Journey 7

8/14/2019 Journey 7

1/46

Chapter 7: MemoryChapter 7: Memory

8/14/2019 Journey 7

2/46

Memory:Memory:Some Key TermsSome Key Terms

Memory: Active system thatMemory: Active system that

stores, organizes, alters,stores, organizes, alters,

and recovers (retrieves)and recovers (retrieves)

informationinformation

Encoding: ConvertingEncoding: Converting

information into a useableinformation into a useableformform

Storage: HoldingStorage: Holding

information in memory forinformation in memory for

later uselater use

Retrieval: Taking memoriesRetrieval: Taking memories

out of storageout of storage

8/14/2019 Journey 7

3/46

Figure 8.4

8/14/2019 Journey 7

4/46

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

Stores an exact copy ofStores an exact copy of

incoming information for aincoming information for a

few seconds; the first stagefew seconds; the first stage

of memoryof memory Icon: A fleeting mentalIcon: A fleeting mental

image or visualimage or visualrepresentationrepresentation

Echo: After a sound is heard,Echo: After a sound is heard,

a brief continuation of thea brief continuation of the

sensory activity in thesensory activity in the

auditory systemauditory system

8/14/2019 Journey 7

5/46

Short-Term Memory (STM)Short-Term Memory (STM)

Holds small amounts ofHolds small amounts of

information brieflyinformation briefly

Working Memory:Working Memory:Part of STM; like aPart of STM; like a

mentalmental

scratchpadscratchpad

8/14/2019 Journey 7

6/46


Selective Attention:Selective Attention:

Focusing (voluntarily)Focusing (voluntarily)

on a selected portion ofon a selected portion of

sensory input (e.g.,sensory input (e.g.,selective hearing)selective hearing)

8/14/2019 Journey 7

7/46


Phonetically: StoringPhonetically: Storing

information byinformation by sound;sound; howhow

most things are stored inmost things are stored in

STMSTM

Kids with ADD/ADHD areKids with ADD/ADHD are

percieved not to hear orpercieved not to hear ornot to listendo you thinknot to listendo you think

thats related?thats related?

8/14/2019 Journey 7

8/46


Very sensitive toVery sensitive to

interruption orinterruption or

interferenceinterference..

Memories are easilyMemories are easily

lost prior to LTM.lost prior to LTM.

8/14/2019 Journey 7

9/46

Long-Term Memory (LTM)Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Stores informationStores information

relatively permanentlyrelatively permanently

Stored on basis ofStored on basis of

meaning andmeaning andimportanceimportance

8/14/2019 Journey 7

10/46Figure 8.2

8/14/2019 Journey 7

11/46Figure 8.6

8/14/2019 Journey 7

12/46

Short-Term Memory ConceptsShort-Term Memory Concepts

Digit Span: Test of attention and short-term memory;Digit Span: Test of attention and short-term memory;

string of numbers is recalled forward or backwardstring of numbers is recalled forward or backward Typically part of intelligence testsTypically part of intelligence tests

Magic Number 7 (Plus or Minus 2): STM is limited toMagic Number 7 (Plus or Minus 2): STM is limited to

holding seven (plus or minus two) information bits at onceholding seven (plus or minus two) information bits at once

Information Bits: Meaningful units of informationInformation Bits: Meaningful units of information

8/14/2019 Journey 7

13/46

More Short-TermMore Short-TermMemory ConceptsMemory Concepts

Recoding: ReorganizingRecoding: Reorganizing

or modifyingor modifying

information in STMinformation in STM

Information Chunks:Information Chunks:

Bits of informationBits of information

that are grouped intothat are grouped into

larger unitslarger units

8/14/2019 Journey 7

14/46


Maintenance Rehearsal:Maintenance Rehearsal:

Repeating informationRepeating information

silently to prolong itssilently to prolong its

presence in STMpresence in STM

8/14/2019 Journey 7

15/46


Elaborative Rehearsal:Elaborative Rehearsal:

Links new informationLinks new information

with existing memorieswith existing memories

and knowledge in LTMand knowledge in LTM Good way to transferGood way to transfer

STM information intoSTM information into

LTMLTM

8/14/2019 Journey 7

16/46

Long-Term Memory ConceptsLong-Term Memory Concepts

ConstructiveConstructive

Processing: UpdatingProcessing: Updating

long-term memories onlong-term memories onbasis of logic, guessing,basis of logic, guessing,

or new informationor new information

8/14/2019 Journey 7

17/46

Long-Term Memory ConceptsLong-Term Memory Concepts

Pseudo-Memories: FalsePseudo-Memories: False

long-term memorieslong-term memories

that a person believesthat a person believes

are true or accurateare true or accurate

8/14/2019 Journey 7

18/46

Redintegrative MemoryRedintegrative Memory

Memories that areMemories that are

reconstructed orreconstructed or

expanded by startingexpanded by starting

with one memory andwith one memory andthen following chains ofthen following chains of

association to relatedassociation to related

memoriesmemories

8/14/2019 Journey 7

19/46

Types of Long-Term MemoriesTypes of Long-Term Memories

Procedural: Long-termProcedural: Long-term

memories ofmemories of

conditioned responsesconditioned responses

and learned skills, e.g.,and learned skills, e.g.,

drivingdriving

WHYIM

NOT

EVEN

THINK

IN

G

ABOU

T

THIS!

8/14/2019 Journey 7

20/46

Types of Long-Term MemoriesTypes of Long-Term Memories Declarative: FactualDeclarative: Factual

informationinformation Subsets of declarativeSubsets of declarative

memory:memory:

Semantic Memory:Semantic Memory:

Impersonal factsImpersonal factsand everydayand everyday

knowledgeknowledge

Episodic: PersonalEpisodic: Personal

experiences linkedexperiences linked

with specific timeswith specific timesand placesand places

8/14/2019 Journey 7

21/46

Measuring MemoryMeasuring Memory

Tip-of-the Tongue (TOT):Tip-of-the Tongue (TOT):

Feeling that a memoryFeeling that a memory

is available but notis available but not

quite retrievablequite retrievable

8/14/2019 Journey 7

22/46


Recall: To supply or reproduce memorizedRecall: To supply or reproduce memorizedinformation with a minimum of external cuesinformation with a minimum of external cues

Hardest to recall items in theHardest to recall items in the middlemiddle of a list; known asof a list; known asSerial Position EffectSerial Position Effect

Usually eUsually easiest to remember last items in a list becauseasiest to remember last items in a list becausethey are still in STMthey are still in STM

8/14/2019 Journey 7

23/46


Recognition Memory:Recognition Memory:

Ability to correctlyAbility to correctly

identify previouslyidentify previouslylearned materiallearned material

Usually superior toUsually superior to

recallrecall

8/14/2019 Journey 7

24/46

Measuring Memory (cont.)Measuring Memory (cont.)

Distractors: False itemsDistractors: False items

included with a correctincluded with a correct

itemitem

Wrong choices onWrong choices on

multiple-choicemultiple-choiceteststests

False Positive: FalseFalse Positive: False

sense of recognitionsense of recognition

8/14/2019 Journey 7

25/46

RelearningRelearning

Learning againLearning again

something that wassomething that was

previously learnedpreviously learned

Used to measureUsed to measure

memory of priormemory of priorlearninglearning

8/14/2019 Journey 7

26/46

Measuring Memory ConcludedMeasuring Memory Concluded

Savings Score:Savings Score: Amount of time saved whenAmount of time saved when

relearning informationrelearning information

Explicit Memory:Explicit Memory: Past experiences that arePast experiences that are

consciouslyconsciouslybrought to mindbrought to mind Implicit Memory:Implicit Memory: A memory not known to exist;A memory not known to exist;

memory that is unconsciously retrievedmemory that is unconsciously retrieved

Priming:Priming: When cues are used to activate hiddenWhen cues are used to activate hidden

memoriesmemories

Internal Images:Internal Images: Mental picturesMental pictures

8/14/2019 Journey 7

27/46

8/14/2019 Journey 7

28/46

Figure 8.9

F ttiF tti

8/14/2019 Journey 7

29/46

ForgettingForgetting

Nonsense Syllables:Nonsense Syllables:

Meaningless three-letterMeaningless three-letterwords (fej, quf) that testwords (fej, quf) that test

learning and forgettinglearning and forgetting

Curve of Forgetting: GraphCurve of Forgetting: Graph

that shows amount ofthat shows amount of

information rememberedinformation rememberedafter varying lengths ofafter varying lengths of

timetime

Encoding Failure: When aEncoding Failure: When a

memory was nevermemory was never

formed in the first placeformed in the first place

i

8/14/2019 Journey 7

30/46

More on ForgettingMore on Forgetting

Memory Traces: PhysicalMemory Traces: Physicalchanges in nerve cells orchanges in nerve cells orbrain activity that occurbrain activity that occurwhen memories are storedwhen memories are stored

Memory Decay: WhenMemory Decay: When

memory traces becomememory traces becomeweaker; fading orweaker; fading orweakening of memoriesweakening of memories

Disuse: Theory thatDisuse: Theory thatmemory traces weakenmemory traces weakenwhen memories are notwhen memories are not

used or retrievedused or retrieved

M C

8/14/2019 Journey 7

31/46

Memory CuesMemory Cues

Any stimulus associated with a memory; usually enhanceAny stimulus associated with a memory; usually enhance

retrieval of a memoryretrieval of a memory A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval timeA person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time

d iSt t D d t L i

8/14/2019 Journey 7

32/46

State-Dependent LearningState-Dependent Learning

When memory retrieval is influenced by body state; if yourWhen memory retrieval is influenced by body state; if your

body state is the same at the time of learning ANDbody state is the same at the time of learning ANDthethetime of retrieval, retrievals will be improvedtime of retrieval, retrievals will be improved If Robert is drunk and forgets where his car is parked, it will beIf Robert is drunk and forgets where his car is parked, it will be

easier to recall the location if he gets drunk again!easier to recall the location if he gets drunk again!

Even More Theories ofEven More Theories of

8/14/2019 Journey 7

33/46

Even More Theories ofEven More Theories ofForgettingForgetting

Interference: TendencyInterference: Tendency

for new memories tofor new memories to

impair retrieval ofimpair retrieval of

older memories, andolder memories, and

vice versavice versa

RetroactiveRetroactiveInterference: TendencyInterference: Tendency

for new memories tofor new memories to

interfere with retrievalinterfere with retrieval

of old memoriesof old memories

Proactive Interference:Proactive Interference:

Old memories inhibitOld memories inhibit(interfere with) recall(interfere with) recall

of new memoriesof new memories

8/14/2019 Journey 7

34/46

Figure 8.17

M F ttiM F tti

8/14/2019 Journey 7

35/46


Repression:Repression:

UnconsciouslyUnconsciouslypushingpushing

painful, embarrassing,painful, embarrassing,

or threatening memoriesor threatening memories

out ofout ofawareness/consciousnesawareness/consciousnes

ss Motivated forgetting,Motivated forgetting,

according to some theoriesaccording to some theories

M F ttiM F tti

8/14/2019 Journey 7

36/46


Suppression:Suppression: ConsciouslyConsciouslyputting something painfulputting something painful

or threatening out of mind or trying to keep it fromor threatening out of mind or trying to keep it from

entering awarenessentering awareness

Fl hb lb M iFl hb lb M i

8/14/2019 Journey 7

37/46

Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories

Memories created duringMemories created during

times of personaltimes of personaltragedy, accident, ortragedy, accident, or

other emotionallyother emotionally

significant eventssignificant events

Where were youWhere were you

when you heard thatwhen you heard that

terrorists attackedterrorists attackedthe USA onthe USA on

September 11September 11thth,,

2001?2001?

Includes both positiveIncludes both positive

and negative eventsand negative events

Great confidence isGreat confidence is

placed in them evenplaced in them even

though they may bethough they may be

inaccurateinaccurate

M F tiM F ti

8/14/2019 Journey 7

38/46

Memory FormationMemory Formation

Retrograde Amnesia:Retrograde Amnesia:Forgetting events thatForgetting events that

occurredoccurred beforebefore anan

injury or traumainjury or trauma

Anterograde Amnesia:Anterograde Amnesia:

Forgetting events thatForgetting events thatfollowfollow an injury oran injury or

traumatrauma

Consolidation: ProcessConsolidation: Process

by which relativelyby which relatively

permanent memoriespermanent memories

are formed in the brainare formed in the brain

S

8/14/2019 Journey 7

39/46

Memory StructuresMemory Structures

Hippocampus: Brain structure associated withHippocampus: Brain structure associated with

information passing frominformation passing from short-term memory intoshort-term memory into

long-term memorylong-term memory If damaged, person can no longer create long-termIf damaged, person can no longer create long-term

memories and thus will always live in the presentmemories and thus will always live in the present

MemoriesMemoriespriorpriorto damage will remain intactto damage will remain intact

Also associated withAlso associated with emotionemotion

EEngram

8/14/2019 Journey 7

40/46

EngramEngram

Memory trace in the brainMemory trace in the brain
http://farisyakob.typepad.com/.shared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/neurons_firing.jpg

8/14/2019 Journey 7

41/46

Ways to Improve MemoryWays to Improve Memory

Knowledge of Results:Knowledge of Results: Feedback allowing you toFeedback allowing you to

check your progresscheck your progress

Recitation:Recitation: Summarizing aloud while you areSummarizing aloud while you are

learninglearning

Rehearsal:Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally (silently)Reviewing information mentally (silently) Selection:Selection: Selecting most important concepts toSelecting most important concepts to

memorizememorize

Organization:Organization: Organizing difficult items intoOrganizing difficult items into

chunks;chunks; a type ofa type ofreorderingreordering

8/14/2019 Journey 7

42/46

Ways to Improve MemoryWays to Improve Memory(cont.)(cont.)

Whole Learning:Whole Learning: Studying an entire package ofStudying an entire package of

information at once, like a poeminformation at once, like a poem

Part Learning:Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body ofStudying subparts of a larger body of

information (like text chapters)information (like text chapters)

Progressive Part Learning:Progressive Part Learning: Breaking learning taskBreaking learning taskinto a series of short sectionsinto a series of short sections

Serial Position Effect:Serial Position Effect: Making most errors whileMaking most errors while

remembering theremembering the middlemiddle of the listof the list

Overlearning:Overlearning: Studying is continued beyond initialStudying is continued beyond initial

masterymastery

8/14/2019 Journey 7

43/46

Figure 8.14

8/14/2019 Journey 7

44/46

Ways to Improve MemoryWays to Improve MemoryConcludedConcluded

Spaced Practice:Spaced Practice: Alternating study sessions withAlternating study sessions with

brief rest periodsbrief rest periods

Massed Practice:Massed Practice: Studying for long periods withoutStudying for long periods without

rest periodsrest periods Lack of sleepLack of sleep decreasesdecreases retention;retention; sleepsleep aidsaids

consolidationconsolidation

HungerHunger decreasesdecreasesretention-eat wellretention-eat well

Cognitive Interview:Cognitive Interview: Technique used to jogTechnique used to jog

memories of eyewitnessesmemories of eyewitnesses

8/14/2019 Journey 7

45/46

Mnemonics: Memory TricksMnemonics: Memory Tricks

Any kind of memory system or aidAny kind of memory system or aid

Using mentalUsing mental picturespictures

Making thingsMaking things meaningfulmeaningful

Making informationMaking information familiarfamiliar FormingForming bizarre, unusual, or exaggeratedbizarre, unusual, or exaggerated

mental associationsmental associations

Keyword Method:Keyword Method: Familiar word or image isFamiliar word or image is

used to link two other words or itemsused to link two other words or items

Using MnemonicsUsing Mnemonics

8/14/2019 Journey 7

46/46

Using MnemonicsUsing Mnemonicsto Rememberto RememberThings in OrderThings in Order

Form a Chain:Form a Chain: Remember lists in order, forming anRemember lists in order, forming an

exaggerated association connecting item one to two,exaggerated association connecting item one to two,

and so onand so on

Take a Mental Walk:Take a Mental Walk: Mentally walk along a familiarMentally walk along a familiarpath, placing objects or ideas along the pathpath, placing objects or ideas along the path

Use a systemUse a system

Documents

Journey 7