americans were used to free and irregular accented melody and text stress; now it was shifting to regularly accented meter regardless of the text which created much music illiteracy

d. Bay Psalm Book i. Became another competitive psalm book in use

ii. By the third printing, rep and text was paired down again due to music illiteracy in the colonies

iii. Changed its title to The Psalm Hymns and Spiritual Songs of the Old and New Testament faithfully translated into English metre for the use, edification, and comfort of the saints in publick and private, especially in New England.

Added 36 new songs and the 9th edition began to include music notation and some beginning vocal instruction

The 13 tunes used for the songs were taken from John Playfords Brief Introduction to the Skill of Music.

The passage for vocal technique was also taken from there a. First observe how many notes compass the tune is.

Next, the place of your first Note, and how many Notes above and below that: so as you may begin the Tune of your first Note as the rest may be sung in the compass of your and the peoples voices, without Squeaking above, or Grumbling below.

e. Colonial Solfege i. Only used fa, sol, la, & mi

ii. Called fasola iii. Mi identified the leading tone and a major scale would be:

fa, sol, la, fa, sol, la, mi fa. f. Education of music was acquired through

i. Singing of psalmody orally from generation to generation. ii. Lining out cantor speaks or sings a line and congregation repeats

Wasnt favored since it repeated everything and was a waste of time (1740-1780s)

iii. Ability to read music was rare and those that did went to Harvard for further study

g. Reformers advocated singing by note i. Singing schools established to teach how to read music

First music teachers taught singing by note, traveled from town to town and practiced in homes, meeting houses and saloons

C. Chapter II: The Singing School a. John Tufts

i. 42-year-old minister who compiled a book of psalm tunes (Introduction to Singing of Psalm Tunes) in which a new system of notation was introduced.

The book consisted of 37 tunes on 12 pages and was the first book of music instruction in America

F, S, L, M appeared on the staff with punctuation symbols to indicate length

a. A period (.) was a half note b. A colon (:) was a whole note c. No punctuation was a quarter note

ii. Used until 1881 and eased the transition from rote to note learning Showed people that they didnt have to abandon their

familiar tunes to learn how to read music b. Thomas Walter

i. Better known than Tufts from the beginning

ii. Grounds and Rules of Music Explained Encouraged singing by rule or note. Oral tradition had reduced number of tunes known to New

England congregations Walter explained that by note learning music would be

better preserved accurately as to how the composer intended them to be sung.

Emphasized listening as an aid to music education c. Music Instruction

i. By the 19th century there were records of music participation Mostly people of wealth and moderate income would have

children taught music on piano or other instrument. ii. Singing Schools

Were to supply the church choir with more voices who were trained to sing and read music

Met anywhere they could find room Sat in semicircles around the teacher and learned about

clefs, syllables, keys, and note values in addition to voice production and vowel formation

Lasted 2 nights per week for three months and after the last class there was a singing lecture (concert)

D. Chapter III: Tune Books and Performance Practice a. Tune Books

i. Were the only available text ii. Most masters followed the rules for finding mi but some used

charts showing transpositions which confused and discouraged beginners

iii. Fasola was not conducive to finding keynote or solmization No well-developed way to find tonic

iv. Books provided little practice material and examples were confusing and abstractonly meant for intellectual consideration

b. Performance Practices i. Tempo markings/metronomes used

ii. Ornaments left out to be implemented by local performers to the teachers style/guide

c. Rhythm i. Keeping a steady beat is a necessity

ii. Taping the foot discouraged from church iii. Different meters explored

d. Pitch & Key Note i. Few books touch on how key-note was given

William Normans Federal Harmony said pitches were given separately to parts.

e. Voice Parts i. Bass grave and majestic

ii. Tenor steady and engaging iii. Countersoft and delicate iv. Trebleshrill and melodious v. Samuel Holyoke reassigned the Bass and Tenor to low and high

guys voices, the counter to boys unchanged and treble to women f. Theory Introduction

i. Review of material had little or no time ii. Earlier tune books had longer instructions perhaps because the

singing master was less trained iii. Harmony and modulation minimal iv. William Billings dealt with some composition rules

Tenor written first Counterpoint rules

v. Ornamentation was cautioned against in fear of over embellishment

vi. Not in rules but learned from teachers g. Shaped Notes

i. A one of many notation systems used in an attempt to simplify reading by note

ii. Individual character for each note identifies the syllable William Little (1798) was the first to use shape notes

a. Fa = triangle; sol = circle; la = square; mi = diamond

Andrew Law and his system of shaped notes never caught on

iii. Shaped notes became popular until European practice was adopted by institutions

h. The Decline of the Singing School i. New easier transportation, improvement in school systems, and

Boston Handel & Haydn Society stepping up music led to decline People came to Boston for concerts and then brought music

back home with them ii. Turned from folk music to harmony

Major mode became favored over minor iii. Instruments began to be manuf. in US iv. Serious music students went to study in Europe and European

teachers came to America v. While music education was moving forward, it left people in the

dust and the church was not fully singing anymore. Music illiteracy returned again.

E. Chapter IV: Colonial Education in the North and South a. New England had towns and favored education while the south colonies

had counties and saw education as a luxury i. 1647 -- Schools began being established in towns of 50+ families

and the school master should teach them to read and write

100+ families in a community and Latin grammar was added

Massachusetts had the first laws for schools b. Music Education in Virginia

i. Supported the arts in the South and European trained music performers and dancers were brought in

A class privilege Musicians made $$ in Virginia by playing/singing in

theatre, playing/singing in a court/plantation (teaching too), Anglican Church musician

a. By late 1780s patronage began to dissolve and these musicians were left to find other employment

c. Music Education in South Carolina i. Required music education as music flourished in this colony

ii. Was like a European Music Capital iii. Church had little influences and secular music was popular iv. Theatre, concerts, balls, dancing, private parties v. Music instruction aimed at sons/daughters of wealthy

d. Music Education in Philadelphia i. By 1870 was the #1 music city

ii. Teaching of various instruments and theatre aimed young ladies

F. Chapter V: Education Reform of the 18th and 19th Centuries a. The Enlightenment

i. Education in the Enlightenment was based on scientific findings ii. Some still maintained traditional views that the spiritual nature of

man was most important iii. Science relied on experience and reason which the church treated

with suspicion iv. This time was an educational battle of what should be included in

schools b. Enlightenment in America

i. Intellectual revolution where theology was rejected as the final authority in all earthly matters and interpretation began to have logical analysis

ii. Science and human reason gradually replaced the dependence upon religion for explanations

iii. With math instruction becoming more prevalent, mechanical innovations came into being

iv. Philosophers used logic and reason which would eventually bring change to human thought

Newton proposed that if the Diety created the universe, it didnt interfere with its process of nature

Emphasis shifted from scripture to nature Puritanism control lessened and man had more control over

their own destinies

v. Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin, and Thomas Paine Only science could reveal the true essence of Christianity

and religious faith is found through rational thought Nature = source of Gods revelation Ben Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society

in 1743 a. Aimed at promoting political discussion and

scientific knowledge b. Created deeper interest for education and other

social issues c. By then end of the 18th century there was abundant

interest for tax-supported school system. vi. Heinrich Pestalozzi

One of the most influential people on educational thought and practice in late 18th/19th Century

Encouraged expansion of curriculum and affected music teaching methods

Believed the teachers job was to take similar ideas that would confuse people and manipulate them in a way that could be understood by all for clarification.

There was a book for singing based on his ideas a. Drilled rhythm, melody, and dynamics b. After 208 pages of exercise, the students finally

could sing. c. Concerned with untaught grace of melody from the

heart Pestalozzianism

a. Stressed that instruction should proceed from the familiar to the new, incorporate the performance of concrete arts and the experience of actual emotional responses, and be paced to follow the gradual unfolding of the child's development.

vii. William C. Woodbridge Changed teaching system so that vocal music was a regular

part of the school curriculum viii. Elam Ives

First to use Pestalozzian concepts in music education Set up musical seminars

a. Taught key concepts of rhythm melody and dynamics

Discrepancy between different books whether harmony in song should be introduced immediately or delayed

G. Chapter VI: Lowell Mason and His Times a. School Law

i. In early 1800s schools around the country were deprived of state aid

ii. School Law of 1812 turned to district school system Communities of 150+ families could have 6 districts, each

with its own board of ed and power to hire and fire teachers iii. First school law was 1789 in Massachusetts which legalized

districts and by 1801 were taxing for support iv. 1827, districts were to appoint trustees to select textbooks and

employ teachers High schools were mandated in towns over 500 families to

be tax-supported v. Andrew Jackson

Supporters brought to the Presidents attention that a majority of school-age kids were not in school because families could not afford tuition/taxes

b. Expansion of Cultural Activities i. Opera NYC

ii. Handel & Haydn Society of Boston iii. German immigrants brought music and instruments and formed

singing societies iv. Philharmonic Society of NY v. Mendelssohn Quintet Club

vi. European Artists/Teachers travel c. Lowell Mason

i. Music teacher who influenced education of children ii. Promoted music education throughout the country

iii. Important figure in promoting Pestalozzian method even though his knowledge of it was weak

iv. Boston was the first to implement vocal music in schools in 1837 v. Not intent on being a professional musician but sure had the talent

and drive to do so attended singing schools and played multiple instruments

vi. His first teaching experience came in Savannah, GA where he taught harmony and composition

vii. Harmonized psalms and hymns according to European practice The Handel and Haydn Society was in hard financial times

and agrees to publish the new work and a great move that was since it was a renowned success

viii. Teaching in Boston Returned to Boston in 1827 and set up singing schools Within three years he went from 10 students to 500 and few

assistants but he still got results from the large classes Manual of the Boston Academy of Music

a. Each concept would be introduced and explored one at a time thoroughly before another will be introduced

b. Students must be lead to the information by the teachernot by teacher dictation

c. Organization of subject matter according to age i. Infant lesson through imitation

ii. Regular lessons of rhythm, melody, dynamics were treated separately although in practice they were treated together

The Boston Academy of Music a. Grew into being after 2 public concerts of Masons

choirs that were successful in performance and sparked interest in vocal education

b. Goal was to promote music education according to Pestalozzianism principles

c. Classes one hour, 2 days and no charge d. All denominations, ages, and sexes allowed to

attend d. Introduction of Music into Boston Public Schools

i. At first it was criticized but vocal music was described as an art and science that goes back to Aristotle

ii. Many thought music would impair discipline iii. Accepted but no money for funds iv. By 1838 music was accepted subject in schools

Could not exceed 2 hours per week Instruction had to be at specified times Must teach personallyno subs allowed

a. Mason was apparently too busy with workshops and lectures sometimes

v. Mason was superintendent of music from 1838-1845 and then removed without good reason.

School board never fully cleared his name vi. Masons philosophy of teaching music to all children is a major

part of the profession today

H. Chapter VII: American Educational Thought in mid-19th Century a. Through help of Johann Hubart, Herbert Spencer & John Dewey, rote

memorization teaching techniques began to retreat from schools b. 19th Century though music would enhance the study of other subjects

I. Chapter VIII: Music in the Private Academies and Select Schools a. Private academies and select schools for secondary education and teacher

training b. Funded through endowments, tuition and limited state funds c. Music added to curriculum and teacher were paid vi students, not schools d. Music courses popular and schools competes with depth and offerings of

courses

e. Some schools began to offer too many courses and began to resemble conservatories

J.Chapter IX: Educational Growth and the Expansion of Music a. Expansion of the Public School Music Program

i. An enriched curriculum had to wait for the tax-supported school system

2 main factors for prosperous music education: a. Community support for experimental music

program. If there was support then the program would be successful

b. Tax supported school system ii. As schools improved and curriculum expanded, pressure for art

and music education mounted. iii. Antagonists argued that children couldnt learn to sing, that it

would injure children and that they could lose their voices

K. Chapter X: The Great Publishing Carnival a. A need for multiple graded books arose

i. 1864 Joseph Bird was first to attempt with a Vocal Music Reader ii. 1864 Lowell Mason first actual series with Song Garden

iii. 1869 George B. Loomis and First Steps iv. 1870-75 Luther Whiting Mason

Father of the American Graded series National Music Course

a. Used in US and Germany for 50+ years b. 7 graded books, mostly German folk songs c. Put tune books to rest

v. 1883 Hosea Edson Holt & John Tufts with Normal Music Course b. National and Normal Music Courses were the most popular

L. Chapter XI: Music Teacher Education, 1823-1914 a. James G. Carter and Horace Mann didnt feel comfortable with teachers

only having to take one course in school keeping b. Normal schools and private academies taught music and prepared teacher

more thoroughly. c. In the 1840-50s, these courses were not designed specifically for music

education but general teacher education i. There still was inadequate music instruction for music teachers but

it was ok for general education d. 1870s, some normal schools began specialized programs for music

teachers e. Normal schools evolved from conventions and lasted a few weeks

i. Growing concern for musicianship and skills necessary to teach vocal music successfully in the schools

f. National Normal Music School

i. Sponsored by Ginn publishing ii. Used Luther Masons National Music Course

iii. 1st year was 13 months long and then it changed to summer only to better serve students and most could graduate in 3 summers.

g. Julia Crane i. Teachers Manual 1887

To influence training of music teachers Justified theories philosophically and empirically

a. Rote in primary school b. Note in grammar grades

Child Study Movement Principles of Music a. Period of Infancy

i. Not under the direct control of the teacher. Parents are to provide this area of music education

b. Transition Period: i. 6-8 years old (1-2 grade) Music should be

presented to the child almost entirely by ear. Songs and games music fundamentals are gained by experience

c. 8-12 years old i. Period of acquiring formal learning through

drill, discipline and technique. 1914 school music survey of 164 institutions only 43

offered music specialty training. a. Those that did offered 1-5 year programs with

courses in Theory and Sight Singing, Harmony, Counterpoint and Composition, Instrumentation, History, aesthetics, appreciation, Voice, Piano, Conducting, Methods, History of Education, Pedagogy and Psychology and Student Teaching

1907 Music Supervisors National Conference met and discussed standard curricula.

a. 1921 the education council of MSNC had a 4-year plan with music and education and general studies

i. Course work selected was Piano, Voice, Theory, Ear Training, Music history and appreciation, Orchestration and methods, electives

M. Chapter XII: The Child-Study Movement and the Psychologizing of Education

a. During late 1800s to early 1900s, there was psychological research that paved the way for progressive education

b. In the 19th century, conception of learning was through faculty psychology

i. The mind was a spiritual entity apart from the body and unique to humans

ii. Mind could be studied only by introspection and ones outward acts supposedly reflected ones minds operation

iii. 3 divisions of the mind resulted: Will Emotions Intellect most focus here

a. Faculty psychology provided rationale for mental discipline

i. Mind need to be trained for fullest development

iv. Darwin broke down mind and body separation of faculties Suggested the mind grew and evolved

v. William James wrote Principles of Psychology Mind a behavioral instrument and allowed humans to

change their nature and modify their environment vi. G. Stanley Hall

Founded the American Journal of Psychology First to create psychological system with James ideas to be

used in education of children a. Mind and body evolved together through stages

vii. John Dewey Had widest effect on education theory than any other

a. Real education should be based upon the nature of the drill

b. One learns by doing not by memorizing exercises c. The teacher should recognize and utilize the childs

immediate interests while moving the child in the desired direction

d. Teacher must be flexible i. This lessened the stress on music programs

to defend itself based on faculty psychology which was diminishing

viii. Dewey and Hall gave children dignity from existence to adulthood and set the stage for great things to happen in 20th Century music education.

ix. 20th Century saw Technology advances in instruction methods and rise of

instrumental music

N. Chapter XIII: The Music Educator and Music Appreciation a. Early efforts in 19th Century to educate concert goers to the art of the

composer and performer

b. Charles Burney, music historian, said so many treatise on composition and performance existed but nothing on music appreciation for the listener/concert goer in order to better listen and evaluate music

c. Francois-Joseph Ftis1st widely circulated book on music appreciation in 1830.

i. 19 editions in 17 languages ii. Purpose: give general/sufficient information on all that contributed

to the effect of the art of music with little technical language d. 1862 lectures to Harvard Students about historical and aesthetic

instruction of music e. Thomas Whitney Surette

i. 1880s lectured but also exemplified at the piano He wanted to help audience cultivate their own powers of

aural observation f. Texts:

i. 1907-1924 The Appreciation of Music, Surette This was the ideal source of its time

ii. A Guide to Music, Daniel Gregory Mason Intended for children

g. The player/mechanical piano was a useful tool in music appreciation i. Most schools did not use it for education purposes, but

entertainment

O. Chapter XIV: Frances Elliott Clark and Music Appreciation a. Taught 10 minute lectures before choir rehearsals

i. Rise of opera ii. Bach life and work

iii. Schubert/Schumann/Chopin iv. Living composers

b. Believed ear training should begin in Kindergarten c. Responsible for introducing record players into the music classroom

i. They also brought good music to rural areas ii. Music Appreciation with the Vitrola for Children

d. The Radio also was a useful tool in the music classroom. i. The US Marine Band played folk music, American Music and

more ii. Radio classes

Listening in on the Masters a text to go along with radio program classes of listening and evaluating music

P. Chapter XV: The Rise of Instrumental Music a. In the 1930s, performance began to dominate over appreciation and it was

absorbed into performance as well b. Traditional though that instrumental instruction began around 1900 but

there were people who played instruments and had to learn somewhere in the 19th century.

i. Instrument teachers opened schools/academies and gave private lessons and class lessons in mid 1800s.

c. Early Instrumental Teachers i. Howell Brothers violin, pentatonic scale and Fasola hymnody

ii. Benjamin Family orchestral instruments and formed beginner and level classes according to age

d. Conservatory system i. Taught: applied music, solfege, harmony and theory

ii. Goal: to produce excellent performers with broad musical background

iii. Accepted musicians of all levels and ability iv. Conservatories declines as public school instruction arose

Q. Chapter XVI: Early Bands in the United States a. 1834 reed bands (woodwind/brass) declined due to popularity of the brass

bands b. Patrick S. Gilmore

i. Director during Civil War time ii. Band of 500 and Chorus of 5,000 at one special performance

iii. Brought bands from all Europe to US in Boston, Salem, and NY iv. Developed concert band

1878, 36 men including sax Encouraged reintroduction of woodwinds

v. Sousa picked up where Gilmore left off Established new performance standards

vi. Types of bands Town bands in prime from 1870-1930 Industrial bands large companies and factories College bands High school bands

vii. Contests/Festivals Sprang up across the country in 2 day festivals Marching day and concert day Divided brass and reed bands Sparked formation of State and National associations

a. Discussed problems and raised standards viii. Band Set-up

For a band of 68 people, should be woodwind since brass was taking over

Sax and trumpet were most popular Clarinet choir was ok to sub for strings since Gilmore and

Sousa allowed it 5 or less saxes was plenty Brass in pairs except for horn (4) and T-bone (3)

ix. Committee on Instrumental Music

Sousa, Stock, Gottman, Branson and Herbert L. Clarke standardized the instrumentation that we use today

a. Resulted in manufacturing of instruments to change and more new and re publicized literature by all publishers

b. By 1940 there were 500,000+ students in music classes

R. Chapter XVII: The Renaissance of the Choir a. During the beginning of the 20th Century, vocal music focus was

suppressed b. Musical Art Society of NY helped bring vocal music back into focus with

a capella singing i. More satisfying musical experience

ii. More to choral than oratorio/part singing iii. So rare was a capella singing that Frank Damrosch of the M.A.S.

of NY used professional singers Performed Palestrina, Brahms, Bach

iv. Russian touring groups of a capella nature helped gain approval of the style

c. St. Olaf Choir i. Most influential college choir of the period

Set artistic example that continues to this day ii. F. Melius Christiansen

Selected to make music program Within a short time there were bands and choirs touring

Scandinavia iii. Straight tone

Christiansen was not void of vibrato, but pure sound with less wobble

Created vibrato/straight tone controversy d. Early High School Practices

i. Disorganized, unclear purpose ii. Auditorium singing, glee clubs, large oratorio choirs

iii. By 1920, some schools required vocal music in 36 states iv. Not focused on aesthetics but school spirit v. A capella made people complain and a balance between a capella

and accompanied singing was found even though people really liked a capella singing

S. Chapter XVIII: Music Education and Rhythmic Movement a. Rhythmic activities in elementary schools increased with intro of

instrumental music i. Some thought physical activity was harmful or that the brain could

not function if it was exercised b. Lower elementary marching/singing at different tempos

i. Dance was not widely accepted except at progressive schools c. Eurhythmics

i. Dalcroze - Children intrinsically knew rhythm ii. Expressing music through movement, solfege, piano and improve

iii. Concept that rhythm was inborn faded; instead it was taught and improved with practice to better appreciate art and music

T. Chapter XIX: Some Newer Approaches from Abroad a. Carl Orff creativity

i. Children use Pentatonic scale to create ostinato patterns in ensemble with instruments of mallets, drums, cymbals and accessories

ii. Memory encouraged but notation too iii. Start with rhythms and ignore piano

b. Zoltan Kodaly learning rhythm and melodic ideas i. Strict academic training and music instruction in Hungary

ii. Focus on folk music and theory, reading and writing notation iii. Movable do system iv. Body movement, hand signal and then notation v. Singing is basic mode of instruction

c. Suzuki i. Basic principles: listening, proper techniques, motivation and

reinforcement ii. Taught young children by rote

U. Chapter XX: An Acceptance of Diversity, 1950-1970 a. 1950 teacher shortage and general teacher taught music toonot good b. 1970s music education threatened and new philosophies needed to defend

i. Argument that music could promote democratic living, health, leisure and improved relations now were useless.

ii. Had to find something unique to music that only music could provide

c. Tanglewood (1967) i. Called teachers to

Clarify and define music in the society and in education Explore the mutual concerns and possible means of

cooperation with the social institutions responsible for the development of music within the society

To prepare statements and publications that would clarify objectives and programs in music education and that would assist administrators, supervisors and teachers

d. As de-segregation happened, African American contributions to music began to be acknowledged

V. Chapter XXI: Conclusion