Journal of the Association of Teachers of Geology

NEWS Council 1984-5, Secretary's Report, Treasurer's Report, Editor's Report, Curriculum Working Group Report, Syllabus and Examinations Group Report, Conference Report, ASE-ATG Working Party Report, RSSESEC Qct 1984, Geology in Schools- a letter to CHUGD, Survey of destinations of graduates 1983, National Stone Centre, Wales- Schools with geology 1983, ATG Conference Lampeter 1985, Errata in article by Ray Kenna

ARTICLES

The development of the uses of some minor elements and minerals since the 18th Century- Roger Burt, The future of physical geography in the sixth form-Adrian Cook, Patterns of entry to GCE Advanced Level Geology Examination 1973-82- G.M. Forrest

LETTERS

Geology and the geography department (an alternative viewpoint), The future for geology in the secondary school curriculum, The attitudes of university-

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119

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poly technic- college staff to geology in schools, The curricul um content of degree courses in the geological sciences- the field mapping exercise, How can the ATG become more professional?

SHOPFLOOR A home made clinometer

FIELDWORK

The edUcational value of fieldwork sites- the ATG site-recording scheme, The National Stone Centre', Fieldwork in the Malvern Hills

REVIEWS London III ustrated geological wal ks, Dinosaurs and their relatives, Geology topic books

COMMENT ATG and the future

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COUNCIL 1984-1985

President: Dr. R. Bradshaw, Bristol University Vice-President: Prof. T.R. Owen, University College, Swansea Vice-President: D.B. Thompson, Keele University Secretary: M.J. Coli ins, Shena Simon Sixth Form College,

Manchester Treasurer: S.M.P. Alcock, Leek H.S. Membership Secretary: Dr. D. Thurston, Gateway Sixth Form

College, Leicester Ordinary Members: 1982-85 A. Fleming, Cheadle H .S., Staffs.

S. Flitton, Worthing Sixth Form College C.J. King, Altrincham Grammar School

1983-86 J. Fisher, University of Bath G. Hall, Dolgellau Mrs. S. Woodhead, Chester College of Further

Education

1984-87 Dr. K. Moseley, Monmouth School Ms F.M. Stratton, Luton Sixth Form College Mrs. A.V. Stuart, Greenhead College, Huddersfield

Coopted Dr. F. Spode, Sheffield City Polytechnic

M_J.C.

SECRETARY'S REPORT 1983-84

The Association pushes on, despite ever-present minor frus­trations, and despite more serious trials caused from without. Not nearly all is gloomy, however, for in some areas any progress at all is an achievement, whilst in others projects have reached advanced stages.

The Association does face a crisis, which could become one of survival, just as Geology in Schools faces a crisis. Put bluntly, not sufficient of the Association Membership work for the Association. The main running of the Association is in very few hands indeed, and most Groups are primarily of two or three people. A number of important posts now fall vacant, as the present holders wish to move on, having given very valuable service. We must begin to train a new Treasurer, whose life should be simpler with the new arrangements.

After many years of splendid service editing our Journal, David Thompson wishes to resign the post, and pressure of new work forces Bob Standley and Ray Harris to leave Pro­duction and Advertising, respectively, having achieved a great deal. We therefore need volunteers for the posts of Editor, Deputy Editor, Production Editor, and Advertising Manager. Experience is desirable but not essential - training will be given, and David Thompson will assist the new Editor­to-be during a "change-over" period.

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The Journal is our public face, our main means of communi­cation, our teaching channel, and could be much else. But the vast majority of the Membership contribute nothing - no articles of any sort for any level (especially the younger members), no letters giving or wanting advice, or offering comment. Needs cannot be met if they are unknown. The Journal then, dear Reader, is in your hands, and you must respond now, and a few of you must get more deeply involved.

Your Journal now has different printers, following the expiry of Longman's contract.

The number of new Members has again been relatively few. We now have a Membership List on computer, which has been used for addressing the Journal, and also taken as a new definitive state of the Association's Members, since the older methods had clearly lost validity, and, in part, been discon­tinued. The possession of this new facility will lead to con­siderable savings, and perhaps a few deleted Members may emerge from the scree to protest that they still wish to retain membership. The List was made possible by the work of the Treasurer, who deserves our thanks for his efforts at getting the accounts straight - and chasing the hundreds of errors which the Banks make.

The 1983 Conference was held at Reading, very cheerfully and ably organised by Dr Andrew Parker, and enjoyed by all despite the problems of a split site and union hours.

Council has met three times outside Conference, and trans­acted as usual its large volume of business.

The saga of the Archives has entered a quiet backroom lagoonal phase.

The Association's involvement with other institutions is encouraging, widespread and important. Our representatives have helped the push for more recognition via S.E.S.E.C. and results are not as negative as they once seemed to be. The light is dawning in one or two important eyes - and that is progress in these areas. If only our higher academic colleagues acted as collectively for the good of the earth science as their equiv­alents do for Chemistry, Physics etc, we would all be greatly encouraged. My thanks to Chris King who undertook the bulk of a submission to S.E.S.E.C. and whose Curriculum Group is trying hard to get into S.S.C.R. areas. We have at last obtained official contact with loG. through participation in their Field Access Working Party. A brief flurry of earth­science letters in T.E.S. culminated in an article by lan Norris, whose Examinations Group has recently been asked to provide members for new syllabus monitoring exercises.

The ASE-ATG dialogue broke out again after a lengthy lapse, and it is very important that benefits result which will encourage all parties.

I offer my gratitude to all whom I have called upon for advice and burdened with extra work.

M.J.C.

Michael Jay Publications

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AUTUMN LIST

1984

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Autumn List 1984

POST FREE

TREASURER'S REPORT 1983-84

The balance sheet may be summarised as follows:

INCOME

Promotions Subscriptions Donation Journal Sales Advertisements Miscellaneous Balance 1982/83

EXPENDITURE

Promotions Council Expenses Journal Costs Refunds Miscellaneous

Balance for 1983/84 £3,93031.

£ P 1,31748 6,49059

10000 4841

70007 7300

4,01573

12,74528

£ P 89989

2,47607 5,341 57

77 44 2000

8,81497

The income of the Association has decreased during the year mainly because our membership has declined and we are therefore collecting less in subscriptions. The expenditure of the Association has also fallen this year so the balance is nearly the same as last year.

Increased costs of Journal production, printing and postage since March 1984 will probably produce an increase in expenditure this coming year 1984-5. A corresponding increase in the subscription rates may well be required in September 1985.

I am most grateful to Mr. E. Birch for auditing the accounts for the year ending 31st March 1984.

S.M.P. Alcock Treasurer

EDITOR'S REPORT 1983-84

This has been a challenging year, to say the least. The editorial group has had to cope with the effects of several events: the resignation of a deputy editor who has not been replaced to date; a fall off of inputs from some parts of the team; a lack of material of the right quality and interest; financial restrictions decreed by Council, and a change of printers.

The result has been the late issue of parts 8(4), 9(1) and 9(2), and issues that have been less polished than we would have hoped. Despite these troubles, by late September 1984, four issues totalling 144 pages, comprising volumes 8 part 4 and volume 9 parts 1, 2 and 3 will have been published. In addition, the September 1984 issue, 9(3) will enclose an 8 page pamphlet, separately paginated, containing advice on the preparation and running of field excursions: Geology in the Field".

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The flow of material to the editor continues to exhibit a lack of variety and balance. The Reading Conference has so far produced only one shopfloor item. The amount of News reaching the office still does not fully reflect the depth and breadth of the Association's activities, witness the observations of Geoff Brown in Geology Teaching 9( 1) and Professor Gilbert Kelling's reply in 9(2). Resources reports and reviews are scant. Articles are available but taken together they don't always mesh well together. Many, many more have been promised than have arrived. Shopf/oor items are most readily proffered, but they reflect, too much perhaps, the interests of those parts of the membership who teach sixth-form and college courses. Of course, we are delighted to print this splendid material, but we would hope that it could be matched by a comparably imaginative set of suggestions for use with 14-16 year olds of all abilities, never mind with the 11-14 year old pupils taking the earth-science courses of the future. A trickle of letters has reached the office, but few seem to stimulate a discussion. Poor Paul Hayler (Geology Teaching 8(3), p. 104); he must still be seeking answers to his queries, for your editor hasn't yet found anyone willing to take up his points! Back page Comments have not always been penned by your editor, largely because of the pressure of work and the short-handedness of the team, but he wishes to point out that they could have been submitted by any member of ATG, particularly by members of Council. Advertising copy is less available than hitherto - many educational institutions are finding it difficult to afford their customary full-page spread.

As if the problems which have been alluded to in the opening paragraphs were not enough, we now have to contemplate the loss of the deputy editor (production), Dr Bob Standley, who is moving to a new post outside the public sector of education, after having served for three years. The measure of his devotion and goodwill has been immense, and the member­ship cannot possibly realise the extraordinary services which Bob (and his wife) have given to the Association since he took over from Andrew Mathieson. Bob stepped into a breach which never looked like being filled, and he has worked with great enthusiasm and tenacity of purpose. Perhaps it is well to state here, for those who don't realise these things, that the deputy editor (production) controls a team of people who do the typing of material, the making of the diagrams, the processing of photographs and the construction of the headings. He deals with the proof reading, the pasting-up of the final pages of the 'copy' and the despatch of the material to the printer. Recently these last two tasks have been taken over by a professional, and the task of his successor has thereby been considerably eased. Many, many thanks, Bob.

A special acknowledgement is due to Martin Scragg, technician in the Education Department at Keele, who spends a good deal of his lunch hour demonstrating that he alone knows how our part of the computer system works. He registers the personal details of the membership, and efficiently organises the storage and retrieval of all kinds of information, not to mention the addressing of every ATG envelope and the location of all back issues of the journals.

A further word of thanks is offered to David Mercer and his staff at Longmans Resources Centre, York, our former printers, for they were unfailingly courteous and produced our journal with great skill for several years, often going well beyond the call of duty in so doing.

Your present editor is now two years overdue for retirement. Having served as assistant or deputy editor to Chris Wilson since the inception of Geology Teaching in 1976, he only took on the editorship with great reluctance in view of the many eminently suitable candidates who were around the meeting

places of the Association in those days of heady optimism and excitement in the mid-seventies. All these worthy candidates now seem to have retreated from the educational scarp face, no doubt chastened by the effects on the service of non-stop abrasion and attrition, not to mention occasional spring­sapping exercises initiated by DES.

Should your editor be able to retire this year, he would not wish to leave the post without saying how stimulating the last five years have been; a thousand thanks are due to the enthusiastic authors and would-be authors, the percipient yet generous referees, the ever-obliging typists, cartographers, photographers, and the officers of the Association.

Au revoir, but not farewell!!

D.B. Thompson

CURRICULUM WORKING GROUP REPORT 1983-1984

The year has been a busy one as we have striven to put the case for geology and earth science wherever attempts are being made to develop the curriculum. Most moves towards cur· riculum development seem to be taking place in the sciences at present. If elements of earth science can be included in the broader science curriculum suggested, then every child will have the opportunity to study our subject as a matter of course. This can only benefit both the pupils and the whole field of geological education.

Thus we were disappointed by the Royal Society report 'Science Education 11-18' wh ich barely mentioned geology or earth science, despite its length. Our critical, but construc­tive, response to the Royal Society's report brought forth a response on their part, and was referred to their committee dealing with our part of science education, SESEC (Solid Earth Sciences Education Committee). They responded by asking us to suggest which parts of earth science should be included in the science curriculum of 11-16 year old pupils. This we did by analysing the proposals on the earth science content of the core curriculum in science made by the ATG in 1979. The analysis put the case for earth science strongly. Th is document is at present being considered by SESEC and we plan to publish it in the journal after it has been modified in the light of SESEC comments.

ATG council asked the working group to prepare draft pro· posals for ATG policy on the curriculum. These have been completed.

Most curriculum development work in science at present is being carried out by SSCR (the Secondary Science Curriculum Review). SSCR have published a document, 'Science Edu· cation 11-16, proposals for action and consultation'. In our response to this, we generally approved of their proposals for

'broad and balanced science for all', while emphasising the value of earth science. SSCR works through local working groups (220+- were reported at the last count) and we are supporting those set up specifically to look at the field of earth science. Meetings of earth science working group con· venors are held regularly in the HQ of the SSCR in London. To support further the work of SSCR we have recently set up an ATG/SSCR working group, based at Keele, which includes the members of the Curriculum Working Group as well as ordinary ATG members who live within striking distance of Keele. This group will deal with any SSCR problems in the field of earth science and begin the task of cataloguing and

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evaluating investigations suitable for secondary school science courses which have been published in textbooks, etc. in Britain and overseas. At conference, it was agreed that ATG and SSCR jointly should support the secondment of a teacher for half a day per week for a year to be team leader in this task. SSCR appear to be well disposed towards earth science and it is up to us to provide the approaches and materials which will be necessary for a worthwhile earth science contribution to the education of secondary school children in the future.

At the conference in Leicester, we again held a secondary science day to which local science teachers were invited. Peter Kennett and his team did a very worthwhile job in introducing local teachers to tried, tested and useful approaches to earth science and I would like to thank Peter for his efforts. I would like also to take this opportunity of thanking all members of the Curriculum Working Group for their valuable contributions during the year. Please keep responding!

No doubt there are more geology curriculum matters in the pipeline. Not least are those curriculum changes which will be necessary when the new 16+ examinations are introduced, and if the new 'AS' levels for 6th fomers come about. We must continue to make the case for geology and if you would like to be involved in this important work, making your contribution through the various rounds of correspondence, then please write to me at the address below.

Chris King, Curriculum Working Group Chairman, Altrincham Grammar School for Boys, Marlborough Road, Altrincham, Cheshire WA15 2RS.

ATG SYLLABUSES AND EXAMINATIONS GROUP REPORT FOR 1983-84

This has been a relatively quiet year in the life of the Group although there has been fervent activity in the world of public examinations, especially with the acceptance by Sir Keith Joseph of the General Certificate of Secondary Edu­cation at 16+.

One 'newsletter' was circulated to members of the Group in September 1983 and a second was given to all ATG members attending the Leicester Conference. Members of the Group who did not attend Conference have since been sent copies of this second 'newsletter'. Would anyone not on my mailing list who would wish to receive further 'newsletters' please contact me.

Very little correspondence was received from members concerning public examinations in 1984, although I have been made aware, through secondary channels, of several problems which have arisen. I would ask all ATG members to be vigilant regarding examinations and to contact me as soon as possible regarding any problems arising from public examinations in geology e.g. relating to dubious or ill-phrased questions etc. Only if I receive comments in writing can I act on your behalf.

Wherever feasible, ATG members should become involved with their local Examining Board(s), either as an Examiner or as a member of the subject panel concerned with the organisation of the geology syllabus. Experience has shown that most Examination Boards react favourably to individ­uals writing in offering their services, although it may be presumptuous to expect an immediate response. It is still extremely surprising to note that some Boards have not created a specialist geology subject-panel and that the organ-

isation of the subject is left to one of the other panels (often geography) which may have limited expertise within, and possibly a limited desire to promote and extend,our subject.

The Annual Meeting of the Group took place on the evening of Saturday 15th September at Leicester University and was attended by about 55 members - a new record. The Group was addressed by Mrs. Pat Wilson, the Principal Professional Officer of the Secondary Examinations Council (and a long-time member of the ATG), who explained the mechanics, processes, functions and powers of the SEC, including the present role of the Council in vetting new A-Level syllabuses and its future role with respect to GCSE.

Norman Dutton (past Chairman of the Syllabuses and Examinations Group) then gave some interesting details of the problems encountered by the Midland Examining Group in their attempt to formulate proposals for GCSE geology, especially in the absence of any agreed National Criteria for geology. He suggested that others involved in such develop­ment work with other Examining Groups could well learn from the experiences of the Midland Group and hence avoid some of the pitfalls. ATG members who are on equiv­alent panels in other Examining Consortia should contact me for information and I can pass on to Norman requests for specific information.

My own term on Council ended in September, but I will continue as Chairman of the Group in the near future. My thanks go to all ATG members who have helped by sending me details of syllabus and examination developments; please continue to keep me informed since it is important that an up-to-date record of all relevant development work is maintained.

lan Norris, Carlett Park College of Technology, Eastham, Wirral, Merseyside l62 OAY.

botany, but presumably the vegetation which was removed was largely scrub and brambles. The trouble with conservation is that it always relates to a conflict of interests. After that, it was back to the bar and the recalling of those good old under­graduate days.

The pace began to hot up on Saturday morning. Breakfast was taken in haste and we scrambled out to grab places in the entourage of cars. These ferried us out of the opulent suburbs around Beaumont Hall to the University site near the town centre. The Geology Department laid on a fairly packed programme of lectures and demonstrations. In fact we quickly fell behind schedule and a few of us were hauled out of the last session before lunch just as things were beginning to get interesting with respect to geophysics applied at a simple level in school.

The return journey to Beaumont Hall was followed by a mad scrummage for the ploughman's lunch (latecomers found only devastation) and a furious struggle into field gear. Thus, 30 minutes after leaving the University, we were sitting, some­what jet-lagged, in the excursion buses.

I chose the trip to Rugby (knowing full well that half of Britain was going to opt for those scruffy little bits of Pre­cambrian rock in the Charnwood area). We visited a moderate­sized cement pit dug mainly in Hettangian strata (Blue Lias facies). A talk on the educational value of the pit seemed soon forgotten as the horde of 'Magpies' proceeded to try to de­fossilise the lower Jurassic! A collection of various bivalves brachiopods and odd vertebrate bones resulted. The ' ammonites were, on the whole alas!, poorly preserved.

Back to Leicester and a wash for both myself and the fossils. I ponder the words of the plumbers subsequent to our departure as they contemplate the many kilos of silt left in the drains! The rockeries around the hall were probably augmented a little too! There was a sherry party for 20 ex-patriates of Keele Education Department before dinner. Many attended, but I

__________________________ wondered about the fate of those not present, for times are hard for our discipline.

CONFERENCE REPORT: LEICESTER 1984

For many of us, teaching Geology is a solitary pursuit carried out in some tiny neglected corner of another department. Thus the Annual Conference is a welcome chance to renew old acquaintances, meet new friends and allies, to grumble a bit and generally to have a jolly old chinwag about the problems of teaching the subject in the mid 1980s.

Thus I set out from Monmouth with a couple of colleagues and greatly looked forward to my first ATG Conference. After negotiating heavy traffic we finally arrived at Beaumont Hall in the middle of the sherry reception; nevertheless, registration was smooth and we hurriedly sedimented our baggage in rooms, and rushed back to get a drink and begin the em­balming process. The dinner that followed was to set the standard for the weekend. It is so pleasant to be able to commend the catering and I did not recall hearing any com­plaints on this score (although I suspect most of us have desensitised our tastebuds years back with camp cooking).

A break for beer and on to three lectures. To start we had a pictorial 'tour de force' on Himalayan Geology from Prof. Brian Windley. To follow, and in contrast, the local Geology was summarised with crusty humour by Dr. Trevor Ford. Finally Mike Harding of the Nature Conservancy Council showed how to revitalise your friendly neighbourhood out­crop. This seemed to be done at the expense of the local

113

Dinner was followed by the group meetings which had been set-up to discuss topics such as the curriculum, the syllabuses, fieldwork etc. I have to confess that I did not attend these. As a relatively new teacher, my time is almost wholly employed with maintaining the quality of my day-to-day teaching, I simply do not have time for the broader educational issues. I know many other beginners are in a similar position to myself. Nevertheless, someone has to care about these matters, and it was comforting to know that the meetings were well attended.

Through the weekend I became dimly aware that old friends were dropping hints about what a splendid chap I was. Strange, I thought, they do not usually make remarks like this. Moreover they all wore a conspiratorial smile, so I sus­pected something was afoot. By lunch-time on Saturday it was apparent that several ordinary members were needed for Council. My friends evidently know a willing fool when they saw one. This brinQs us to the AGM. The meeting was well attended. The more important items included the election of new members of Council. Posts such as Treasurer and the three Editorial staff attracted no takers so that the present holders may have to soldier on. This was' disappointing, of course, but the problem will have to be resolved before long. David Thompson pointed out in his Editor's Report that his job would be easier if more articles were submitted by chalkface teachers. If only each teacher would write up his or her most innovative lesson of this last year .. come on colleagues; get writing: rise to the challenge

On Sunday morning the programme was prefaced by a lecture from Trevor Ford about the Geology of the Grand Canyon. He presented an excellent set of slides with expertise and wit, and this made for a most enjoyable show. Two things, at least, were apparent: first, that the Americans are more willing than we are to sponsor both education and research; and second, that they need to start by educating the signwriter who wrote, 'You can de..£end by helicopter into the Grand Canyon'!

The open forum began with a reminder that Universities still prefer Maths, Physics and Chemistry' A' levels when selecting geology students. It emerged, however, that Geology plus two sciences is generally acceptable, too. The group reports were then delivered and were duly commented upon from the floor. The forum was, in some ways, the most interesting event of the weekend, as genuine feelings bubbled to the surface as from a fumarole. The arguments centred around whether ATG should seek closer ties with the huge and highly pro­fessional Association for Science Education. There were several speakers in favour of a more scientific and professional approach to our subject. However, one speaker probably presented the view of a large but silent majority when he reminded us of many of our roots. It is Geography depart­ments which have supported school Geology in the past. Should we spurn our faithful allies and benefactors (often our Geography-trained members) while attempting to embrace an ambivalent science teaching community? At worst, as in the case of the speaker, members may feel insulted. The warning should be heeded, although ATG's future looks uncertain without at least the partial protection of a big battalion like the ASE. Unfortunately we ran out of time whilst much still remained to be discussed. Next year's conference is at Lampeter and from its description it sounds most promising. Here's hoping to see you there!

Keith Moseley

ASE-ATG WORKING PARTY - PROGRESS REPORT

Members may recall that the Association for Science Edu­cation and the ATG set up a joint working party several years ago to explore the possibility of closer links between the two associations. At the Council Meeting following the 1983 Annual Conference at Reading, Council decided to ask this working party to meet again to see whether the time was opportune for further progress, and to report back to ATG Council and to the ASE Education (Co-ordinating) Com­mittee.

The working party met at Oxford under the chairmanship of Mr. R.T. Allsop on Saturday 28th January 1984. The ATG were represented by Mr. D.B. Thompson (convenor for ATG panel), Dr. R. Bradshaw (at that time President-Elect), Mr. J. Fisher, Mr. D.A. Fleming and Mr.C. King. A report was sent to both associations which contained suggestions for further progress. This report was considered by ATG Cou nci I in M ay 1984, and a response from the ASE to the report was received in June and was considered by Council at the Annual Conference in Leicester.

From this, members will gather that progress is slow, mainly because of the long time gap between meetings. Nevertheless these discussions are regarded by Council as a matter of great importance for the future of ATG, and of geological education in schools in this country. A verbal report was given by myself during Open Forum at Leicester, and a lively debate ensued which was curtailed only by shortage of time on

114

the stroke of Sunday lunchtime. A further meeting of the ASE/ATG working party is expected before the end of 1984.

It is hoped to produce an article for the next issue of Geology Teaching about possible future directions which ATG might take. In this article the progress of the discussions alluded to above will be more fully reported. The intention will be to stimulate a debate among the whole membership of ATG on this topic, and to have a fuller discussion at the Conference at Lampeter in 1985.

D.A. Fleming

R.S.S.E.S.E.C. OCTOBER 1984

Agenda items for the recent Solid Earth Sciences Education Committee Meeting of October 5th 1984 included the following:

1. GCSE 16+. Enquiries were to be made regarding the composition of the Geology Panels upon changes in the GCSE 16+ examination and the re-grouping of the Exam­ination Boards in major Consortia.

2. National Criteria for GCSE. The way in which the Sec­retaries of State had commented on the National Criteria for Geography was welcomed, especially their recognition that fieldwork developed skills and abilities which required full and proper assessment. There was severe criticism of the criteria, however, regarding the apparently lowly place accorded to aspects of physical geography, and the complete failure to include basic geological knowledge as essential to the understanding of physical­geographical processes and their interrelationships.

3. The Curriculum. The note from the D.E.S. concerning the 5-16 Curriculum was quietly welcomed for its general philosophy, but heavily criticised for its continued dis­cussion of the sciences predominantly in terms of the 'traditional' three, and its failure to recognise that on any educational criteria the earth sciences had an excellent case to present and were able to help children to develop a number of important, even unique and therefore essential concepts. It was envisaged that immediate discussions would take place and an early reply would be despatched, setting out these concepts throughout the age-range, and suggesting a separate section devoted entirely to the earth sciences.

4. The Secondary Science Curriculum Review. Some pro­gress was being made by the. few earth science groups under the aegis of SSCR. An ATG group was acting as a national umbrella organisation for the groups which existed in the regions.

5. D.E.S. AS-level examination. This document was welcomed in principle, because earth science should clearly be an excellent curriculum area under the new proposals. Reservations were expressed by some persons in Higher Education concerning the depth and breadth of study required for AS level.

6. Institutions represented on the SESEC committe had taken the following actions: surveyed Technician Training; found that earth science graduates might be delayed in finding jobs immediately by the timing of the recruitment cycles imposed by employers, (graduates had in fact been more successful than recent reports and

figures suggested); had written to try to prevent the deterioration of the Museum Services under the political threat of the dissolution of the Metropolitan areas.

7. Status and publicity: the present lack of status, and lack of publicity for earth-science teaching at all levels, were deplored. Ideas for their improvement were urgently needed.

M J Collins, ATG representative on RSSESEC

GEOLOGY IN SCHOOLS

A letter from the Chairman of the Royal Society Solid Earth Sciences Education Committee to members of the Committee of Heads of University Geology Departments (CHUGD)

Members who believe that nothing has been done to press the case for supporting geology in schools within University Geology departments may be interested to read the following letter.

Dear member,

I am writing as Chairman of the Solid Earth Sciences Joint Committee of the Royal Society, Geological Society, Insti­tution of Geologists and the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. At its recent meetings the Committee has expressed considerable concern at the very small proportion of the science curricula in secondary schools that refers to Earth sciences and the paucity of Earth science taught to pupils who do not go on to higher education, or higher education in the sciences, and whose knowledge of the subject is limited to what is in the pre-16 curricula. We seek your support in urging that the Earth sciences should figure more in science in secondary schools, both in their own right, and as a suitable vehicle f(j(demonstrating principles of physics, chemistry and biology. A seminar-workshop, held at the Royal Society in February 1983 demonstrated how such teaching can be, and is, put successfully into practice in both modes.

We recognise that the teaching of Earth science to '0' and 'A' level as examination subjects is a separate issue, and that in some quarters it is not considered as a suitable qualification for admission to an Earth science Honours degree at Uni­versity. As new curricula and examinations are designed and put into use and the essential scientific basis of geology is increasingly emphasised, the subject will become, we believe, more important as an acceptable 'A' level qualification. Radical improvements to curricula are in sight and will improve the preparedness of candidates for entrance to uni­versity Earth science courses. They also seek to give the school-leaver a more adequate knowledge of the subject than is currently the case. We believe that the efforts to improve the position of Earth science in the secondary school curricula will be the more successful if there is known to be strong support for them from Earth scientists in the universities. The attitudes found within the universities can and do profoundly influence local schools and education authorities. Accordingly, where you or colleagues are able to argue in their favour we ask you to do so. We would welcome your views and your support.

Yours sincerely, D.L. Dineley, Chairman, Solid Earth Sciences Education Committee.

115

SURVEY OF THE DESTINATION OF GRADUATES IN THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES 1983

The following tables show the destinations of those who graduated with first and higher degrees in ge910gy from universities, polytechnics and colleges in 1983. As usual, the material from the university graduates was supplied by the Universities Statistical Records Office in Cheltenham, whilst the polytechnic and college figures were kindly collected and collated by Dr. Gordon Taylor of Luton College of Higher Education. All tables refer to the position as it was on 31 December 1983.

Details of those taking combined (joint) subject degrees have been included again this year and, for the first time, those taking MSc and PhD degrees have been separated. Most of the former will have obtained their MSc through one-year courses. Compared with 1982, there was a 6.5% increase in the number graduating with single subject degrees, a 2% increase in those graduating with combined subjects first degrees and a 2% fall in the number graduating with higher degrees. The number of British students taking higher degrees was slightly up on 1982, but this was more than offset by the drop in overseas students.

In last year's survey it was stated "But if 1982 was a bad year for geologists, 1983 looks like being a great deal worse". And so it proved to be. First degree graduates were particularly affected and the number obtaining geologically related jobs fell from 224 to 142. The reasons are not hard to find. Demand throughout the world continued to fall and the first degree graduates faced increased competition, not only from those with higher degrees, but also from the growing pool of graduates of earlier years who were still seeking geological jobs. Getting a job these days can take a lot longer than it used to and it is known that several graduates who appear in the tables as unemployed were able to get themselves fixed up with jobs in the early part of 1984. Several obtained geological jobs. In view of this, it is felt in some quarters that a cut-off date at the end of March would be preferable to the present 31 December. But to do this would delay publication of the statistics by a further three months and render them even more obsolete than they already are. It seems that the 1983 students were well aware of the problems ahead of them and a much higher proportion accepted jobs in non-geological fields. As a result, the number unemployed did not rise as much as might have been expected.

The higher degree graduates fared better and the differences between the 1982 and 1983 destinations are only marginal. It is apparent that the possession of a higher degree carries considerable advantages for those wanting geological jobs and it is not surprising that careers advisers are recommending that students should give serious thought to applying for a master's degree or doctorate. In this connection one might question whether some slight adjustment in the allocation of research funds - with rather less support for PhDs and correspondingly more for MSc courses - might be desirable to give a larger number the opportunity of postgraduate study.

The prospects in 1984 look rather better, with several well­logging companies beginning to recruit again, albeit in small numbers. Outside the oil industry, however, the market seems as tight as ever.

Peter Caswell, University of Birmingham Careers Service

Ray Kenna, University of Liverpool Careers and Appointments Service

en

SURVEY OF THE DESTINATION OF GRADUATES IN THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES 1983

TABLE 1 - FIRST DEGREES IN THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES - SINGLE SUBJECT

Universities

M W

Numbers Graduating 657 168

Research/Study for Higher Deg~ees 164 36 Other Full-Time Study 26 24 overseas Students Leaving UK 5 1 Not Seeking Employment 11 8

Not Available· for Employment 206 69

Obtained Geol~ical Jobs

Civil Service/Research Councils 5 1 Local Authorities 3 -Museums/Libraries 1 2 Teachin~/University Res Posts 5 2 Schools 2 -Oil Companies 12 3 Geophysical Contractors 18 7 Well-Logging Contractors 10 1 Mining Companies 3 -Extractive Industry 3 -Undifferentiated Oil/Mining 4 -Civil Engineering Industry 3 -Water Authorities 1 1 Other Geol/Geophys Service 4 1 OVerseas Posts 16 1

Sub-Totals 90 19

Obtained Non-Geol~ical Jobs

Public Service 17 12 Industry 34 9 Commerce 40 11 Others 12 1

Sub-Totals 103 33

Totals - entered employment 193 52

Unsettled

Temporary Jobs 30 14 Unemployed 160 17 Unknown 68 16

Totals - Unsettled 258 47

Polys/Colls Totals

M W M W

120 23 777 191

16 3 180 39 3 2 29 26 1 - 6 1 2 1 13 9

22 6 228 75

- 1 5 2 1 1 4 1 - - 1 2

- - 5 2 - - 2 -3 - 15 3 9 2 27 9 4 - 14 1 2 1 5 1 - - 3 -- - 4 -

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32 5 122 24

6 1 23 13 5 1 39 10 3 1 43 12 - - 12 1

14 3 117 36

46 .8 239 60

15 4 45 18 3 - 163 i7

34 5 102 21

52 9 310 56 -

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TABLE 2 - FIRST DEGREES INCLUDING THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES - COMBINED SUBJECTS

Universities I Polys/Colls Totals

M W i M W M I

Numbers Graduating 81 35 I 117 43 198

Research/Study for Higher Degrees 14 6 I 9 5 23 Other Full-Time Study 6 3 6 7 12 OVerseas Students Leaving UK - 1 1 - 1 Not Seeking Employment 2 - 1 - 3

Not Available for Employment 22 10 17 12 39

Obtained Geol~ical Jobs

Civil Service/Research Councils 1 - - - 1 Local Authorities - - 2 - 2 Museums/Libraries 1 - - 1 1 Teaching/University Res Posts 3 2 1 - 4

Oil Companies - - - - -Geophysical Contractors 2 - 4 - 6 Well-Logging Contractors 1 - 2 - 3 Mining Companies - - 2 - 2 Extractive Industry - - - - -Civil Engineering Industry 1 - 2 - 3 Water Authorities - - 1 . - 1 Other veol/Geophys Services 1 - - - 1 OVerseas Posts 1 1 3 2 .4

Sub-Totals 11 3 17 3 2J

Obtained Non-Geol~ical Jobs

Publi!: Service 4 5 11 7 15 Industry 6 3 8 3 14 Commerce 6 2 12 5 18

Sub-Totals 16 10 31 15 47

Totals - Entered employment 27 13 48 18 75

Unsettled

Temporary. Jobs 7 4 12 7 19 Unemployed 20 4 19 4' 39 ·Unknown 5 4 21 2 26

Totals - Unsettled 32 12 52 13 .84 '---------- -

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NATIONAL STONE CENTRE

The National Stone Centre was launched in November 1983 by Sir George Young, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for the Environment. A company limited by guarantee has now been incorporated for which educational charity status is being sought. Eventually the Centre will benefit from the direct involvement of local, regional and national authorities, academic bodies and professional bodies and representatives from all sectors of the stone quarrying and servicing industry, from the United Kingdom as a whole. A site at Wirksworth in Derbyshire was purchased in May 1984 on behalf of the National Stone Centre Company and nego­tiations for a long-term lease are now in hand.

The primary purpose of the Centre will be to demonstrate the geology behind the stone trade; the exploration for, extrac­tion, processing and use of stone in the past and present, and its future potential. It will also explain the inter­relationships between the occurrence and working of the stone, and our landscape, urban environment, ecology and history . The enterprise will include a museum, facilities for seminars, teaching, small conferences, field courses, professional and technical training, interpretation on and off the site, together with advisory services for lay and professional enquirers. Work on the site began this month (July 1984) to prepare the ground for two associated developments: 1. The National Stone Trade Centre - a shop window for the industry and its servicing organisations, and: 2. A small industrial estate, which will be able to offer limited workshop accommodation for related enterprises. Detailed base-line surveys, including inventories of geological, biological, industrial-archaeological and other features of the site, are under way. Feasibility and marketing studies,

117

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followed by design work are due to begin shortly in respect of the stone of the Stone Centre proper. These will lead to the sensitive reclamation of the area, also with the aid of Derelict Land Reclamation Grants, to make the quarry faces, tips, shafts etc safe, without destroying the inherent features of the site. This phase will also include landscaping and remoulding of certain sections of the site for roads, buildings and services. The task of raising core funding for some of these preparatory studies is also now in hand. Much larger sums will be needed to develop the full scheme. The project has already attracted interest from all over Britain and inquiries and visitors from several European countries, USA and Africa. The Stone Centre is already aware of some of the people and organisations who have carried out research at or regularly visit the Colehills site at Wirksworth and would be particularly interested to hear from these and others who have views on how the site might be developed or for example, are aware of records, artefacts, photographs etc which relate to the subjects to be covered. Access to certain parts of the site will necessarily have to be restricted on grounds of safety, particularly where contractors are working, but it is hoped to minimise any inconvenience. Starting in the Autumn (1984) a series of one-day seminars will be arranged, depending on demand, to cater for all those interested in the educational aspects of the National Stone Centre Project. Clearly the appeal is very wide-ranging, indeed, from the primary schoolteacher, to those involved in industrial or professional training, from geology to social history, from sculpture to slope stability. These events, the first of which took place on 29 September will be regarded very much as two-way processes. The organisers feel that it is just as important to have your views on how the Stone Centre can, and should, be developed as for the participants to learn of their proposals.

Further details of the Centre's proposed activities and poten­tial will be found in the Fieldwork Section of this issue of Geology Teaching_

Comments, requests for access permits, further information etc, should be addressed to LA. Thomas, Company Secretary, National Stone Centre, c/o County Planning Department, Derbyshire County Council, County Offices, Matlock, Derbysh ire 0 E4 3AG. Telephone (0629) 3411 Ext. 7162. Details of the seminars are available from: The Warden, Department of Adult Education, University of Nottingham, Tawney House, Matlock Green, Matlock, Derbyshire DE4 3BT. Telephone (0629) 3809.

IAT/DBT

WALES - SCHOOLS WITH GEOLOGY - 1984

SCHOOLS 1984 (1983) TOTAL CANDIDATES

COUNTY TOTAL CSE 0 A ALL 1984 NO THREE (1983)

Clwyd 18 (18) 9 (7) 15 (16) 9 (9) 2 (4) 262 (285)

Dyfed 16 (15) 6 (5) 16 (15) 10 (9) 5 (4) 353 (324)

Gwent 22 (21) 10 (10) 17 (18) 15 (14) 6 (6) 367 (428)

Gwynedd 6 (8) 2 (3) 6 (6) 1 (2) (1) 85 (102)

Mid Glamorgan 26 (30) 12 (9) 23 (26) 23 (21) 10 (6) 551 (493)

Powys 9 (9) 2 (2) 9 (9) 3 (3) 2 (2) 114 (118)

South Glamorgan 17 (19) 7 (8) 15 (IB) 13 (12) 5 (5) 413 (412)

West Glamorgan 18 (19) 7 (7) 18 (18) 11 (11 ) 2 (3) 323 (355)

Wales 132 (139) 55 (51) 119 (126) 85 (81) 33 (31) 2468 (2517)

Alun Thomas, Schools Officer,

National Museum of Wales, Cardiff CF1 3NP

ATG CONFERENCE 1985 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF WALES, LAMPETER 13-15 SEPTEMBER

Next year the annual course and conference of the Association of Teachers of Geology will have a different format from conferences of previous years. The theme is "The Geology of Wales" and field work will form the major part of the week­end's programme. The venue, St David's University College, Lampeter, was chosen as the ideal location to provide access to geological field-teaching sites ranging from Precambrian to Carboniferous age, with the additional opportunity of studying outstanding aspects of geomorphological interest. The cost will be less than last year: charges for accommodation and the conference fee are unlikely to exceed £35. Arrangements are in hand to make travel to Lampeter as convenient as possible. Members travelling at special rates by train from Paddington on the Friday evening will be met by a coach at Carmarthen station. There will be a return coach to Carmarthen on the Sunday afternoon to connect with a London train. Minibus travel may also be arranged from pickup points in the Midlands and London area. Distinguished guest speakers include Professor T.R. Owen, who will outline recent developments in the geology of South Wales, Or 0.0. Bowen, an authority on the Pleistocene of Wales, and Or John Phillips (ex-President of ATG) who will discuss aspects of the mineralisation of the region.

There will be four full-day field excursions to choose from on Saturday: Ordovician vulcanicity in Pembrokeshire, lead-zinc mineralisation in North Cardiganshire, Old Red Sandstone and

118

Carboniferous of the Brecon Beacons and the South Wales Coalfield, and glacial, periglacial and coastal geomorphology of the Cambrian Coast.

On Sunday, shorter excursions will provide members with the opportunity to study the Builth Wells Ordovician volcanic centre and sedimentary and tectonic structures in the Silurian Aberystwyth Grits. There will also be a tour of the under­ground workings at the Dolaucothi gold mine or a chance to see soil and hydrology research being carried out by the Department of Geography at Lampeter. We feel sure that all members coming to Lampeter will be amply rewarded by the exciting geology. Each field excursion will be accompanied both by an expert local geologist who can explain recent research, and a practising teacher who will discuss the educational possibilities of the localities visited. A special effort has been made to offer geomorphological excursions on both Saturday and Sunday for the benefit of the geography teachers (both ATG and non-ATG) who are attending. Full conference details and a booking form will be circulated with the next edition of the journal, but please make a note now of the dates in your diary.

Graham Hall, Chairman of the Fieldwork Group, Unit 4, Marian Mawr Industrial Estate, Dolgellau, Gwynedd.

ERRATA IN ARTICLE BY RAY KENNA

Career aspirations and the prospects of earth-science graduates Geology Teaching 9(2) 1984 pp. 59-64.

The editorial team wishes to make the following corrections to the article of Mr. Ray Kenna of Liverpool University Careers Service. We apologise to him, and indeed to all authors, when errors in processing articles are present and are not spotted before going to press.

The corrections relate to the words underlined:

a. page 60 column 1 lines 15-17 to read: "prospects for geologists are very sensitive to changes in political and economic climates (the effects of which are evident in tables 1 and 2 referred to later)"

b. page 60 col. 1 line 29 'too' not to c. page 60 col. 2. The note beneath the table should read

".'. (therefore) the % seeking post = 14%". d. page 61 The note"";itthe bottom of table 1 should read

"in (not on) short-term employment". e. page 61 Table 3 was abstracted from Pickman, S.P. 1983

The Supply of University Graduates 1983-5 Trends and Predictions. Manchester, Central Services Unit for Uni­versity and Polytechnic Careers and Appointments Services 16 pp. Although this data was tabled at the meeting in London at which the present paper was presented (and at which permission was sought by ATG to publish it), Mr Kenna did not intend table 3 and the commentary beneath it to be included in his article.

f. page 61 3 lines from bottom "the two largest areas". g. page 62 lines 23-4 delete "course" -h. page 62 line 46 could not would i. page 63 line 13 personal not personell

DEVELOPMENT OF THE USES OF SOME MINOR ELEMENTS AND MINERALS SINCE THE 18th. CENTURY

In the article which follows Roger Burt,an economic historian, traces the history of the production, processing and uses of certain minor elements and minerals (nickel, cobalt, tungsten, molybdenum, arsenic, zinc and manganese; barite and fluorite). He shows how their importance has waxed and waned as both technologies and social-industrial-military needs have changed. He reveals how some minor elements and minerals, often the by-products of non-ferrous metal mining, have come to be of strategic rather than historical interest. He demonstrates how the proper description of the culture of the past, as well as that of the present, demands an understanding of social coventions, industrial processes and technologies and a whole range of sciences, in relation to which geology is fairly central. The article is based upon a talk which he gave to the Annual Meeting of the Association of Science Education at Exeter University in January 1984.

INTRODUCTION

The eighteenth century saw the birth of a new science of chemistry. In terms of their long-term practical implemen· tation, some of the most important discoveries of this new science were to be found in the field of metallurgy. There were radical advances in the understanding of the metallurgy of iron, which underpinned great increases in production, using new techniques pioneered by the Darbys, the Wood brothers and Cort. Of even greater long-term importance, however, were strategic developments in knowledge of the properties and methods of preparation of a wide range of non-ferrous minerals. While the improvement in the manufacture of iron produced the final triumph of the "iron age", previously frustrated for millennia by high production costs, the non­ferrous discoveries became the basis of a new "alloys tech­nology". In the twentieth century alloys, together with plastics, have come to threaten the gradual demise of the age of iron and steel.

THE NEW METALS OF THE "ALLOYS TECHNOLOGY"

Of the "new metals" manganese (Mn) was first prepared by Car I Scheele and Gahn about 1775, while tungsten (W) was discovered by Scheele in 1781 and prepared by Torbern Bergman in 1782. Molybdenum (Mo) was separated for the first time by Peter Hjelm in 1782 and zirconium (Zr) was prepared by Martin Klaprath in 1789. Earlier in the century (1735) Antonio de Ulloa and Charles Wood had discovered platinum (Pt) and it was prepared in ingot form for the first time in 1784. Similarly cobalt (Co) had been shown in an impure state by George Brandt in 1735 and was prepared in pure form by Bergman in 1790. Nickel (Ni) which had been isolated by Baron Axel Cranstedt in 1751 was prepared in a pure state by Bergman and Orfiedson in 1775. Barium (Ba) was first separated by Sir Humphrey Davy, using a complex chemical process,in 1807. Within the space of just fifty years from the mid-eighteenth century, new metals were discovered

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which were to become the backbone of the high-technology industries of the late twentieth century. The extent of the production of some of these ores and minerals in Great Britain between 1850 and 1913 is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

The Production of Some Minor Ores and Minerals 1850-1913 in the United Kingdom. The figures relate to dressed ores (ie concentrates ready for marketing) and minerals.

TONS

Date Zinc Arsenic Barite Witherite Fluorite Manganese Ores Ores Ores

1855 9,000 443 3,000 ? ? ? 1860 15,553 515 13,354 ? 81 932 1865 17,843 827 6,769 ? 3 ? 1870 13,586 1,813 6,515 ? 4,839 1875 23,978 9,000 15,548 ? 359 3,206 1880 27,548 5,000 17,476 ? 458 2,839 1885 24,668 3,800 26,153 ? 423 1,688 1890 22,041 3,500 25,353 5,800 268 12,444 1895 17,478 3,000 21,170 6,100 36 1,273 1900 24,675 10,000 29,456 7,900 1,448 1,362 1905 23,909 1,523 29,063 8,200 39,446 14,479 1910 11,238 2,000 44,667 10,500 61,621 5,467 1913 17,294 1,400 50,045 7,800 53,663 5,393

THE USES OF THE NEW METALS

Although the long-term potential of these new elements and their minerals was immense, and even now probably remains only partly appreciated, their immediate uses were very limited. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, many saw little or no practical use other than the tinting of glass or glazes. Thus in 1851 Knight's Cyclopaedia of Manufacturers,

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reported that uranium (U), obtained mainly from pitchblende (massive encrusting uraninite U02, often oxidised to U30 8) was used only to colour glass a fine lemon and yellow, while tungsten, obtained from various ores, especially wolframite, ((Fe, Mn) W04 ) ,had "not yet been applied to many useful purposes". Similarly barium, "a perculiar metal", had found no practical use and it was reported that "the uses of nickel are very limited and until within a few years it was scarcely employed at all". However, important changes were already beginning to make themselves felt as the new post-industrial­revolution, science-based industries began to expand and develop.

Nickel As early as the mid-nineteenth century, Andrew Ure reported that, "since the manufacture of German silver, or Argentane, became an object of commercial importance, the extraction of nickel has been undertaken upon a considerable scale" (Ure 1853). This use, first introduced in the early 1840s, expanded very considerably during the ensuing decades but a far more important demand emerged from the end of the century when world naval powers began to adopt nickel-bearing armour plate. With large new deposits of "magnetic pyrites" or pyrrhotite (Fe,_x S but bearing up to 5% Ni) in New Caledonia and Sudbury in Canada supplying the world market at reasonable prices, new applications increased rapidly between the World Wars. Today approximately half of the world output is consumed in the manufacture of stainless steel, a quarter in corrosion resistant alloys, and less than a sixth in electroplating. Other minor uses included the manu­facture of nickel-cadmium storage batteries, electrical circuits, special chemical vessels, polypropylene dyes and hydro­genation catalysts.

Cobalt The rising demand for nickel from the mid-nineteenth century was paralleled by an increasing consumption of cobalt - the two elements being largely obtained from ores like cobalti­ferous pyrrhotite at Sudbury, Canada or asbolite (hydrated oxide of manganese with Co and often Ni). Cobalt a name derived from Kobbold (the name given in Germany and Scandinavia to the evil spirits of the underground regions) had been used from the 16th century for creating blue enamels in glass, glazes, enamels and paint. An increasing demand for these products, together with new colour correcting uses in paper and linen manufacture, required a great increase in the output of "speiss" (crushed ore), "smalts" (crushed cobalt-rich blue glass), and "zaffre" (roasted ore, sifted and reduced to a fine powder and then mixed with two or three parts of very pure siliceous sand). As the names suggest, these products were mainly of European origin. As Ure noticed 'The art of working the ores of cobalt and nickel seems unkown in Great Britain . .. Although no nation in the world consumes in its manufactures more cobalt and nickel than Great Britain, yet for these metals it is entirely dependent upon Norway, Northern Germany and the Netherlands, from whence we import annually not less than 400 tons of zaffre and smalts and nearly the same quantity of nickel and speiss to the conjoint value of almost 150,000 sterling'~ (Ure 1853). For chauvinistic Britain, at its peak the Workshop of the World, this dependence on foreign manufacturers for products which could have been produced at home, from mines in Cornwall, Wales, the Lake District and Scotland, was regarded with the greatest alarm. Ure (ibid) continued scathingly, "our potteries, glass works and the paper manufacturers procure from abroad that which ignorance and apathy deny them at home" and later that, "it is a kind of national disgrace to Great Britain that, having a pure ore of cobalt in the very centre of the

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island (near Keswick in Cumberland) our manufacturers are unable either to compete with, or so much as contest for, the palm of superiority in the formation of zaffre'~

The principal problem appears to have been the poverty of the British ores when compared with the German (Cornish 2-7% cobalt; German 12-15%) and the greater difficulties in working them. It was, therefore, sound economic sense to ignore them while the German products were available, but to Ure (ibid), "this trifling impediment seems actually to have benumbed the energy of that indomitable spirit of enterprise for which Britain is in most things justly celebrated". How things have changed during the last hundred years!

Forty years later, in the 1890s, the consumption pattern for cobalt appears to have altered very little. James Wylde (1891) in his Industries of the World, noticed briefly that, "the expensive nature of the salts of this metal precludes its use for dyeing purposes, but one of its compounds, smalts (made by fusing zaffre with potash and glass) is much used for blueing cotton fabrics and paper". Similarly Davies (1892), in h is Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and Mining, noted that the market price of black oxide of cobalt in Great Britain was at the very high level of between 10/6d and 12/6d per Ib and expressed the strong hope that new discoveries of the ore might significantly reduce this level and promote its increased use. Certainly the high prices stimulated exploration and during the previous hundred years trials had been made throughout Cornwall, at small mines near Gwennap, St Colomb Major, IIlogan, Ponsnooth, St Austell and Redruth, as well as at several of the larger, well-established copper and tin mines, such as Dolcoath, Botallack and Polgooth. Similarly, in Scotland, cobalt had been found near Alloa in Stirlingshire and at Newton Stewart in Galloway. However, everywhere the deposits were small in quantity and low in quality and, during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Foel Hiraeddog, near Rhyl in Flintshire, was the only significant commercial producer. Even there, production was rarely raised much over 100 tons of ore per annum, which was generally less than a quarter of the level of annual imports.

The new century began to see important changes. The develop­ment of large deposits of cobalt ore in Missouri, USA, began to underpin a major expansion of its use in the manufacture of special hard high-temperature alloys. Alloys containing 6-65% cobalt are very tough and resistant to abrasion and corrosion and became the usual materials for the manufacture of cutting tools, hard faces;turbine blades etc. The rapidly developing requirements of the electrical industry also generated a major demand for cobalt steel in the manufacture of permanent magnets for motors and generators, as well as some electrical resistance alloys, cathode filaments and cores. Taken together with a number of other minor uses, such as in dentistry, this means that today about 80% of the world's consumption of cobalt is in metallic form.

Tungsten and Molybdenum The rising consumption of cobalt was paralleled and facilitated by a rapid increase in the output of the other "minor element" components of the new alloys. Tungsten, chromium (Cr), molybdenum - all of which had seen limited or no major use in the nineteenth century - now became of rapidly increasing strategic importance for the new technology, the new industries and the military. Tungsten, for example, used in the nineteenth century for little more than laboratory experiments, became, together with cobalt and chromium, the basis of the new hard, high-temperature alloys. Added to iron and steel it also improves high-temperature strength and hardness, and it has become one of the principal materials and

components for the manufacture of most modern high-speed machinery and weapons systems. Roughly 45% of the current world production of tungsten is used in the manufacture of special steels and alloys; another 40% is consumed in the production of tungsten carbide (the recent replacement for diamonds in many die and drilling operations) and most of the remain ing 15% is used in the electrical industry (eg for making car distributor points). Similarly, molybdenum, used for little more than a blue colouring for pottery, wool and silk in the nineteenth century, has found widespread use in the twentieth century: in the manufacture of corrosion-resistant alloys (where it is combined principally with nickel); in the pro­cessing of low-electrical-conductivity alloys (for lamps, valves, contact points) and, most importantly, as an addition to alloy steels, usually together with nickel and chromium. When added to steel, it has a similar effect to tungsten and is some­times substituted for tungsten in producing "high-speed" steels. Tungsten, copper, nickel and molybdenum alloys offer particularly good radiation shielding and have an expanding use in the nuclear industry as a reactor construction material. Without these critical materials, we would certainly not have either the capacity to produce or deliver nuclear weapons. As with nickel and cobalt, deposits of tungsten and moly­bdenum minerals have been found in Britain, mainly in Cornwall, the Lake District and Scotland, but until very recently problems involved in working the low-grade deposits have effectively prohibited their commercial exploration. As the recent large-scale wolfram development (and alas! aban­donment) at Hemerdon Ball near Plymouth has demonstrated, however, this situation may now be changing. If Britain sees a major revival of non-ferrous mining at the end of the twentieth century, it is just as likely to be based on the exploitation of these "new metals" as on the "old staples" of copper, tin and lead.

THE ELEMENTS AND MINERALS OCCURRING AS BY-PRODUCTS OF THE NON-FERROUS MINING INDUSTRY

Traditionally, the most important "minor" elements and minerals worked in this country were not the "rare metals" of twentieth-century "high tech" but the readily available jointly occurring by-products of the old non-ferrous staples, copper (Cu), tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Elements and minerals such as arsenic (As), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), barytes (BaS04)' and fluorspar (Ca F 2)' were part of the rising demand in the fate nineteenth century. Their increasing popularity occurred at the very time when falling copper, tin and lead prices were putting severe pressure on the mines' profits and every effort was made to maximise income from all quarters. These secondary minerals and "earths" provided something which the rare metals as yet did not - viz. readily established markets for large tonnages of easily obtained and cheaply prepared material. Their production provided some respite and temporary support for a desperately ailing industry and provided for the economy generally some of the new materials for the new technology of the mid and late nineteenth century. These were in many ways the "strategic elements and minerals" of their period and the second part of this paper will be devoted to an examination of their uses and development. As will be seen, some, such as arsenic, have dwindled into obscurity in the twentieth century while others, such as fluorspar and manganese ores, have continued to widen their uses and increase in importance so that they equate in current "strategic" significance with the most important of the modern rare metals.

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THE USES OF THE BY-PRODUCTS

Arsenic This element usually occurs in a sulphide (eg Arsenopyrite (FeAsS); Realgar (AsS) or Orpiment (As2S2)), or as an oxide decomposition product of such ores eg Arsenolite As20 3 and rarely occurs as a native metal. In Britain it was derived almost entirely from Devon and Cornwall, particularly from mining areas associated with copper, cobalt and iron. Until the mid­nineteenth century its uses were few and limited and pro­duction amounted to no more than a few hundred tons annually. It saw no employment in its pure metallic state but was sometimes used in alloys, particuarly in association with lead - being added to molten lead before it was used for the manufacture of fine shot. Its presence caused the lead to separate more easily into drops as it was poured down through a sieve from the top of the shot tower. It also had the effect of hardening the final product and in this respect it was competi­tive with another minor element, antimony (Sb) mainly derived from Stibnite, also called antimonite (Sb2S3), which was often added in similar proportions as an alternative hardener. Most commonly, however, arsenic was consumed in the form of arsenious acid, the "white arsenic" of common trade. This was produced by calcining the ore (usually mispickel, consisting of 43% arsenic: 30% iron and 21% sulphur), collecting the vapour in long flues (producing a crude crystallised product of 80-90% arsenic), and then resub­limating the crude crystals four times further in reverberatory furnaces, to collect a 99% pure product, again in long flues or chambers. This was ground to fine powder and packed in barrels. The resulting white arsenic found, and still finds, considerable use in the glass industry, being used to create a white opaque effect. It also found some slight similar use in the glazing of pottery and enamelling and the third quarter of the nineteenth century saw its growing employment in calico printing, where it was used as a mordant block, preventing certain parts of a cloth pattern from taking the mordant (and therefore the dye). However, the most important usage of white arsenic during the latter half of the nineteenth century (particularly after the 1870s) was its use as a poison or pesti­cide or insecticide. It had long been used as a dressing for trees, plants and the land to destroy pests, and even as a sheep­or fur-skin dip to discourage insects, and in the late part of the century it is said to have come into extensive demand by the cotton planters of the southern United States to protect their crop from the ravages of the boil weavil (and the potato growers, to discourage Colorado Beetle). By the end of the first decade of the twentieth century, however, this trade had fallen to less than 1,000 tons per annum and the industry returned to its old lower level, dependent on a primary industrial demand. One major use, which did continue un­diminished right through the 19th and 20th centuries, not­withstanding major criticism from contemporaries, was the use of arsen ious acid in the manufacture of dyes and pigments, particularly the notorious "Scheeles Green", (made by boiling white arsenic with copper sulphate) and used for colouring wallpaper, artificial flowers and cloth. Because of its highly volatile nature, it was easy for those that came into frequent contact with the materials so treated to acquire what could be lethal quantities of the poison. James Wylde (1891) in his compendious two-volume Industries of the World complained forcefully that "within the last few years, ladies' dresses have been sent out from the dye and print-house, covered with a material that ought to be an evidence of pre-meditated manslaughter - not to say murder - against those who have been the producers of such colours, or such materials". Significantly though, many still refused to believe the evidence and just a few years later no less an

authority than Robert Hunt (1875) in re-editing Andrew Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, had supported the view that, "Let blame be laid at the right door, and let the public be assured that it is not the looking on cheerful walls, the fingering of brightly ornamental books, nor the wearing of tastefully coloured clothing, that will hurt them, but the dwelling in ill-ventilated rooms'~ Perhaps Napoleon would have put him right. What Wellington and Waterloo failed to do, the wallpaper of the house in St. Helena certainly did.

Finally, and perhaps most interestingly, we might note some of the many miscellaneous uses to which arsenic was put -most of them with highly dangerous consequences. James Wylde (1891) referred to its uses as a cosmetic substance and to steep wheat, and he noted that, it was, "mixed with the food of horses to give sleekness of coat'~ Even more surpris­ingly he noted uses by humans; that in mountainous areas of Europe, "arsenic eating is just as prevalent as opium eating is in other countries. The effect on the system is that of giving a roundness or plump appearance to the skin, but more es­pecially it is said to prevent exhaustion and loss of wind in climbing steps, for which purpose it is thus most widely partaken of". Hunt (1875) noticed that arsenic workers showed a "tendency to stoutness" and claimed that he had been told by a certain Mr Kopp, that while he had been engaged in making experiments with arsenious acid he had increased in weight by more than 20lbs in ten weeks; which he had lost again when the experiments were over. Dewey (1920) referred to the use of arsenic in the preservation of vegetables in transit and Watson (1930) referred to its numerous med­icinal uses, including taking it internally to clear the com­plexion. Firework manufacturers often used red sulphuret of arsenic (realgar) and yellovv sulphuret for different colour effects and soap manufacturers produced a specialised arsenic soap for taxidermists.

Zinc As late as the 1890s James Wylde was able to write that "Although zinc has long been known, its general application for commercial, domestic and other purposes, is comparatively recent - so recent, in fact, that any of our readers who have entered the fourth decade of their lives will remember almost its earliest adoption in this country". The main reason for this long delay in the widespread exploitation of metallic zinc lay in the technical problems and high costs involved in its prep­aration from sphalerite (ZnS) and smithsonite (ZnC03) (known formerly as blende and calamine respectively) and the comparatively low cost of alternative metals, such as copper. In 1731, for example, metallic zinc was £260 per ton, while copper was less than a quarter of that: by the late 19th century, technical improvements had reduced the price of zinc to around £15 per ton (as common cakes of spelter); the quality of the product had been greatly improved; and new processes, for which zinc was particularly suitable, had been developed (ie in the generation and use of electrical power). We shall return to these late..:) 9th century developments later. For the moment we might note that from the late sixteenth century through to the early nineteenth century, almost the only significant commercial usage of zinc was in the form of its native ores, smithsonite (calamine) and sphalerite (blende), which were added direct to copper in the production of brass. Most of the calamine was produced as a by-product from the then thriving Mendip lead mining district and was shipped to Bristol and the neighbouring Avon valley, which was the centre of the British brass industry. From the late eighteenth century, blende production from North Wales and the Pennines also helped to establish new brass manufactures around Birmingham and Sheffield.

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The first preparation of metallic zinc was achieved in the early 18th century, using a distillation technique on the vapours given off by roasting the ore. The process was not dissimilar in principle from the method of preparing white arsenic. For many years this process was very expensive and produced a poor quality product which, although experimented with, was slow to find a major market. Thus Andrew Ure (1853) observed that "many years ago" Messrs Holman and Sylvester of Sheffield had produced laminated zinc plates (laminated to give strength and reduce brittleness), but "the low price of copper at that time, and its superior tenacity, rendered their patent ineffective". Nevertheless, he further noticed that during the last four years (the late 1840s) rapidly increasing imports of smelted zinc (spelter) from Germany and Belgium had caused a major reduction in prices and that now (the 1850s) zinc was "extensively employed" in making water cisterns, baths, spouts, pipes, plates, roof coverings (ie lead/ copper substitution), as well as finding new use in the manu­facture of early voltaic batteries. Some minor usage was also noticed in firework manufacture, the production of printing type and new alloys to be substituted for bronze in the casting of statues - the latter being a popular requirement of Victorian gardens and households.

By the end of the 19th century Wylde (1891) could report that the development of new processes for the hot rolling of metallic zinc sheet had greatly increased its quality and that "of recent years rolled zinc has come into extensive use for a great variety of purposes, especially in domestic life; it has largely replaced tinned iron and lead in the construction of all kinds of utensils, the lining of cisterns and the covering of roofs". It was also used to replace lead and iron in water pipes, probably greatly to the benefit of the nation's health. It had been tried, in its oxide form, as a base for paint (substituting for red and white lead) but had not enjoyed great success because of poor results. It had also found new alloying uses in the manufacture of gun metal, special bronzes, bath metal, pinchbeck, prince's metal and even common pewter. However, the most important "new" late nineteenth century use for zinc was in "galvanising" iron. In many respects galvanised corrugated iron became the "raw material of empire" from the late 19th century becoming the basic building material of tropical and sub-tropical colonies. Wylde (ibid) observed that, "The ordinary method of 'galvanising iron' to protect its surface from action of air and moisture, is only galvanic in name, but not in nature. It consists of coating the iron by immersion in melted zinc, and it is in this way that the gal­vanised iron of commerce is commercially produced". This method, while effective, had certain important drawbacks. Because the dipping took place at a fairly high temperature (800°C) the surface of the iron was softened and the zinc had the effect of soaking into the iron making it both very hard (resisting nailing) and brittle. It also made it greasy and slippery and prevented it from "taking hold", so seriously I imiting its use for the protection of nails. Wylde (ibid) con­tinued, however, that "several years ago, Messrs Elkington adopted the sulphate for deposition of zinc by voltaic current" (It will be remembered that zinc is the most "positive" of any of the ordinary metals and in an electric current will always readily transfer to a negative metal). Wylde (ibid) continued, "The solution they patented was composed of one or two pounds of the crystallised sulphate disolved in a gallon of water. The iron to be coated formed, of course, the cathode, and zinc the anode and one battery cell answers for effecting the deposition. By this method iron may be readily coated with zinc; and nails etc so prepared have not that slipperiness just stated". A slightly better product perhaps, but why

change from the already well tried and simple dipping method? Again Wylde (jbid) explained "Another advantage of this method (electrolysis) is that pure zinc is deposited. By the 'galvanising' (dipping) plan zinc loaded with impurities is communicated to the surface of the iron'~ Impurities within the zinc (eg iron, arsenic, lead) set up a voltaic effect with the zinc "veneer" on the iron sheet (they are negative to the zinc) and effectively destroy the zinc surface. They produce a perforation of holes in the zinc surface and let the weather through to the underlying iron, permitting attack by rusting (oxidisation). "It is, then, quite evident, that impure zinc, being itself valueless, cannot offord protection to any other metal". Wylde (ibid). So why use impure zinc in the dipping process? Metallic zinc is extemely difficult/expensive to produce - none of the common "zinc of commerce" was adequate to the purpose. Even if very expensive special puri· fied zinc was obtained, impurities would have been introduced during dipping. But in the electrolytic process even the im­purest zinc could be used and would produce a perfect coating of the iron, since only the zinc would be transferred to the cathode, leaving the impurities at the anode. So gradually, traditionally "dipped" galvanised iron gave way to more reliable and more readily marketable "galvanic" iron.

Manganese As with compounds of arsenic, zinc, barium and fluorine, the use of ores of manganese, derived principally from oxides such as pyrolusite (Mn02)' psilomelane (a hydrated oxide with Ba and K), or earthy wad, was limited until around the beginning of the last quarter of the nineteenth century. When it was used, it was very rarely as a pure metal but as an additive or compound to produce .other products. While it was the poisonous qualities of arsenic products that were the principal key to their increasing use and consumption, and the positive electrolytic properties of zinc that underpinned its growing employment, it was the great affinity of manganese for oxygen (ie its use as a "de-oxygenator") that was to unleash a rapidly expanding demand for that product through the late 19th and 20th centuries. These properties were already well known and understood a hundred years earlier, and from the 17805 a rapidly expanding demand for manganese for use in the preparation of chlorine, (for the manufacture of bleaching powder or chloride of lime for the rapidly developing textile industry) provided the foundations for a major increase in production, mainly from mines just to the west of Exeter in Devon, ie Newton St Cyres and further west, near the Teign and Tamar Valleys. During this period, the emergent chemical industry's demand was powerfully supported by the consumption of the glass manufacturers, who used a small additive of black manganese ore (eg pyro­lusite or wad) to correct the yellowy- green tint imparted to glass by the iron oxides present in the glass sand. Similarly it was used by the tile and brick industries to tint glazes. In 1853 Andrew Ure noticed that "of late years" sulphate of manganese had been introduced into calico printing to pro­duce chocolate/brown colours, and further that the pottery industry used small quantities of peroxide of manganese to produce black enamels. However, at this point, the whole style and level of manganese production was about to be revolution­ised by the discovery of important new applications in the iron and steel industry. The Bessemer process for the rapid and cheap conversion of iron into steel, which was developed from the late 1850s, was found to require manganese ores, usually added in the form of "spiegeleisen", to control the oxidisation process. In the Bessemer process, air was blown through molten iron to burn off impurities, such as carbon and sulphur, and the addition of manganese ores ensured that the final product was not over-oxygenated. The addition of manganese also helped to produce a final steel product that

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was of great hardness and tensile strength. With the vast tonnage of steel that soon began to be produced, the demand for manganese from this new sector soon outstripped the consumption of other industries and set the pace for the domestic mining industry. Mine production rocketed from the 1870s but failed to satisfy the sharply growing demand and imports increased rapidly. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the domestic sources of manganese ore had been exhausted and the country had already become entirely dependent for this highly "strategic" raw material (strategic in both a technological, economic and military sense) on large and ever increasing imports.

Barium Minerals These commonly occurred in the UK as a native sulphate of baryta, now called barite (BaSO 4) but otherwise known as cawk or heavy spar, and witherite (BaCO~) the carbonate of baryta_ There ores were the source of barium, first separated by Davy in 1807 but hardly used before the 20th century and still only in very small quantities in specialised alloys. Like many other minor minerals, they found their earliest and most common use in the form of native ore.

Until the mid-nineteenth century, the demand for barytes was very limited, its most extensive use being for the adulter­ation of white lead, used in the preparation of paints. Oc­casionally and fatally, especially where witherite was involved, it was also sometimes used for the adulteration of flour, its white colour and heavy weight greatly facilitating the fraud. However, by the end of the century its qualities were be­coming more fully and properly appreciated. Carruthers et ai, (1915), in the Geological Survey's Special Report on Barytes and Witherite wrote, just before the First World War, that, "The commercial uses of barytes are largely dependent on the fact that it is a heavy white metal, cheap and chemically inert. The market price depends not so much on purity as on colour, and the grades produced are arranged on that basis'~ The finest quality powder was used in the preparation of white paint, for wall paper, for "bleaching" flannel, shoddy cloth and Austrian flour, while inferior, rougher, darker grades were used in the manufacture of lithopone, an increasingly popular type of paint, composed of a variable mixture of zinc oxides, carbonates and sulphides plus barium sulphate and sometimes used in the manufacture of white rubber. It was also becoming increasingly important as a filler in the rapidly developing asbestos industry, and abroad (eg the USA) it was employed for making "artificial ivory", fertilizers, boiler compounds, insecticides, peroxides of hydrogen and "artificial driftwood salts".

It is interesting that in the preparation and marketing of barite, British mines and manufacturers of the late 19th century displayed the same lack of enterprise and efficiency commonly complained of today. The production of the best quality barite (ie the finest ground the purest white) depended not so much on the quality of the basic input of ore as the method and degree of its preparation. The grinding of ore was usually conducted with "French Buhr" stones; British pro­ducers usually passing the barite through them two or three times to produce a basic product. German producers, however, sent their ore between as many as 11 sets of stones, producing a far superior product, marketable at a higher price and more than competitive with the British product, even in the UK market. That market was accordingly lost to the Germans, with rapidly rising imports growing faster than domestic production during the years preceeding the First World War. In 1914, 100,000 tons of barite were used in the UK, mainly for paint production. Of this total 34% was imported from Germany, and 48"'{' was home produced. The export of barite

from Germany was facilitated by the close proximity of their producers to the Rhine, which minimised transport costs. Their product and prices were so good that they even suc· ceeded in capturing the USA market, notwithstanding its abundant local supplies and high $1.50 per ton tariff on imports. This dependence on German suppliers created problems for the UK and the USA during the First World War. The British producers were left with the smaller, poorer quality end of the market and, interestingly and significantly, a small export trade in low-quality spar to Belgium. This was to help supply the Belgium lithopone industry. Lithopone was a British invention, which we had failed to develop and which had become established instead in the country of one of our major international competitors! To compound our folly, we, of course, imported the product, to the detriment of our balance of payments. Before leaving barium compounds, brief mention must be made of witherite. From the beginning of the 20th century this became a source from which a wide range of barium-based products were obtained. The chemical industry purchased the ore in "crude lumps" and converted it into barium oxide, peroxide, chloride, nitrate and other salts, all of which found various uses in other processes of chemical manufacture (eg the commercial production of oxygen by Brin's process). Witherite was even converted into barium sulphate (ie barite producing a quality of product superior to that of even the best German imports. Sold as "blanc-fixe", this was and still is, extensively employed as a filler in the manufacture of polished white paper, playing cards, the treatment of wallpaper, and the coating of linoleum and oil cloths. Today it is similarly used in the production of plastic products and resins. Small quantites were also used for glazing pottery, enamelling iron and steel, the glass industry and as a flux in brass manufacture. Today in addition to these well established uses, barium sulphate is extensively employed as a thixotropic mud for deep oil drilling. That demand alone was sufficient to see the recent re-opening and working of long-abandoned mines in the northern Pennines.

Fluorite (CaF2) Known originally as fluorspar, this is a naturally occurring fluoride of calcium. Like all of the other minor minerals, it was little heard of before the late nineteenth century when new technological development created entirely new uses and a rapidly expanding demand. Although used for ornamen­tation and even jewellery from Roman times, the first commercial production of fluorspar in the UK in modern times was undertaken in Derbyshire from about 1775 with the now famous Blue John mine being opened to produce blue­tinted fluorspar for manufacture into small figurines, goblets etc. By the mid·nineteenth century it was also being worked in a small way in Cornwall, from where it was shipped for use as a flux in the reduction of copper ore, and other metallurgical processes. In glass making, too, it was adopted as one of several fluxing materials. In every case, the principal purpose of the flux was to reduce the viscosity of the melts, to make them more fluid at lower temperatures. It was this area of demand, rather than the exploitation of fluorspar's aesthetic qualities, which was to underpin its future large-scale exploi­tation. What the development of the Bessemer process did for manganese production in the 1850s and 1860s (see above), the introduction of the basic open-hearth process of steel pro­duction did for fluorspar .production from the late 1890s. Production, mainly from Derbyshire and the northern Pennines, began to rocket, reaching over 60,000 tons a year within just ten years and British mines supplied both domestic and a large part of US demand.

Carruthers (1915) listed the USI:!S of fluorite, in order of importance as follows:

124

1. Iron and steel manufacture (a) Blast and basic open hearth furnaces; (b) I ron foundries.

2. Glass making (especially opalescent glass), production of enamel and sanitary ware manufacture of hydrofluoric acid and other chemicals.

3. Brass foundries - and flux for smelting, lead/copper silver.

4. Electrolytic refining of antimony and lead: extracting aluminium from bauxite, smelting gold ores.

5. An additive to Portland cement (mainly in the US and Europe) and as a binding component in carbon electrodes or emery wheels.

6. Ornamental purposes (Blue John).

7. Microscope lenses - a very small demand for the finest quality material.

I n other words, apart from a few specialised uses in glass manufacture, cement and ornaments, the consumption of fluorspar was almost entirely a metallurgical one; it was fundamental to the preparation of nearly all major ferrous and non-ferrous minerals. Since this period, however im­portant changes have occurred and developments in the chemical industry have evolved important new uses for fluoride-based compounds. Although metallurgical uses remained dominant, all sorts of new products began to make competing demands. From the 1930s, hydrocarbons con­taining fluorine began to be produced in rapidly increasing quantites for use in refrigerators and air-conditioning systems. It became an important constituent in the production of high octane aviation fuel - a rocket propellent, a toothpaste additive, a water additive and a constituent of non-stick frying pans and razor blades; a basic constituent of the modern world and our way of life and health. Chlorofluorocarbons were evolved as a propellent for aerosols, achieving widespread use in the post Second World War world and uranium hexafluoride became a key factor in the economic production of nuclear energy. From an ornamental material it has come in less than a hundred years to be a major threat to the future existence of the world. whether through destruction of the ozone layer or the China syndrome - not a bad testament to the achieve­ments of modern science.

REFERENCES

Carruthers, R.G., Eastwood, T., Wilson, G.V. & Wray, D.A., 1915. Barytes and Witherite. Special Reports on the Mineral Resources of G.B. Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vol. Ill, Great Britain, London, HMSO.

Davies, D.e., 1892 Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and Mining. London.

Dewey, H., 1920. Arsenic and Antimony Ores. Special Reports on the Mineral Resources of G.B. Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vol. XV, HMSO.

Hunt, R., (ed.) 1875. Ure's Dictionary of Arts Manufactures and Mines. London.

Knight, 1851. Knight's Cyclopedia of Manufactures, Machinery, Science and Art. 2 vols., London.

Ure, A., 1853. A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. 2 vols,. London.

Watson, E., 1930. The Principal Articles of Chinese Commerce. Shanghai.

Wylde, J., 1891. The Industries of the World. 2 vols., London.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FURTHER READING

Anon. 1982. McGraw-HiII Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (5th edition). New York, McGraw-Hill.

Daumas, M. (ed.) 1980. A History of Technology and Invention. London.

Various authors and dates. Special Reports on the Mineral Resources of Great Britain. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.

GEOLOGICAL QUOTE

Which distinguished and influential savant said "But oh those dreadful geological hammers!", thus highlighting the moral and spiritual dilemmas which he experienced from following his favourite pastime (geology) on the one hand and his religious beliefs on the other?

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Ladoo, R.B. & Myers, W.M., 1951. Nonmetallic Minerals and Mining_ London, McGraw-Hill.

Voskuil, W.H., 1930. Minerals in Modern Industry. New York,. John Wiley.

Voskuil, W.H., 1955. Minerals in World Industry. London, McGraw-Hill.

De Mille, J.B. 1947. Strategic Minerals London, McGraw-Hill.

Alexander, W. & Street, A., 1964 Metals in the Service of Man. Harmondsworth, Penguin.

Dr Roger Burt, Department of Economic History, University of Exeter, Amory Building, Rennes Drive, Exeter EX4 4RJ.

Submitted by: A. David Leather, Geology Department, Salt Grammar School, Coach Road, Baildon, Shipley, West Yorkshire BD 17 5RH.

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GEOLOGICAL ,

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THE FUTURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN THE SIXTH FORM

Introduction

The reader may be forgiven for thinking this is a strange title for an article in a geology teachers' journal. However, con­sider the following two examination questions taken from recent advanced level papers:

1. Give an account of wave action on an irregular coast under the following headings: (a) processes of erosion; (b) depositional features; (c) long-term modification of the coastline. Give examples where possible.

2. Naming examples, describe and account for the geo­morphological features produced under periglacial conditions.

Surprisingly, these two questions are taken from geology A-Ievel~papers, June 1978 and 1979 respectively, of the University of London Examinations Board. The similarity to questions taken from geography examinations is obvious. At the time as these two examinations were set, this writer faced a considerable dilemma in teaching A-level geology courses. With such distinctly geomorphological questions appearing on the examination paper, how much time should be spent on what seemed like physical geography, given that to do it justice would take well over a term's teaching? The problem was compounded by the fact that many geology A-level students also take geography A-level (see Thompson 1983), so that reteaching geomorphology to them would be point­less. At the same time, however, it would be necessary to teach these topics to the non-geographers in the group. In any case, geomorphology in a geology context should surely have been taught from a "uniformitarian" approach, or, at the very least, from an examination of depositional environ­ments. This emphasis does exist in some syllabuses (e.g. JMB's) and to some extent in the London syllabus though/as can be seen, it is not evident in some of the questions.

The previous paragraph was written in the past tense. What then has changed the situation so that it is less of a problem? Certainly not the A-level geology syllabuses and examin­ations, as will be discussed later. In fact it is geography that has changed, so that the overlap no longer exists in some schools.

The changing nature of physical geography at Advanced Level

In September 1980, the Schools Council Geography 16-19 Project began its first pilot A-level course in about 40 schools and colleges. This course has a fundamentally different approach to the subject from other A-level geography courses and, in the context of this discussion, from the approach to and content of physical geography. For teachers of geology not familiar with the course a brief description follows.

The syllabus structure is shown in Table 1. A total of nine modules must be studied: the six core modules plus three option modules. Option modules may be chosen from any of the four themes, even to the extent that all three may come from one theme. More usually, teachers have chosen from different themes.

127

Clearly, in this syllabus the total component which can be identified as physical geography is much reduced. Even in those modules where it is studied, the emphasis lies on human interaction with the system rather than the process­form approach that has been traditionally adopted. It is also worth noting that even in the module "Managing Landform Systems" the syllabus specifies only coasts and rivers as being the landform systems to be studied. The question thus arises, which subject will offer the study of the more traditional aspects of physical geography to the sixth former? Is there any educational justification for them being taught at all?

This whole area of overlap between geology and geography is an interesting one. It has long been debated in higher edu­cation and in the pages of the Association's journals (Bradshaw 1972, Brown 1976, Thompson 1980). In American universities, geomorphology on the whole is studied in geology departments (Leighley 1955, Marcus 1979). There has been discussion in this country about a similar structure (Worsley 1979). This is not the place to discuss whether this is desirable: the debate on this issue is very lively as the replies to Worsley's paper showed (Doornkamp 1979 and Sugden 1979). The situation at sixth-form level is different. As already discussed, there is a variable but considerable overlap between geology and traditional geography syllabuses (Wilson, P.A. 1973). At the same time, by far the largest group of candidates entering A-level geology also enter for geography (Thompson 1983). The Geography 16-19 Project has been open to all centres from September 1984 and it is probable that its influence on schools and colleges will thus increase. Its effect on schools taking up the course will be to considerably reduce the overlap, and will even leave a vacuum in some areas of earth science.

The possibility of an earth­science syllabus

Can geology fill this vacuum? Should it? As the examination questions have shown, the University of London Examina­tions Board has been doing it for some time. Ironically this will probably have been done through geography teachers themselves since they form a very large proportion of A-level geology teachers (Clulow 1977). It is only geomorphology that comes within this overlap at the moment, but a more radical idea would be to include pedology, oceanography and meteorology. Perhaps though a title "earth science" might be more appropriate than geology, but it is recognised that such changes engender other problems.

This suggestion of including pedology, oceanography and meteorology in the curriculum has probably had some readers reaching for their pens to reply to this paper. How­ever, elements of some or all of these disciplines already appear in various A-level and O-Ievel and C.S.E. geology syllabuses. In fact the reason this article was first penned was in response to the new geology A-level proposals of the University of London Examinations Board (November 1983). This new syllabus, for examination in and after June 1987, includes "A brief survey of major climatic regions of the world in relation to atmospheric circulation and continental distributions". In addition, almost a whole page of the syllabus is taken up with a section on surface processes which compares closely with the process-form approach used in traditional A-level geography syllabuses.

The new London proposals have been written largely as a result of the "Statement of Agreed Common Cores in Geology" (G.C.E. Boards' Joint Committee 1983) which required the London Board to incorporate such a section in

the syllabus. The result though has been to add to part of the syllabus without a compensatory omission elsewhere: a phenomenon not new to many geography teachers who experienced A·level syllabus revisions during the 1970s. Clearly, the more radical proposals discussed above could extend geology syllabuses even further, and this needs to be guarded against. What is really needed is a complete re·think of the approach and content of a geology or earth·science A·level.

At school level geology occupies an uneasy position between the accepted sciences and geography (see Brown 1984). It is a science, but one that is often taught by teachers trained to teach geography; a subject that, in my opinion, has its own science/social science identity crisis. In Hampshire LEA, for a while, responsibility for geology was shared between the Science and Humanities advisers, a situation that is not untypical. The Nuffield approach to the traditional sciences attempted to radically alter the way these subjects are taught. Various integrated science projects include geology (eg. SCISP, Nuffield Secondary Science) and show how enquiry·based learning can be applied to the subject. Geo­graphy, too, has had its approach and content radically altered through three Schools Council projects: the 14-18 Project, the Geography for the Young School Leaver Project (G.Y.S.L.) and now the 16-19 Project.

What of Geology as an individual 0- and A-level subject? The introduction of investigative approaches seems to have been left largely to the imagination of the teacher, aided perhaps by material in Shopf/oor in this journal, but frequently against the practices encouraged by examinations and sylla­buses. It is argued here that in view of recent developments, it is time for a reappraisal of both the approach and content of the subject area at school level. The Agreed Common Cores in Geology (G.C.E. Boards Joint Committee 1983) has necessitated the revision of some A-level syllabuses, but the Schools' Council Geography 16-19 Project and the London Board's proposals really suggest we should be looking at the whole field of the Earth Sciences instead of just tinkering with current syllabuses.

Alternatives for the future A number of possibilities arise from the preceding comments:

1. Develop an earth-science syllabus that complements geology i.e. providing another course for students to follow, should they so wish. Traditional sections of physical geography which occur within geography syllabuses could be argued to do this already.

2. Revise geology syllabuses to include earth science, but remove a compensatory amount of what is normally included in geology.

3. Produce a new earth-science syllabus that is offered as an alternative to geology.

The first suggestion would be a difficult one to devise. This article began by noting the overlap that already exists bet­ween geology and physical geography, which occurs because the boundary is impossible to define.

The second suggestion is virtually what has happened anyway in the London Board's case, except that only some earth science has been added with nothing removed. Such syllabus revisions are always beset with problems, as everyone argues for what they think is fundamental, with the consequence that a syllabus rapidly becomes overloaded.

128

The main problem with many syllabus revisions is that they look at the issue from the point of view of content only. The study of geology is still a struggle for many pupils because it is tied to a unique, seemingly illogical terminology that must be learned before further progress is made.

Too little attention is still paid in some Board's syllabuses and in many school's schemes of work to what skills, con­cepts and values the pupils are learning from following an A-level geology course. For this reason alone, in my opinion, a new earth-science curriculum is required.

The Schools Council Geography 16-19 Project has the potential to totally alter the approach to geography in this age group. It has started to do so by re-assessing the nature of the subject and considering what the modern sixth-former requires. Nevertheless, it has still managed to conform to the "Common Core Aims for Advanced Level Geography" (G.C.E. Boards Joint Committee 1983). This point should allay fears that an earth-science syllabus would have no currency for university entrance. At the same time the 16-19 Project has been influential in drawing up teaching strategies for Certificate of Pre-Vocational Education (see Schools Council 1981 and 1982), so has been made relevant to the whole ability range in the 16-19 age group. Of course there are differences between the situation in geography when the 16-19 Project started and that in geology today. Indeed education itself has changed. Nevertheless compari­sons must be made.

In this journal some years ago, Geoffrey Brown (1976) considered the future of geology as a sixth-form subject. He then asked if geology in the future would be "content with its status as the handmaiden of geography and other subjects?" Since then, the demands made of school subjects and the background and needs of the sixth-former have con­tinued to change. Has the geology offered by the boards adapted enough to these changes?

Table 1. Geography 16-19 Project Themes and Modules

THEME 1 THE CHALLENGE OF NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS

Core Modules Managing Landform Systems Ecosystems and Human Activity

Option Modules Climatic change and uncertainty Response to difficult environments Natural hazards Pollution of natural environments The geological challenge

THEME 2 USE AND MISUSE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Core Modules The Energy Question

Option Modules Water resource management Minerals as a resource Land as a resource Soils and the future Managing woodland and forest Potential of seas and oceans

THEME 3 ISSUES OF GLOBAL CONCERN

Core Modules The Challenge of Urbinisation

Option Modules Global limits to growth Feeding the World's population Environments and political systems Migrations of people Alternative approaches to development The Communications revolution

THEME 4 MANAGING HUMAN ENVIRONMENTS

Core Modules Impact of Manufacturing Industry Changing Agricultural Systems

Option Modules Changing tertiary activities Demand for recreation and leisure Regional disparities Changing Urban Environments Rural management Policy, planning and the environment Mobility and the environment

References

Bradshaw, M.J. 1972. Earth Science in the Sixth Form? Geology 4, pP. 42-45. Brown, G. 1976. The Development of Geology as a Sixth Form Subject. Geology Teaching 1(1), pp. 7-13. Brown, G. 1984. Geology in crisis in Schools. Geology Teaching 9(1), 9-19. Clulow, W.J. 1977. A.T.G. Survey of Teachers Report Part 1. Geology Teaching 4(2), pp. 185-188. Doornkamp, J.C. 1979. Discussion paper to "Whither Geo­morphology" (see Worsley 1979) Area 11 (4), pp. 307-309.

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129

G.C.E. Boards Joint Committee. 1983. Common Core Aims for Advanced Level. The G.C.E. Examining Boards of England and Wales, Autumn 1983. Available from individual examin­ation boards. Leighley, J. 1955. What's happened to physical geography?,

Annals of the Association of American Geographers 45, pp. 309-318. Marcus, M.G. 1979. Coming full circle: physical geography in the twentieth century. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 69, pp. 521-523. Schools Council. 1981. Geography and Pre-Employment Courses in the Sixth Form. Geography 16-19 Project. Schools Council. 1982. The Geographical Component of 17+ Pre-Employment Courses. Geography 16-19 Project. Schools Council. 1983. New Opportunities for the 16-19 Curriculum. Dissemination leaflet for the Geography 16-19 Project.

[All the above three are available from the Schools Council Geography 16-19 Project, University of London Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, London WCl H OAL.] Sugden, D.E. 1979. Discussion paper to "Whither Geo­morphology?" (see Worsley 1979), Area 14(4), pp. 309-312. Thompson, D.B. 1980. Earth Science or Geological Science in the Curriculum. (Editorial) Geology Teaching 5(4) pp. 147-148. Thompson, D.B. 1983. The Implications of the Subject Combinations which are studied by Advanced Level Candi­dates. Geology Teaching 8(2), pp. 49-57. University of London. 1983. Proposed new syllabus in Geo­logy at the Advanced Level for examination in and after June 1987, University of London School Examinations Department. Wilson, P.A. 1973. Concept attainment in physical geology - some ideas for syllabus construction and assessment. Geo­logy 5,42-51. Worsley, P. 1979. "Whither Geomorphology", Area 11 (2), pp. 97-101.

Adrian Cook, Itch en College, Bitterne, Southampton S09 3AX.

MEMBERSHIP LISTS

Since details about A TG Membersh ip are now stored on computer files, a complete membership list and an address­label service are available.

Council has decided that Membership Lists and address labels may be sold for use by academic and commercial concerns. Information thus disseminated may prove to be very useful to the Association and, indirectly, to members. It appears that worthwhile profit can be made by so doing. Applications to purchase lists or labels will be critically examined by one or more Senior Officers and conditions imposed upon use where necessary. Will any members who do NOT wish to receive such material please inform the Secretary so that their names can be deleted from lists prior to despatch.

Two lists are being kept by the Secretary so that members may search or research names of members, for various purposes, for example in order to start a Local Group. Postage of a list is about £1.50 at 1984 prices.

M.J.C.

ANSWER TO GEOLOGICAL QUOTE

"But oh those dreadful geological hammers!" This was uttered by John Ruskin. The context of the quote was explained in a BBC radio 4 programme entitled "Ruskin at Brantwood" in June 1984.

PATTERNS OF ENTRY TO GCE ADVANCED LEVEL GEOLOGY EXAMINATIONS OF THE JOINT MATRICULATION BOARD. 1973 and 1982

In this short article, Gerry Forrest (Director of Research at JMB), analyses the trends of subject-entry combinations which involve Geology at Advanced Level of the GCE. When scrutinising such figures, bear in mind that JMB receive roughly a quarter of all entries in the United Kingdom at this level, and that this board's figures are likely to constitute a very representative sample of the picture which pertains elsewhere in the country. The article reflects a long-standing and gratifying interest which the author has shown in our affairs which has been expressed through his considerable participation in the meetings of the Geology Subject Commit­tee of JMB over many years. ATG·is grateful that such interest extends to writing articles of this nature, which help to fulfil an important aim of ATG: to keep members well informed on all aspects of our educational scene.

INTRODUCTION

The first published statistics for England and Wales relating to the GCE Advanced level examination appeared in 1951, the year which saw the start of GCE. In that year and in every year since figures have been given for geology entrants by gender and in total. Over the years many changes have been made to the way in which the statistical information has been presented and in general the more recent years include more detailed information than the earlier years. The Department of Education and Science classifies Advanced level subjects into three categories: Arts, Social Sciences and Science and although some information is now given in the published statistics about the numbers of school leavers with qualifi­cations in these categories, no data are produced about the combinations of Advanced level subjects offered by candi­dates.

JMB ANALYSES OF ADVANCED LEVEL COMBINATIONS Since 1973 the Research Unit at the Joint Matriculation Board has made available each year detailed figures which show the combinations of Advanced level subjects offered by candidates. Details are given for male and female candidates separately as well as for all candidates. In addition to combi­nations specified by individual subjects, combinations are classified in the same way as that adopted by the DES. General Studies occupies a dominant position in JMB examination statistics because of its popularity as an Advanced level subject: in 1982, over 37,000 candidates offered this subject compared with less than 16,000 in Physics, English Literature and Chemistry and about 13,000 in Mathematics or Biology. In the DES classification General Studies is placed in the Social Studies category. The JMB analyses of subject combi­nations at Advanced level are completed using the DES cat-

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egories but General Studies is excluded from the Social Science category_ The combinations reported, however, are given separately for candidates offering General Studies and for those not offering this subject. Little public use appears to have been made of the JMB analyses and, apart from the article by Thompson (1983), no use has been made of the data involving Geology. 1973 ENTRIES COMPARED WITH 1982 ENTRIES

Thompson's article gives a complete picture of the entry patterns of candidates offering Geology in 1980 and 1981. The data which follow compare the patterns after a period of ten years. In the period 1973 to 1982 Advanced level entries to JMB examinations rose by 39.1 per cent to 67,381. In the same period entries for Geology rose by 44.1 per cent. Thus it may be noted that., although compared with many Advanced level subjects Geology is not a large entry subject, entries more than matched the general rise in candidate entry. In common with most science subjects, the majority of Geology candidates are male. The general trend for female candidates to show an increasing proportionis, however, to be noted in the period under review in respect of Geology: between 1973 and 1982, the number of female candidates entered for Geology (Advanced) increased by just over 3 per centre to 27.7 per cent. Between 1973 and 1982 considerable change occurred in the proportions of candidates offering Geology with different numbers of other Advanced level subjects as the figures given below indicate: Percentages of candidates offering

Geology alone GeolOgy with one other subject Geology with two other subjects Geology with three other subjects Geology with four other subjects

1973

8.0 17.3 42.1 32.1

0.5

1982

11.4 20.6 .31.8 35.4

0.8

100.0 100.0

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The most striking change in the above figures is the marked reduction in the proportion offering two other subjects with Geology which is not compensated, as one would expect from the growth of G~neral Studies entries, by increases in the percentages of candidates offering Geology with three or more subjects. The figures show however a drift towards Geology offered alone or with one other subject only.

From-the analyses available for the years 1973 and 1982 of the other subjects with which Geology is offered, two trends are apparent: an increase in the frequency with which General Studies is included in candidates' choices (from 37 per cent in 1973 to 50 per cent in 1982) and a clear shift away from the Arts and Social Science subjects as the figures below show:

Percentage of candidates offering at least

one Arts subject one Social Science subject one Science (including Mathematics) subject

1973

24 63 43

1982

16 45 50

(These figures do not sum to 100 because some combinations include subjects from more than one category).

In addition the change reported above in the frequency with which General Studies was included by Geology candidates in their Advanced level choices, other changes occurred in the per­centages of candidates entered for the following major subjects:

1973 1982

Geography 60.0 39.5 Biology 18.8 20.2 Chemistry 13.2 16.6 Physics 10.8 13.5 English Literature 10.8 6.1 Mathematics 10.3 17.0

That the shift to Science subjects is more widespread than the above figures for the major subjects indicate may be judged by the fact that in 197322.00 per cent of candidates offered Science subjects only (with or without General Studies) com­pared with 32.8 per cent in 1982. The dramatic fall in the percentage offering Geography with Geology should be noted.

The most popular combinations of specific subjects are listed . below together with the appropriate percentages for 1973

and 1982. It may be seen that Geography appears in each of the four combinations showing a decrease:

Percentage of candidates offering 1973 1982 Geology with

Geography 9.5 7.7 General Studies and Geography 5.9 6.3 Geography and Economics 5.0 1.2 Geography and Biology 4.9 2.5 General Studies, Geography and

English Literature 3.9 1.6 General Studies, Mathematics and Physics 3.1 3.7 General Studies, Chemistry and Biology 3.0 3.5 General Studies, Geography and Biology 3.0 3.9 General Studiies, Geography and Economics 3.0 3.9

One of the by-products of the JMB subject pairs analysis programme undertak~n each year (Forrest and Vickerman, 1982) is the correlation coefficient (product-moment)

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between grades in pairs of subjects offered by the same candi­dates. In general terms the highest coefficients are found between different languages (classical and modern) and between the sciences and the mathematical subjects; these coefficients are in the range +0.6 and +0.8. In 1982, as in other years, coefficients involving Geology are not as high as this range. The following details relate to all subjects paired with Geology where there are 50 or more candidates:

Number Coef-ficient

General Studies 725 .45 English Literature 82 .31 History Syllabus A 81 .39 Geography Syllabus B, Practical

examination candidates 181 .57 Geography Syllabus B, Internal

assessment candidates 304 .54 Economics 123 .47 Mathematics Syllabus A 128 .54 Pure Mathematics with Statistics 57 .46 Physics, Practical examination

candidates (Option A) 113 .57 Chemistry Syllabus B, Practical

examination candidates 106 .48 Chemistry Syllabus B, Internal

assessment candidates 74 .50 Biology 288 .60

The numbers of candidates in pairs must be seen in relation to the total number of Geology candidates in 1982 which was 1373. Although the actual range of the above coefficients is small, it should be noted that the lowest correlation coef­ficients tend to involve non-science subjects.

SUMMARY 1. The entry for JMB Geology at GCE Advanced level has

increased at a greater rate than JMB entries as a whole in the period 1973-82. Although the proportion of candi­dates who are female has increased, three out of four candidates are male.

2. The proportion of candidates offering Geology with two or more other JMB Advanced level subjects has decreased, in spite of the continuing increase (both absolutely and proportionally) in the number of candidates offering General Studies.

3. Analyses of the combinations of Advanced level subjects offered with Geology show that there has been a move towards Science subjects at the expense of both Arts and Social Science subjects. Whereas 60.0 per cent of 1973 candidates offered Geography, less than 40.0 per cent of the 1982 candidates did so. The percentage of candidates offering each of the Sciences increased with the largest increase being shown for Mathematics.

4. Correlation coefficients in 1982 between grades in Geology and grades in other subjects were moderately high, being highest with the other Sciences.

REFERENCES Forrest, G.M. and Vickerman, C. 1982. Standards in GCE: subject pairs comparisons, 1972-80. Occasional Publication 39. Manchester, Joint Matriculation Board.

Thompson, D.B. 1983. The implications of the subject combi­nations which are studied by Advanced level candidates. Geology Teaching 8(2), 49-57.

G.M. Forrest, Director of Research, Research Unit, Joint Matriculation Board, Manchester M15 6EU.

GEOLOGY AND THE GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT (an alternative viewpoint)

Dear Mr President, I believe that the ATG has alienated many of its members over recent years with its attitude towards geographer/geologists. Comments made at Open Forum at A TG conferences including that at Leicester have been derisive of the geography-geology relationship.

Members who have introduced geology into our schools from a geographical base are offended by these attitudes. Quite rightly Council have pursued the line that geology is a science, and there is no argument over this viewpoint. I do, however, regard the outlook of some council members to be an example of 'tunnel monocular vision', so fixed are they on their science goal as to blind themselves to other possibilities. Let us seize any opportunity to promote the teaching of geology in schools irrespective of its label. There are many ATG members who teach Geology by 'cour­tesy' of Geography departments. Many of the teachers at the inaugural meeting that formed ATG at Keele in 1969 were geographers. Several of us, including Jack Thomas, a former president, had met previously at a course 'Geology for Geo­graphers' at Oxford University. The number of geographer/ geologists at conferences has decreased, partly in my view as a result of the alien attitudes, yet they still form a significant number. A large number of those geology teachers whom I meet locally and at examiners~meetings are still based within geography departments. I introduced geology into my school in 1960 and have taught it since then with in the geography department.· I have sent a regular supply of students to University to study geology. The main source of my candidates are not from those who study the sciences but from those who study geography. We have a geology-chemistry teacher at the school trapped in science and unable to practise his geological craft. In general, I find that the science teachers are not able, or willing, to see the relevance of geology to their subjects whilst geography teachers welcome the extension of their studies. There is universal dislike by the science teachers of 'general science', 'integrated science' in favour of chemistry, physics and biology. Lip service is paid to the inclusion of geology as a science, but the self-preservation of the individual sciences to science teachers is stronger than any higher educational ideal. At my school we are afraid that geology will fall by the way in this struggle for separate identity. Our geographers see geology as enhancing, not threatening, their slot in the timetable. My instinct, however, is to survive; if to do this geology remains associated with geography at school level, then let us be thankful. All I ask is for Council of ATG to develop a wider binocular vision and to realise all the possibilities. If geology in any school happened to develop allied to geography, it should be encouraged not mourned. This will not detract from the 'scientific' nature of geology at higher levels. I despair in some cases. In spite of widespread support and appreciation of my views, as expressed at Open Forum in Leicester, there was one council member with very restricted vision. After first apolo­gising for the fact that he was foremost not a geologist but a chemist he reiterated the same prejudiced views that are leading to a decline in our influence, and made no attempt to see a wider viewpoint. This means us pressing for the inclusion of a higher geological content in the physical geography taught in schools. Physical geographers feeling the threat from the

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'human' side of the subject will welcome this support. With integrated 'science' disliked by schools and employers alike, an inclusion of geology in the geography syllabus in the first three years of secondary education would form an additional and profitable approach.

If geology is to survive and even thrive as a school subject, perhaps we in ATG should re-examine our strategy. In many schools such as mine geology was started by enlightened physical geographers (actually geomorphologists). The most scientific of the current '0' level syllabuses, that of the Oxford board, has lost 50"10 of its entry largely as a result of this change. In spite of the comments to the contrary by the chief examiners in their reports, I can quote the names of schools that still continue to teach geology but have changed to boards with more realistic syllabuses. ATG members advised the Oxford Board on the content of their revised syllabus. The main object of ATG should be to foster and develop the teaching of geology in schools. It should not get too involved in the unproductive integrated-science rhetoric to the exclusion of this objective. Let us have binocular vision from Council for following any avenue which will further the teaching of geology. The question of status is no longer relevant if the subject dies out as a school subject. Let me appeal to fellow geologists/geographers to attend the Lampeter conference in 1985, for there are to be some field trips that are actually planned to include a geomorphological content. I can assure you that many of the lectures at the Leicester conference 1984 on the Himalayas, the Andes and the Grand Canyon had a high geomorphological content. As a geologist-geographer I still find much to interest and stimulate me at ATGs conferences every year, and I hope that many more people would feel induced to join me.

Peter Tattersall * I regard myself

as a scientist. I have a BSc General degree in Chemistry/Pure Maths/Geography, and a BSc Honours degrees in Geography with ancillary Geology. When asked "what I am", I say a "geologist" a claim I make with humility.

THE FUTURE FOR GEOLOGY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

John Fisher writes a response to Peter Tattersall's letter at the invitation of Council.

At this critical time when education is, once more, on the brink of fundamental change, it is unfortunate that some geology teachers are feeling uncertain about the best way to promote their subject during the current debate. It is clear that geology as a separate subject is under considerable threat in many institutions due to a number of factors. In some schools falling rolls have resulted in unviable examination groups, especially where new subjects are presenting alterna­tive options at fourth- and fifth-form level. If the specisalist teacher of a 'non-essential', minority subject, resigns his/her post, then he or she is not likely to be replaced. Geology is not recognised as a core subject and is thus very vulnerable to any cuts which are forced upon the system, with the result that it has been lost from the curriculum of scores of schools during the past few years.

Geology teaching has been carried out by the geography departments of many schools during the past 50 years because geography teachers have recognised that it is through geology, climatology etc. that we gain an understanding about where people live and how they feed and support themselves and a study of geology is fundamental to geography. However in

that role, a study of aspects of geology only provides a service or a background understanding; the content is a means to an end and not an end in itself. In such an ancillary subject area the teaching methodology usually takes pupils from descriptions of geological phenomena or materials (which they may be fortunate enough to record for themselves from first·hand experience) to interpretation or conclusion without regard for the process by which the interpretations are made. Usually pupils are either given a set of conclusions based on observation or they are provided with a key by which they can mechanically process their results; it is this kind of exercise which short-circuits the activity called science. This type of non-scientific, descriptive geology will clearly have an import­ant service function for geography courses in the future. However, as the basis for an examination subject which claims to be a science, it is very unsatisfactory and contributes much to the widespread, negative perceptions of its worth as a qualification and a vehicle for an education through science. Since the mid-sixties geology has had the unifying paradigm of Plate Tectonics which has provided global concepts and a theoretical structure which gives a broad and general under­standing. The adoption of this sound theoretical base shifted the working methods of geologists from the empirical­inductive to the hypothetico-deductive; a shift which resulted in geology being more closely identified with other core sciences. Thus, as a multidisciplinary science, its learning and teach ing can only reasonably be carried out through a wider science education and as part of it. Geology has claims there­fore to be a constituent of the core-science curriculum, where­in not only would the subject be secure but it would be available to all pupils as part of a rational, balanced science education. New teaching schemes are already being devised which conform to the priorities and criteria which arise from the notion of the Core Curriu lum, these being that courses should be broadly based, balanced and focused on pupils experiencing the processes of science as a means of gaining knowledge and experience. These arguments imply that there is a place for geology in future science courses but that its role and style of teaching must be radically changed in ways which would enable it to contribute to a variety of integrated science teaching programmes. Through natural evolution in their own field geography syllabuses have already lost many aspects which might be described as scientific (eg. meteorology and astronomy), and they generally give greater priority to the socio-economic areas of the subject. Some teachers have gone so far as to predict that geography, as a subject taught to the 11-16 age group, may lose its identity as it is subsumed into a Humanities course, just as chemistry might be subsumed as part of Science. Thus a strong case can now be made for the tra­ditional geography package to be divided between two subject blocks. This will necessitate those geographers who are com­mitted to earth-science teaching encouraging the development of 'their subject' under the auspices of the science department, thus enabling them to contribute to its teaching as one of the science team. Furthermore, science departments are likely to be needing this curricular expertise in the near future as the concept of a broad, process-led curriculum is implemented. Geology is generally not taught as a science, despite what some teachers would argue, and thus an unrealistic view of the subject is given to pupils. Furthermore a relevant and interesting area of scientific experience which has techno­logical, economic, cultural and leisure implications is denied to most pupils due to its status as a minority subject which is only offered in a small proportion of schools.

One of the functions of our Association is to promote the teaching of geology at all levels because we believe that the process of education would be incomplete without experi­encing our particular perspective of the natural environment.

133

However as a subject which has undergone recent fundamental changes in its conceptual framework and working methods, there should have been corresponding change in the way the subject is developed with students. If we allow for the delay time which might be expected to be associated with, and follow, a scientific revolution geology teaching was probably due for a 'Nuffield type' revision in its teaching methods and philosophy by about 1970; thus the task we now face is long overdue. Part of our promotional function is to guide and encourage initiatives which members (and others) may make to develop geology as a curriculum subject. The Association's council members spend a great deal of time at meetings and in inter­personal discussions and they read a great many official and unofficial documents produced by DES and HMI. Their collective view is that if geology does not become part of the core science curriculum, it will be lost. What is rather sad is that the sense of urgency and positive leadership which emanates from the elected Council members is interpreted by some as being narrow minded. Members of Council feel that over a long period they have considered all the options open for geology and they are very few! Furthermore, time is not on our side; there are only a few months left for geology teachers to 'get their act together'; before the Secondary Science Curriculum Review makes its report; to demonstrate the potential for geology and to ensure that it becomes accepted into the mainstream of science teaching. Why are so many heads buried in the sand or, to change the metaphor, why are we just fiddling while Rome burns? Geology teachers who are based in geography departments should not feel threatened by all this, as the changes, which are imminent, will effect the whole curriculum in time, with the resulting requirement for all teachers to adjust their teaching to suit new patterns and structures. I believe, there­fore, that there will be a role for physical geographers in the science department but only if they make the necessary effort to demonstrate a rationale for their subject from an unemotional and informed standpoint; they must think and act like innovative and adaptable science teachers and become involved in curriculum development projects wherever possible, especially as part of The Secondary Science Curricu­lum Review. In addition, all members of ATG should seriously consider joining the Association for Science Education in order to benefit from all the information and other oppor­tunities that this would bring. Some examination boards have attempted to take a lead in updating geology teaching by encouraging a more scientific approach. If these syllabuses are unpopular with some teachers then the reason may be that these teachers are unwilling, or unable, to teach geology as an investigative science and that they fall back on a descriptive and didactic course which is based on the traditional, stereotyped content of a type which is well-rehearsed in most of the available text books. This ambivalence I find hard to understand; on the one hand the subject is described as a science and the teachers as science teachers, but on the other there is no attempt to equip the examination candidates with scientific skills or the ability to think scientifically! To say "Geology is a science, therefore I am a scientist" is just not good enough; we have to do much more to justify and substantiate such a remark.

John A. Fisher, Lecturer in Science Education, University of Bath.

THE ATTITUDES OF UNIVERSITY-POLYTECHNIC­COLLEGE STAFF TO GEOLOGY IN SCHOOLS

Dear Editor, I understand and sympathise with the efforts of Michael Merchant to maintain and improve the status of geology courses taught in schools. A recurrent problem, strongly felt by many geology teachers and clearly expressed in Michael Merchant's letter, is the attitude of university and polytechnic geology lecturers to 'A' level geology. The problem centres on the fact that' A' level geology is not essential for a geology degree course. From the lecturer's position, the important point which should be made to all prospective geology gradu­ates is that they will be at an advantage if they develop a "good scientific background", by which I mean 'A' levels in some combination of mathematics, physics, chemistry and geology. If a student is to choose only three of these, then many lecturers would exclude geology because the maths­physics-chemistry combination gives a student an all-round lead in any geology degree course (eg. using maths in structural geology and clastic sedimentology; chemistry in petrology and geochemistry; physics in geodynamics and geophysics). On the other hand, however, it should be recognised by lecturers that many students become geology enthusiasts (and therefore geology graduates) only as a result of their 'A' level geology course. Without the 'A' level, such students may end up in the arms of other degree subjects, never knowing what they have missed! If a student wishes to make geology one of three 'A' levels, then he or she should be advised to select the other two from mathematics, physics or chemistry if a geological career is intended. There is an overwhelmingly strong case in support of the teaching of geology in schools. Geology is a science which offers a completely new dimension to a students' knowledge and understanding of the world. With the advent of plate­tectonic theory, the subject has blossomed into a great inte­grator of scientific knowledge. In addition it has the tremen­dous benefit of requiring a strong fieldwork component - and a day out in the field, weather permitting, is usually highly enjoyable and intellectually stimulating for all concerned. In my opinion, an important reason why 'A' level geology is having such a hard time is that it has never developed a firm foundation at lower levels in the curriculum. School children should increasingly be given the benefit of geology teaching at an earlier age (particularly '0' level and pre-'O' level). Geology should not be treated in schools as an obscure, irrelevant, scientific sideline suitable only for a small, slightly wayward 'A' level elite. After all, the North Sea, coal, the debate on evolution and religion, the problems of nuclear waste storage (etc, etc) are hardly irrelevant to a modern education.

Yours sincerely,

Wes Gibbons, Lecturer in Geology, Department of Geology, University College, Cardiff CF1 1XL

THE CURRICULUM CONTENT OF DEGREE COURSES IN THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES - THE FIELD MAPPING EXERCISE

Dear Editor,

The question of the value of the mapping exercise that may occupy much of the second long vacation of an undergraduate studying geology is raised in your journal (R. Kenna, Geology

134

Teaching, 1984,9,62). In my view the substantial demands this work makes on department funds and undergraduate time should not be measured in terms of a contribution to the training of a field geologist. Mapping shOUld be assessed as an integral part of the teaching programme. Mapping is equivalent to microscopy, for example, contributing comparably to geological knowledge, if at different scales.

The incorporation of industrial experience should concern a review of the whole time-table. It is not enough to assess a part of the curriculum, conspicious merely because it takes place in a vacation, and outside the walls of a teaching insti­tution.

Yours faithfully,

Dr. R. Nicholson, Department of Geology, The University, Manchester M13 9PL.

HOW CAN THE ATG BECOME MORE PROFESSIONAL?

These are some suggestions used to provoke discussion and comment at the Open Forum of the Leicester conference. ATG are already doing a professional job in the field of geology education but in these days of cutbacks of 'minority' subjects, I feel that we need even more 'clout' and profession­alism than we have at present. If you were asked the question of how the ATG could become more professional, then no dOUbt you would have some suggestions of your own. If so, please let us hear about them. We are all in the business of promoting an extremely worthwhile, interesting and funda­mental subject together.

I think we should:

1. Make specific moves to increase ATG membership, ego provide an introductory package to directly encourage new members and to give them useful guidelines for when they begin (or continue) geology teaching. A larger membership means more 'clout' and also a larger income.

2. Foster links with other professional organisations so that our name is known and respected, ego (a) with the ASE (Association for Science Education) so

that other scientists know us and we know them (see Alistair Fleming's news item).

(b) with IG (the Institutution of Geologists). A suggestion here is that we might sponsor the publication of a series of booklets on the geological resources of Britain, written by IG professional geologists to be educationally useful.

(c) with ASE, the GA (the Geographical Association) and others to promote a course in field leadership appro­priate to the needs of teachers leading field parties.

3. Employ somebody briefly to sort and catalogue the ATG archives.

4. Report all meetings of importance as news items in the Journal.

5. In general we must do things and be seen to be doing things. Rather than just responding to the initiatives of others, we should instigate moves of our own. We surely have the ideas and energy to do this, we just need man­power and resources, ego could we write and 'sell' to an examination board new improved syllabus suggestions, less loaded with content, more geared to problem solving and the usefulness of geology. Could a syllabus be called, for example, Applied Geology?

6. These suggestions, and any other ideas which are put forward, will require time and money to be carried out properly. Thus I suggest that: (a) subscriptions should be increased to be more in line

with those of other professional teaching organisations, so that we do not have to run things on such a'shoe­string'.

(b) each member becomes more involved. We have a very important, worthwhile and interesting job to do, but we need people to do it. The more people that can contribute, the lighter the work load of 'the few' and the better the work is done. If you would like to help

A HOME-MADE CLINOMETER

In the field it is the job of the geology teacher to develop in his or her students the skills of measuring the dip and strike of all kinds of planar surfaces: bedding planes, cross-bedding planes, joint planes, cleavage planes, mineral veins, fault planes etc. The clinometer thus becomes a vital instrument out

of doors. A commercial clinometer is a precious and often a delicate piece of equipment which, because of its price, may have to be shared among a whole party of students.

Most teachers now seek some kind of home-made version of the professional clinometer which is cheap and easy to make. A basic type of such a clinometer employs a protractor on a rectangular wooden block with a swinging plumbline or pointer. Emlyn Evans (1977) described one where the pro­tractor is allowed to swing freely on a pivot through its origin. Another ingenious design was employed by Peter Loader (1980) who incorporated a liquid level with no moving parts into the instrument.

This article introduces another style of home-made clinometer based on a hinged arm and a spirit level (see Fig. 1). It is an easy to make, sturdy and useful instrument. The idea cir­culated among students at Keele University some 30 years ago and I now pass it on, somewhat belatedly (but bearing in mind the pleading of our Editor at Leicester) to readers of Geology Teaching.

It is made from a carpenter's two-foot, folding rule. Cheap folding rules can be obtained from supermarkets and market stalls for under £3 and one of these makes two clinometers. Choose one with stiff hinges, for this is preferable to a 'floppy' one. Add to this a small spirit level, such as the Stanley line level which costs about £1, and a semicircular protractor which is available for 10p.

Punch out the central pivot from the two-foot rule. Cut the protractor in half, leaving a small margin, and drill holes for two small round-headed screws. Attach these so that the focus of the protractor lies over the centre of the hinge. The spirit level is fixed to the upper arm by two or three turns of plastic tape. The reading of dip is then made by pupils where the protractor is intersected by the lower edge of the upper, horizontal arm.

The great advantages of this clinometer are:

1. It can be made for under £3.

2. It is strong and, with care, will last for years.

3. In teaching 'dip', it demonstrates admirably the angle from the horizontal.

4. A measurement can be made in relatively inaccessible as well as accessible, positions, and after the clinometer has

135

in any way, from becoming Deputy 'Editor to corre­sponding with a working group from time to time, please let us know.

7. If you feel that the ATG should become more professional, and have some ideas of your own, please send them to me at the address below. Also, if you think some of these suggestions are good (or bad!) please let me know as well!

Chris King, Altrincham Grammar School for Boys,

Marlborough Road, Altrincham, Cheshire WA15 2RS.

been I ifted off i:he rock surface, the dip can still be read directly from the instrument.

5. It is accurate to within one degree.

6. It can be used to indicate direction of strike as well as dip.

7. The 30 cm (one foot) rule can still be used for measuring thickness of beds and other small geological features.

In order to find the direction of maximum dip on a bedding plane, lay the closed clinometer along the strike until the spirit level registers horizontal, then draw or scratch a line, using the clinometer as a ruler, on the bedding plane (with, for example, the chisel-end of a hammer) and replace the clinometer at right angles. Of course, a separate compass is needed to measure bearings of dip and strike.

I have made good use of these clinometers over the years and prefer them from a teaching point of view to more expensive models. Having made some spare samples, I will gladly send one to anybody interested, on receipt of £3.25 (inc. p & pI, to the address given below.

REFERENCES

Anon. 1979. Clinometers. Geology Teaching 4 (1), p. 32 only. Anon. 1979. Clinometers. Geology Teaching 4 (2), p. 74 only. Loader, P. 1980. Clinometers - A New Angle. Geology Teaching 5 (3), p. 99 only. Evans, D. Emlyn 1977. Investigating and Identifying Rocks. Cardiff, National Museum of Wales. (see page 18).

A. David Leather, Geology Department, Salt Grammar School, Coach Road, Baildon, Shipley, West Yorkshire BD17 5RH.

FIG 1. THE 'LEATHER' CLINOMETER

ATG~ • GRAIN SIZE SCALE 20p each (plus 20p for p & p) 15p each for 20 copies or more (plus 20p for p & p) 100 copies or more £15 (post free) 1000 copies £100 (post free) Specially printed for ATG in red and black on white plastic card. (Size 6 x 9 cm).

• SLIDE SETS FOLDS by R.C. Standley £2.50 for 10 slides with notes (plus.25p for p & p)

Thrusted out overturned anticline, Flat lying overturned asymmetrical folds, Upright anticline, Upright syncline in thickly bedded sandstones, Small anticline in slates, Kink band in alternating mudstones and siltstones, Similar folds in migmatic gneisses, 'Z' shaped parasitic fold, Concentric folds in Devonian slate,

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS FIELD RELATIONSHIPS by D Linington and P Harrison £2.50 for 10 slides with notes (plus 25p p & p)

Aplite intruding shales, Pitch stone sill in new red sandstone, Dolerite dyke in Moine Schist, Felsite dyke in Mona Schist, Vent Agglomerate, Aplite dyke, Jointed granite. Columnar joining, Layered basic intrusion, Geological map of the Isle of Arran.

SEISMIC SECTIONS by P. Harrison and Western Geophysical Company. £4.00 for 14 slides with notes and a seismic profile. (plus 25p p & pI.

Oil Traps Seismic Surveying Geophysics and data processing Seismic sections

GEOLOGY FROM SPACE - Plate Tectonics (published by Space Frontiers Ltd. in conjunction with the A.T.G.) £3.75 for 12 slides with notes (plus 25p p & pI.

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden San Andreas Fault Afar Triangle East African Rift Iceland Tuamotu Archipelago Tonuge of the Ocean

The Salton Trough The Andes Kuril Island Arc Fold Mountains in Namibia Fold Mountains in Australia

*Postage and packaging rates quoted for maps and charts despatched folded. Requests for despatch unfolded in map roll will be charged at £2 per despatch, irrespective of number of maps or charts. All orders £25 and over - p & p £1.50. All orders £100 and over post free.

• ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS OF GEOLOGY TIE

£3.40 (plus 30p for p & p) Blue cloth tie with ATG motif.

• TARR'S WORLD SEISMICITY MAP* £3.00 (plus 50p p + p) Depicts magnitude, depth and date of the world's major earthquakes. (Size approx. 90 x 120 cm) .

PALAEOECOLOGY, by Prof. D.V. Ager (reissue) £2.40 (plus 20p p + p) 24 slides (as strips) with notes LIFE ORIENTATIONS: Coral reefs, tree stumps, productids, burrowing bivalves, resting bivalve, Rudist colony. DEATH 0 R I ENTATIONS: parallel belemnites, random crinoid stems, overturned brachiopod, gaping bivalves, separated mollusc shells, fossil 'spirit-level'. FOSSIL ASSOCIATIONS: brachiopod and coral, ammonites and worms, oysters and sponges, crinoid and gastropod, low diversity fauna, high diversity fauna. TRACE FOSSILS (Mesozoic & Cenozoic): Dip/o-craterion, Tha/assinoides, Ophiomorpha, Rhizocorallium, Zoophycus, browsing trails.

MODERN SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS 1, (sedimentary environments of the Bahama Banks and the Arabian Gulf) by Roger Till and Chris Wilson

£3.00 (plus 20p p + p) 30 slides (as strips) with notes BAHAMA BANKS - Oolite Facies (including aerial views of sandbanks, and microphotographs of oolite grains). Mud & Pellet Mud Facies (aerial view of inte­rtidal muds, microphotos). Oolites, Grapestone & Reefs (aerial views of oolite sandbanks encroaching over grapestone sediments, and of reef, microphotos).

ARABIAN GULF - Algal sediments (aerial views of Sabkha environment, and examples of laminated sediments analoguous to those in British Carboniferous, Rhaetic and Purbeck). Evaporites and Red Beds (this set shows modern sediments comparable to those that accumulated on the margins of the 'Zechstein Sea' in the present North Sea in Permian times).

ROCK TEXTURES IN THIN SECTION by Neil Bowden Nine 'split-image' frames showing the following rocks in both plane polarized light and between crossed polars. Available unmounted in strip form 80p + 20p p & p.

1. Aeolian Sandstone 2. Garnet Mica Schist 3. Gabbro

Greywacke

6. Chiastolite Slate 7. Feldspathic Sandstone 8. Amygdaloidal Andesite 9. Crenulated Mica Schist 4.

5. Adamellite (Shap Granite)

Orders to Steve Flitton, Geology Dept, Worthing Sixth * Form College, Bolsover Road, Worthing, W. Sussex. * t Official orders will be invoiced. ! * Cheques and postal orders made payable to A.T.G. *

Promotions Group.

136

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF FIELDWORK SITES­THE ATG SITE RECORDING FORM

The Background ATG members and the Fieldwork Working Group in particu­lar, have been concerned for some time that little national data was being collected on the educational value of different fieldwork sites. The National Scheme for Geological Site Documentation, initiated in 1977, has been collecting data on the geology of sites but their records of the educational value of localities are very limited. We hope to fill this gap by means of the educational value summary form which incorporates your knowledge and experience.

The Purpose of the Exercise The ATG Fieldwork Group asks you to share your fieldwork knowledge with other teachers by completing the ATG site recording forms for the sites which you know best. The forms are designed so that you may indicate your evaluation of the educational potential of each site which you use. The form can be completed in a fairly short time (particularly when you are used to its layout) and has been designed to simplify the recording of educational information. Don't worry if you can't complete the whole form, all the information you can provide will be helpful. It is often possible to complete the form at sites while students are carrying out their own studies. Don't think that others may have already recorded the infor­mation for the sites you know; they probably havn't. Even if they have, two views on a site are better than one. The National Scheme have kindly agreed that we may use their recording centres which were listed and shown on the map in Geology Teaching 9(2), June 1984. We would like you to take photocopies of the form (see the next page), complete them for the fieldwork sites which you know best and return the completed forms to the most appropriate recording centres. If

ATG~ • ELSEVIER'S MINERAL AND ROCK TABLE

Compiled by P. Lof, published by Elsevier Scientific Publising Co. £5 each (plus 25p p & p) * The "at a glance" chart format will provide you with:

• 74 rock-forming minerals • 53 ore minerals • comprehensive diagrams featuring all important rock

classifications • full indexing • Michel-Levy Chart

* Orders to Steve Flitton, Geology Dept, Worthing Sixth * Form College, Bolsover Road, Worthing, W. Sussex.

* *Cheques and postal orders made payable to A.T.G. Promotions Group.

137

you have no photocopying facilities, write to Chris King at the address below for copies of the ATG site recording sheets.

The recording centres of the National Scheme already hold a wealth of geological and other information on many fieldwork sites, some well known and the rest not so well known. If you would like information on sites, send an A4 size SAE to the relevant recording centre, being as specific as possible about your needs. You may be pleasantly surprised by the infor­mation available. Soon you should be able to receive copies of forms completed by others for sites which you think are potentially valuable.

Please help us to help other geology teachers to build up the national files on suitable fieldwork sites and to improve the educational value of fieldwork generally.

Chris King, Altrincham Grammar School for Boys, Marlborough Road, Altrincham, Cheshire WA15 2SR.

Kirtleton House WEYMOUTH

An ideal centre for your field study trip * Open all year round. * Residents bar. * Adequate parking * Terms daily or weekly for bed, breakfast & evening

meal & packed lunch. * Room available for studying. * Cine or Video facilities.

Mrs J. Cole, Kirtleton House, 21 Kirtleton Avenue, Weymouth. Telephone (0305) 785296.

• OPEN UNIVERSITY EVOLUTION CHART £1.50 (plus 50p for p & p). Folded only, with hand­book, in plastic folder. Illustrates evolution of major faunal and floral groups through geological time. (Size approx. 75x 100cm).

• OPEN UNIVERSITY OCEANOGRAPHY MAPS Pair of maps, folded only, in plastic folder. £10 (plus 50p p & p).

1. World Ocean Floor Panorama (1977) by Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp, Lamont Doherty Geological Observatory, U.S.A. (Size approx. 60 cm x 90 cm). This map alone retails at $20 in U.S.A.

2. Topography of the Oceans (1975) by T.E. Chase, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (Size approx. 60 cm x 90 cm). Shows both oceans and continents at same contour interval.

w CXl

t1lG THE ATG GEOLOGICAL FIELDWORK SITE RECORDING FORM

DO NOT REMOVE COMPLETED SUMMARY FROM FILE­REPLACE AFTER PHOTOCOPYING

1 • 1 • LOCALITY tun;

1 .2. I.ocali ty Number

1.4. Recording Centre

1.5. Geological Age(s)

1.3. ]<'ile Number

1.6. Eajor Features of Geological/Teaching Interest

}to be completed by Hecording Centre

SDMl'ARY OF lliJUCl.'l'IUNAL VALm: OF :3ITE FOR GEOLOGICAL ]<'l};LDWORK

Guide Notes A. Respond to each .statement by ticking the ~ box that is appropriate or by

writing in the required information. If the statement is inappropriate vr not applicable or the information not available, leave blank.

B. In many statements terms are separated by a stroke (/). In these cases, where a term in not applicable, cross it out.

C. Space has been left at the end for additional information which cannot be given within the sheet format. Please use this space, and any other spaces available where necessary.

D. Extra information in ad<iition to that requested is always helpful. Useful additions are lists of minerals, rock types, textures, strUctures, fossils etc. present, suggestions for other sites which could be linked with this one in a field excursion, etc.

~. For long sections, such as stream or cliff sections, complete one summary form and add additional information such as grid references of specific localities, at the end of the form.

r'. \fuere an assessment of the value for a detailed interpretation of an environment is required (eg. 6.6, 8.9.), high potential rating should only be given where the environment was fairly complex but where several pieces of evidence are available.

G. Please complete the recording sheet in ~ as it will be photocopied.

2.

2.1.

2.2.

2.3.

2.4.

2.6.

3. 3.1.

3.2.

Identification

Address/Location

County

National Grid Reference (letters plus 6 figures)

U.3. 1:50,000 hap Sheet No. 2.5. C).S. 1:25,000 Eap Sheet No.

I.G.S. 1: 50,000 (or 1: 63. 360) }:ap Sheet Ho.

Description

Type of locality

Locality restrictions

Dnatural inland Dnatural coastal

o quarry, working/not working

other man made (specify tj~e) ,.....,-·~~I L---.J ";.'.~? ..J • • DNational Park

other (specify)

3.3. Condition of locality overgrowth by vegetation

stability

potential hazards

proposed change of use

3.4. :Jimensions of locality approx. length metres

3.5. Thickness of succession visible

3.6. Site plan/field sketch

other dimensions (specify)

metres

D unnecessary D provided at end

4. Access

4.1. Permission for access required from Dnot required

name

ad<iress

tel. no.

4.2. A coach/minibus may be parked Dnearby

distance away

D less than 1 km away

km. at grid reference

4.3. Hestrictions on party size

4.4. Restrictions on conduct

4.5. other restrictions

4.6. Sketch map of access routs

4.7. 'v/alking to locality

D none specify

specify, ego hammering, etc.

specify, ego !!~;:: ~~~se Dunnecessary Dprovided at end o easy o moderate

difficult (explain why)

4.8. Facilities available o none specify

5. Level of }'otential

5.1.

6. 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4.

6.5.

6.6.

7. 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5. 7.6. 7.7.

primary Circle appropriate educational level(s) where known C.S.F:.

l~ineralogy (If none visible, go to 7.) Finding rock forming minerals visible with Finding ore minerals

'0'

'A'

degree

adult education

";ducational' Value is High~I.,Od •

the naked eye/hand lens~I ____ ~ __ ~

Finding gangue rr.inerals Measurement, description and testing of crystal Size/shape/colour ~==~=::::;

cleavage/hardness/reaction with dil. HCI/approx. S.G./etc. Observation and interpretation of relationships of minerals to

other minerals/rocks (eg. veins, disseminated, overgrowths) Detailed interpretation of crystallising environment

Igneous Rocks (If none, go to 8.) Il€scription of one/several igneous rock types Cbservation and interpretation of extruSive/intruSive textures (;bservation and interpretation of extrusiveiintrusive structures »etailed environment of environment of formation Cbservation and interpretation of marginal text.ures Cbservation and interpretation of r:nr,-;-inal structures/contacts In terpreta tion of cor:.plex ifTleous hi ctories

W co

8. 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5.

8.6. 8.7. 8.8. 8.9. 8.10.

9. 9.1. 9.2. 9.,. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6.

10. 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. 10.5. 10.6. 10.7. 10.8.

11. 11.1. 11 .2. 11 .,. 11.4. 11.5. 11.6. 11. 7. 11.8. 11.9. 11.10.

11.11.

11.12. 11.13·

12. 12.1.

12.2. 12.3. 12.4. 12.5. 12.6.

~edimentology (rf none, £0 to 9.) l'_easurement and description of gTain size/shape/sorting/etc. Description of one/several sedimentary rock/sediment types Drawing a stratigraphic log 1Jescription/drawing of sedimentary structures Understanding that some sedimentary structures indicate the flow

directions/strengths of the fluids that formed them t':easurement of sedimentary structure orientation ~.easurement of sedimentary structure size r,;stimation of palaeocurrent direction from several measurements Detailed interpretation of depositional environment Analysis of modern sedimentary environment

Palaeontology (If none, go to 10.) Finding well preserved body fossils Finding well preserved trace fossils Description/drawing of body/trace fossils Identification of several fossil types Cbservation and interpretation of unusual modes of fossilisation Detailed interpretation of living/death environment

~"e tamorphic Roc ks (If none, go to 11.) bescription of metamorphic rock types Observation and interpretation of thermal metamorphic textures Observation and interpretation of regional metamorphic textures Observation and interpretation of dynamic metamorphic textures Leasurement of metamorphic texture orientation (strike a.'1d dip) Observation and interpretation of bedding/cleavage relationships Observation and understanding of small scale contact metamorphism Detailed interpretation of environment of metamorphism

structural Geology (If none, go to 12.) Yeasurement of beddine- strike and dip (;bservation and interpretation of apparent dip Description/drawing of folds Description/ drawing of faults Description/drawing of joints l,easurement of strike and dip of fold axial plane r:easurement of strike and dip of fault plane Eeasureffient of strike and dip of joint planes ?',aking other appropriate measurements, ego fold plunge/ faul t throw Observation and interpretation of minor structures

associated with folds/faults lmderstanding of evidence that different rock types respond

differently to stress (eg. fracturing, foldil18, flowing) Interpretation of the stress field(s) which produced the structures Interpretation of the tectonic environment (ie. amount of stress,

depth/temIlerature of formation, etc.)

':tratie;raphy (If none, i~"O to 13.) Lse of stratigraphic principles (eg. superposition of strata,

cross cutting relationships, etc.) Specify which

Use of fossils for determining age/correlation Observation and interpretation of unconformity (bservation and interpretation of facies change Use of way-up criteria -,;riting notes for a detailed r:eolocical history

t"ducational Value is HighjI'od.

cm J J

m m

C-T ']

-]

m

13. 1).1. 13.2. 13.3. 13.4. 13.5. 13.6. 13.7. 13.8. 13.9. 13.10.

14. 14.1. 14.2. 14.3.

14.4. 14.5. 14.6.

15. 15.1.

15.2.

Lapwork (If none possible, go to 14.) Observation of a mappable geoloe-ical boundary ~:apping of a [;eolocical boundary along strike ~_ap))ing of a series of geoloCical boundaries along a dip traverse l/ap) ing jgneous/metamorphic geoloe~ical boundaries l':ap"ing topOGraphical effects on geological boundaries happine- the effects of folding on geological boundaries happing the effects of faulting on e-eological boundaries riecording strike and dip measurements on a map Hecording other appropriate measurements on a map l-:apping geomorphology and its links with the geology

r-;Xploi ta tion ~valuation of the usefulness of the rocks to man ~Naluation of the usefulness of the minerals to man TIiscussion of possible controversies

ego exploitation v. conservation/amenity

,',duca tional Value is de;hILOd.

[--[3 [ I I

ubservation of minine/extraction teChniques in operation/abandoned~ Observation of processing techniques in operation/abandoned Observation of land reclamati.on techniques and their effectiveness

Sources of Information Addi tional sources of ,;eological,..--,not known ,-----,listed below with information L--Jto recorderL......Jauthors, publshrs., etc.

Additional sources of educational r--1not known ,-----,listed below with information, ego worksheets, etc. L...-..Jto recorderL--..Jadciresses of sources

Additional Information use "ne space below for additional information such as maps, sketches, diagrams, lists, etc. Use extra sheets if neces,-,ary. -lIrite or draw in black.

~heet Recorder Name

he,dress 'Cel. No.

:Jate

THE NATIONAL STONE CENTRE

Introduction

Almost everything we use, from asphalt to zinc sheet, is dependent to some degree on quarry products. The industry can probably claim to be the oldest of all industries: today it varies from tiny one-man operations to multi-million-pound industrial complexes. It is scattered throughout the United Kingdom from the Channel Isles to the Shetlands. By the public at large, it must rank amongst the most misunderstood of all industries.

Aims of the Centre The primary purpose of the Centre will be to help redress this unfortunate state of affairs; to demonstrate the geology, exploration for, extraction, processing and use of stone in the past and present; to outline the future potential of stone products and the interrelationships between the occurrence of the working of stone and the landscape, the urban environ­ment and their ecology and history. Implementation Having established the scheme in principle, The National Stone Centre was launched in November 1983 by Sir George Young, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for the Environment. To spell out the aims of the Centre the organisers have adopted a unique and challenging approach to the problem by involving, directly, local, regional and national agencies con­cerned with the environment, the planning, production and use of stone. A company, limited by guarantee, has now been incorporated, for which educational charity status is being sought. This will be run by nominees from county, district and town councils, a national park authority, representatives from all sectors of the stone quarrying, processing and servicing industry, from the United Kingdom as a whole, professional bodies, uni­versities and colleges, and national agencies such as the Nature Conservancy Council, the Countryside Commission and government departments. The Site A careful survey led to the identification of a most suitable site, at Wirksworth in Derbyshire. This area was purchased in May 1984 with the aid of a Derelict Land Reclamation Grant, by Derbyshire County Council. The area lies on the south­eastern rim of the Carboniferous Limestone outcrop, which supports the largest and most diverse quarrying industry in the United Kingdom. To the south, in the Charnwood Forest area of Leicestershire, is the largest concentration of igneous rock quarries, and in Yorkshire and Lancashire to the north, is the main sandstone quarrying area of the country. Over half of the population of England and Wales live within 130 km (80 miles), and within an 80 km (50 mile) radius there are over 30 universities, polytechnics and colleges, offering courses and research in subjects related to the aims of the Centre. The site itself comprises over 50 acres (20 hectares) of six former limestone quarries, with associated tips, lime kilns, former railways, together with some rough pasture land. It is crossed by the High Peak Trail, which is used annually by about 0.4 million people. To the north lies a minor road, running between the proposed Carsington Reservoir scheme and Cromford, with its associations with Arkwright and the birth of the industrial revolution, and Matlock Bath, a major

140

inland tourist centre. Immediately to the south, the town of Wirksworth recently received the Europa Nostra Award resulting from an imaginative regeneration and restoration scheme. To the west a large-scale quarrying complex dominates the skyline.

The Geology According to the Nature Conservancy Council, the quarries exhibit probably the best teaching examples of a fringe-reef complex in the country, with lagoonal beds, the reef core itself, and the off-shore reef screes, all beautifully exposed over a distance of a few hundred metres. Within 2 kilometres of the site, it is also possible to study outcrops of sandstone, dolomite rock, igneous rock, varied mineralisation and geo­logical structures, all complementing the limestone and mud­stone sequence on the site. The site is already visited regularly by parties and researchers from as far away as Aberdeen and Devon. The History Written records relating to the site can be traced as far back as 1260 AD. The close ties between the development of the quarrying industry and roads, railways and canals of different periods are well demonstrated. The changing scale of quarrying and its products can be told, from the much celebrated Hoptonwood Stone, worked in nearby Middleton since the late 18th century, for buildings such as Kedleston Hall, to the last large-scale workings on the site itself, related to the construction of the M 1 and large active quarries almost adjacent to the site. There is also the fascinating history of lime burning, from the farmers' field kiln, through to highly controlled modern plants. There are still considerable un­tapped areas of research, for example in terms of social, company and oral history relating to the industry and the immediate vicinity. Ecology At a local level, the site is much frequented by botanists and ornithologists. A wide variety of ecological niches are present, from bare rock faces to mature woodland, from calcareous to sandy and clay derived soils. It is hoped to be able to demon­strate these and to establish a permanent nature reserve on the site. One feature which the Centre hopes to demon­strate is the way in which former workings have become colonised by wildlife, and the measures which can be taken to alleviate some of the conflicts between the extractive industries and the natural and human environment, by planting and landscapping.

Technical Training for stone extraction, quarry products and services It is proposed that part of the Centre will be made available for an in-service professional and technical training related to the stone extraction industry, quarry products and services. Indeed, without any attempt on our part, approaches have already been received from a major quarrying company, a number of colleges, offering special courses, trade federations, a training board, professional bodies, dry stone walling crafts­men, stonemasons, quarry engineers, sculptors and others interested in this area.

Interest Groups The range of disciplines and organisations likely to be interested in the site and the work of the Centre is clearly very large indeed. For example visits have been made to the site by, talks given to, or enquiries answered, from stonemasons, architects, photographers, biologists, geologists, conser­vationists, landscape architects, historians, planners, museum curators, engineers, archaeologists, chemists, mining engineers, working in government ata.ll levels, industry, research institutes, academic bodies, multi-national companies, or self-employed, from all over the United Kingdom, Western Europe, Scandinavia, Iceland, United States, Zambia and Libya.

Further information For further information please contact:

I.A. Thomas, Company Secretary, National Stone Centre, c/o County Planning Department, County Offices, Matlock, Derbyshire DE4 3AG. Telephone: Matlock (0629) 3411 Ext. 7162.

I.A.T./D.B.T.

FIELDWORK IN THE MALVERN HILLS

The Clerk of the Board of the Malvern Hills Conservators is concerned at the treatment by field geologists of the famous unconformity between the Silurian and Precambrian at the Gullet Quarry, Malvern. "The unconformity at the Gullet Quarry is now owned by the Malvern Hills Conservators and is, of course, also a site of special scientific interest. As such the Conservators have received help from the Nature Conservancy in the posting of notices, etc. The site is visited frequently by geologists on an individual basis and by school, university and association parties. My Board is concerned about damage which is being caused to the exposed face, both by the taking of samples, but more by people actually climbing on to the face thereby dislodging parts of it".

The Clerk concludes by requesting 'that people visiting the site should keep off the unconformity'. Please take note of this

request whether you visit the site as an individual or as the leader of a party. Remember the Geological Code subscribed to by A TG members.

D.B.T.

TELEPHONE Management (0305) 786911

23 Kirtleton Avenue WEYMOUTH

Dorset DT4 7PS

At Hotel Sunnywey we specialise in accommodating field study groups and educational parties. We wi 11 arrange meal times, menus and provide facilities to suit your own requirements.

HOTEL AMENITIES INCLUDE * Full Central Heating * Choice of Varied Menus * Study or Lecture Room * Generous Portions * Bar - Licensed or Soft * Fresh Meat & Vegetables * Lounge with Colour TV * Comfy Beds - Bedside * Parking for Cars/Coaches Lamps

* Razor sockets & Radios

WEYMOUTH is central for visits to Portland - Chesil Beach - Lyme Bay - Swanage Kimmeridge Oil Wells -Purbeck Hills.

Write or telephone for brochure and terms to:

Mr & Mrs G. T. DALLEY

141

LONDON-ILLUSTRATED GEOLOGICAL WALKS, London, The Geologists' Association £4.95.

This Guide has been published to mark the 125th Anniversary of the foundation of the Geologists' Association. It brings a new dimension to the Association's long tradition of field geology, and it reflects the success of the London Geological Walks which, under the guidance of the author, Eric Robinson, have become a regular and very popular feature of the Associ­ation's Field Meeting programme.

The book was written with the informed amateur geologist in mind, and is well suited for use by school and college students, but the field examples of unusual rock types will also interest any professional geologists visiting London. The book has over 100 pages, with some twelve maps, and over 80 photographic illustrations. The walks included are: St Paul's Precinct, Ludgate Hill and Queen Victoria Street, Cheapside and Guild­hall, Cannon Street, and Royal Exchange to Aldgate. Copies are available for sale at the Office and at Ordinary Meetings of the Geologists' Association at Burlington House, but orders by post should be sent to Scottish Academic Press, 33, Montgomery Street, Edinburgh EH7 5JX. Price £4.95 but please add 50p for packing and postage.

SUCFTG

Hotel Brodick

Isle of Arran

Offering within a 15 mile radius so many classic illustrations of geological succession, structures and rock formations has become a Mecca for fieldtrips with economy in mind.

The Ennismor Hotel offers:

Parking for Cars/Coaches Full Fire Cert Fully Licensed H & C water in all rooms

Drying Facilities Lounge and Colour TV Lecture and Video Facilities

Excellent Cuisine Electric Heating in all Rooms

Terms for 1983 and Spring 1984 Dinner, Bed and Breakfast, Pack Lunch From £9.80 Incl. VAT.

Phone BRODICK (0770) 2265

Dinosaurs and Their Relatives; A Project Pack for Schools

Written and Published by Stuart A. Baldwin, 1983. Cost £9.00

The pack, presented in an attractive folder, consists of a set of four full-colour posters, 15 Information Sheets, 11 pupil workcards and a Teachers' Booklet. Apart from the four Guiness Poster Magazines (0.66m x 0.44m), all the other components are printed at A4 size. The Posters are colourful, clear and informative and they provide information on the form, structure, lifestyle and habitats of Dinosaurs. The Information Sheets, which are to be used in conjunction with the Workcards, are clearly presented, have good line diagrams and illustrations, together with a wealth of information condensed into 24 sides of A4 paper. The cross·referencing to both the Workcards and the Teachers' Booklet is valuable. The Workcards, printed on thin card, are well set out in subsections providing both information and instructions for pupil activities. Diagrams are clear and well-annotated and, together with good shaded illustrations, very effectively inform the user. The language used on the cards is clear and concise, using a vocabulary that most older junior school or middle school pupils should be able to comprehend; it is certainly not for the less able or slower readers. Key words are emphasised in bold print, which encourages pupils to acquire a better understanding of such important terms and concepts. The whole approach is aimed at helping pupils to develop the beginnings of a scientific methodology by pro­viding data, calling for observations and seeking additional information before interpretations are sought and conclusions drawn. The instructions included on the workcards integrate very closely with the Information Sheets, posters and selected reference texts quoted in the Teachers' Booklet. The key element to the whole Project Pack is the Teachers' Booklet. Within the covers, some 30 pages of condensed information about rocks, fossils and Dinosaurs is presented in ordered sections, and is supported by clear diagrams and illustrations. The aims and objectives are stated at the outset and these are followed by a table of terms, concepts and principles in Open-University style. Geological time and the problems of dating rocks are succinctly dealt with before the origins of rocks and the formation of fossils are explained. The Animal Kingdom is then introduced, together with the stan­dard binomial system of classification, emphasising the position of the reptiles within the pattern of evolution of the vertebrates. Special attention is given to the Dinosaurs and their relatives, illustrating their evolution through the Mesozoic and briefly explaining their diversity and success over 165 million years. The information presented in this section is so concentrated that it might be beyond the average primary school teacher who is without a scientific background. Directed reading would be essential for most teachers to broaden their understanding of the topics dealt with in the teachers' notes. The addition of short and very specific book­lists on the various topics would be a great help, even though some of them would need to be repeated in the booklist on page 29. The section between pages 20-27 provides detailed guidance for the teacher in the use of the workcards, information sheets and posters contained within the pack, plus items from the necessary "Replicas Set" which is an essential resource sold separately from the Project Pack. Full details of the" Repl icas Set", plus other available resources, are presented at the end of the Teachers' Booklet. The guidance for teachers concludes with some suggestions for follow-up work, including extensions to investigations, visits to various museums where

142

good collections of fossil vertebrates are being exhibited and summarised in a very detailed topic web. The Dinosaur Project Pack is a valuable resource for any primary school teacher who is keen to introduce that fasci­nating group of extinct reptiles, the Dinosaurs, to their classes. Not only does this pack provide specific information, it encourages a scientific approach to the investigation of the topics. Such an approach is very important with primary school children; to establish good "scientific habits" early in their formal education. Since the posters alone cost £2.00, this pack, retailing at £9.00, is a very worthwhile addition to the resource base of any primary school, or even secondary school.

F.Spode

Geology Topics (6 units: Palaeoecology; Fossils and Time; Geophysics; Geochronology; Metamorphism; Igneous Petrology). P. Kennett and C.A. Ross. York; Longman Resources Unit; pp. 33-36 per unit; £1.25 per title. ISBN 0 58239975 O.

'Geology Topics' is a series of six separately available units which focus on key A-level topics, covering each of the themes listed above. Each A4 sized unit follows essentially the same format; an Introduction introduces the theme and establishes the content of the unit and the theme is then dealt with in 3-6 short sections. Thus, in the unit 'Fossils and Time', the theme is expanded under sections entitled "Graptolites and Trilobites in the Ordovician", "Old and New approaches to the Lower Carboniferous", "Methods of zoning the Coal Measures" and "Microfossils and North Sea Oil". The approach is therefore highly specific and based around particular examples and case studies - it gives an in-depth insight into the themes, relates the themes to real situations, and avoids the broad over-generalisations and 'blanket­approach' of many of the more traditional texts. Naturally such an approach has disadvantages and these are especially apparent in booklets of this abbreviated length where much reliance is placed on the reader conSUlting traditional texts in order to fully appreciate the themes discussed. These booklets therefore complement, rather than replace, existing texts and are most useful when integrated into a teaching programme where the background to the themes can be explained and discussed, terminology determined and the overall context established. Although designed for A-Level some of these themes may be used in part with O-Level classes and will certainly find application on 1 st and 2nd year degree courses. Criticisms of the booklets are minor; there are no indexes no lists of definitions of terminology used in the text, some of the line drawings are too small for the amount of information they carry and many of the photographs used are of poor definition. Overall, this is an excellent series of booklets, limited in content but highly readable, up-to-date and, above all, useable. The geology is sound and is presented in an interesting fashion. The list of 'Further Reading' references points the more advanced reader towards relevant texts and there are short exercises, integrated into the text, designed to test comprehension and the understanding of the concepts. These booklets can be warmly recommended and should find a place in all geology classrooms. I can only hope that there are plans to extend the range into other fields of geology.

lan L. Norris, Wirral Metropolitan College (Carlett Park College of Technology).

COMMENT (continued from back page)

It is the considered opinion of Council that geology should be an essential part of the new science curricula, hence our protracted efforts to have geology discussed under the science umbrella (as it is in Universities and Polytechnics). There are, of course, problems and one of these is the attitude of some of our science colleagues. It has been pointed out before that the recent Royal Society education document discussed science in terms of the 'big three' - biology, chemistry and physics - with only passing reference to extra science. The views of the Royal Society of Chemistry are exemplified in a report in Education in Chemistry (March 1984) which states that the RSC endorses the idea of science for all, and accepts the need for a more balanced view of science, provided it contains essential elements of chemistry, physics and biology. However the RSC is a little less willing to follow the SSCR too far down the road to a much greater broadening (for example the inclusion of other subjects such as earth science) because of the constraints of available curriculum time. At least it is gratifying to us that it is the timetable, and not the subject, which is the main stumbling block.

A further problem is that traditionally geology has been introduced into the school curriculum and is still mostly taught by teachers whose main subject is geography and who have much enthusiasm for, but sometimes little formal training in, geology. We must recognise that much of the strength of the Association, and indeed its origins, lies with such teachers, some of whom now, rightly or wrongly, are feeling alienated and unwanted by the advocacy of a more scientific method­ology in geology. Are we really dividing into two factions, or do we have similar aims but different emphases and certainly different approaches? Will the geographers want to link with science departments and indeed would they be welcome?

Are there at present enough teachers available to teach geology as a scientific discipline and will our three remaining Uni­versity departments of education where geology is a main

subject - Aberystwyth, Bath and Keele - be able to produce enough geology teachers to replace retirements and resignations?

Council is giving a lead but does the membership wish to follow? We must try to reach a consensus on these issues by local debate, by discussion at Conference and by letters or articles in Geology Teaching.

However, as John Fisher says, time is not on our side. As our debate proceeds, we must make a major input into SSCR despite the fact that we are somewhat hamstrung by lack of funds and notwithstanding the considerable efforts made to acqu ire outside funding.

All is not gloom, however. The letter in this issue from Professor Dineley shows that there is some support at high levels for geology in schools: the news item in the last issue by Professor Blundell tells us that candidates who have done 'A' level geology will be welcome at the new Bedford/Chelsea/ King's department on the Royal Holloway site (and that their scientific deficiencies will be remedied!); and finally, and perhaps most significantly and holding out great hopes for the future, the DES have just advertised again for an HMI in Geology.

Our destiny may be in the hands of others, but we must make a determined effort to influence and guide those hands.

Reg Bradshaw, President of ATG, Department of Geology, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TR.

RS1 A program for BBC (B) computers that constructs and draws geological cross-sections on instruction.

Rock soft

COLOUR DISPLAY OF 15 LITHOLOGIES

reproduces * sedimentary successions

~~~:r~F:m~~~§~~~~1 * stratigraphic structures - overstep etc '7"~:~~§~§~~~~~~1 " * erosion to produce dip & scarp slopes I ",, ___ 1 * batholith intrusion

* dyke intrusion * sill intrusion * faulting * folding * differential subsidence

{! DISPLAYS STRATIGRAPHIC HISTORY ON REQUEST {! OPTION FOR USER POSITIONING OF FAULTS & INTRUSIONS ..H OPTION FOR DISPLAY OF STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMNS FOR CORRELATION V'" INCLUDES SCREEN DUMP ROUTINE FOR EPSON PRINTERS

Ideal for use at all teaching levels as an aid to illustrate how geological structures are produced and to generate cross-sections and stratigraphic columns for anaiysis by students.

R S1 £9.50 cassette from ROCKSOFT, 382 BADDOW RD, CHELMSFORD, ESSEX

143

ATG AND THE FUTURE

Education at all levels, we are constantly being reminded, is under pressure - financial resources are being squeezed, rolls are falling, traditional patterns are being questioned; new initiatives are being taken to meet the challenge.

Minority subjects, such as geology, are under threat and it is therefore important that ATG should be taking vigorous action in order to safeguard the subject in schools and to see that it is properly integrated into the new curricula which are being proposed. To achieve this ATG needs to expand both in numbers and outreach, and this means a maximum effort from us all. A small organisation such as ours depends for its existence on the voluntary, enthusiastic and devoted work of its members and at present this is not much in evidence. Membership is falling, local groups are ceasing to meet, volun­teers for jobs are not forthcoming. Fortunately a few members are giving much time and effort to maintain and, in fact, increase the impetus of the association but more are needed -for jobs on Council (such as Editor, Production Editor and Assistant Editor), for work in the various groups, for member­ship of working parties in connection with SSCR etc. If you can help in any way please contact me or any member of Council.

It is all too obvious that many of us are not aware of the flood of documents and policy statements emanating from DES and other bodies, so Council has decided that it must assume an educational role and intends in future, with the help of our education experts, to publish in the journal digests of the more important developments. We have also renewed our discussions with ASE; we propose to approach other organis­ations such as the Geological Society and the Institution of

EDITORIAL SUBCOMMITTEE

David Thompson (Acting Editor) Vacant (Assistant Editor, Production) Vacant (Assistant Editor) John Fisher (Reviews) Graham Hall (Fieldwork) Frank Spode (Primary School Geology) David Thompson (News, Shopfloor) Michael Jay (Advertising)

Opinions and comments in this issue are the personal views of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Association.

Advertising enquiries to: Michael Jay, 6 London Road, Faversham, Kent ME13 8RX. Telephone 0795 534690.

Contributions for the next issue of Geology teaching will be welcome, and should be sent to the Editor, D.B. Thomspon, Department of Education, University of Keele, Staffs. ST5 5BG

GEOLOGY teaching: Published quarterly by the Association of Teachers of Geology.

Volume 9, Number 4, December 1984

144

Geologists, for assistance and we have initiated groups which will make proposals to SSCR.

These new initiatives, and our intention to have a more positive, dynamic approach, will unfortunately need money and it is almost certain that the subscription will have to be increased in October 1985, perhaps to £9. This gives us eight months or so to become reconciled to the increase and to decide to add effort to subscription! When the rates are changed please act immediately and change your banker's order to pay the correct amount - some members are still sending £3, some £4.50, some even pay twice (would there were more!). All these errors add considerably to the work of the Treasurer who last year alone sent out over 600 letters about wrong payments.

In this issue Graham Hall gives advance notice of the 1985 conference which is to be held at Lampeter. We realise that this is more distant from the big centres of population than our previous venues but the site is good, the costs are low, the field-orientated programme is different, the lectures are diverse - but there will still be plenty of opportunity for discussion at the Open Forum. Please make every effort to come.

A major issue became apparent at the Open Forum in Leicester and letters in this issue from Peter Tattersall and John Fisher continue the debate which we hope will stimulate discussion and encourage members to further correspondence and expressions of opinion.

The science curriculum 11-16 is at present under review and parties are at work all over the county formulating proposals for a better balanced science curriculum which will then be submitted to the Secondary Science Curriculum Review headed by Dr. R.W. West for digestion, consolidation and reformulation as curriculum proposals. This periphery-to-centre approach necessitates our participation either as separate A TG groups or as individual members of broader science groups. (Continued on page 143)

COUNCIL OFFICERS

President: Dr. Reg Bradshaw, Department of Geology, University of Bristol BS8 lTR Vice-President: Professor T.R. Owen, University College Swansea Vice-President: D.B. Thompson, University of Keele Secretary: M.J. Coli ins, 20 Pebwort/-J Close, Alkrington, Middleton, Manchester M24 lQH Membership Secretary: Dr. D. Thurston, 48 Ratcliffe Road, Storeygate, Leicester LE2 3TD. Treasurer: S.M.P. Alcock, 43 Yoxall Avenue, Hartshill, Stoke­on-Trent, Staffs. ST4 7JJ Editor: D.B. Thompson, Education Department, University of Keele, Staffs. ST5 5BG. Assistant Editor, (Production): Vacant

• Membership enquiries and new member's subscriptions to the Membership Secretary

• Annual subscriptions enquiries to the Treasurer • Bankers' Orders enquiries to the Treasurer • Change of address to the Secretary