Journal of Management Studies Volume 19 Issue 3 1982 [Doi 10.1111%2fj.1467-6486.1982.Tb00110.x] Beverly m. Alban Metcalfe -- Leadership- Extrapolating From Theory and Research to Practical

7/29/2019 Journal of Management Studies Volume 19 Issue 3 1982 [Doi 10.1111%2fj.1467-6486.1982.Tb00110.x] Beverly m…

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/journal-of-management-studies-volume-19-issue-3-1982-doi-1011112fj1467-64861982tb00110x 1/11

Journal of M a n a g e d Studiex, q ,3, 1982

LEADERSHIP: EXTRAPOLATING FROM THEORY

AND RESEARCH TO PRACTICAL SKILLSTRAINING [I ]

BEVERLY . ALBANMETCALFE

MRCJSSRC Social and Applied Pgcholou Unit, Universig of Shcffild

INTRODUCTION

IN view of the amount of time, effort and money expended by researchers in

the field of leadership, justifiable frustration and annoyance might be ex-pressed by practising managers who have been disappointed with the quality

and efficacy of the currently available management education programmes.

These feelings are at last gaining expression by distinguished figures in the

field of management and organizational study. J. Lonch recently expressed

his feelings in the Hamaid Business Review, when he wrote,

Academics need to develop more theories that managers can use, and

managers need to recognize that the easy way doesn’t work and to act

as intelligent consumers in rejecting theories that aren’t relevant, in

being more diagnostic and in keeping themselves and their staffs educa-

ted in the tools available (Lorsch, 1977).

There does, however, seem to be some common threads in current American

leadership theory and research which have direct implications for leadership

skills training. But tantalisingly, they conclude with general descriptions of

behaviour at macrolevels, that is, with general behavioural processes such as

‘participative behaviour’, or ‘rewarding behaviour’. However, the most efli-

cacious skills training would seem to require microlevel analysis of specific

skills into their component elements, that is, into specific behaviours which

describe more clearly, for example, how to be participative in a manager-

subordinate negotiation.

Clearly, there is no single ‘recipe for leadership behaviour’, but once skills

have been identified, at the microlevel, it will be easier to create training

situations which facilitate the practice of a variety of specific uses of the skill.

This will at least enable the manager to try out a variety of different ap-

proaches to a familiar situation, which have been found to be associated with

success.

The underlying premise of this proposal is that by increasing the number

of social skills a manager might master, she/he will become more competent

Addreufor rep’&: Dr. B. Alban Metcalfe, MRC/SSRC Social and Applied Psychology Unit,Department of Psychology,UniversityofShefield, Shefield SIO TN.



BEVERLY M. ALBAN METCALFE296

at selecting and exercising particular combinations, which will suit the indi-

vidual manager’s style, the individual with whom he is interacting, and the

particular situation in which it takes place (e.g. Argyris, 1976; Lorsch, 1977;

Rackham and Morgan, 1977).

LEADERSHIP RESEARCH-THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The theories of leadership that the writer has specifically in mind, are those

which arose from the empirical research of House (1973), Vroom and Yetton

(1973), Oldham (1976), and Sims (1977).

Vroom and Yetton see the most important leadership function as the

selection of the correct decision-making style for each situation. Their model

is, in fact, a decision-making tree, which helps the manager to select\the\most

appropriate style from a wide range of styles (which vary essentially in thedegree of participation they allow) to be adopted in a particular decision,

whilst protecting its quality, level of acceptability and cost.

Sims developed a model that describes the leadership function as manag-

ing reinforcement contingencies that directly influence the performance of

subordinates. The path-goal theory of leadership developed by House, and

based on the original theory of Evans (I970), suggests that leadership ef-

fectiveness is directly related to an individual’s ability to increase the motiv-

ation of subordinates to perform or be satisfied with their ‘ob. This is man-

aged by increasing the personal rewards to subordinates contingent upon

attaining work goals, and by making the means to these goals easier by

clarifying the types of behaviour that will facilitate goal accomplishment.

Finally, Oldham’s suggestion that particular motivational strategies might

be useful predictors of leadership effectiveness (as defined by ability to pre-

dict subordinate work performance) seems related to the other models con-

sidered here.

There would appear to be a great deal of similarity and inter-relatedness

in the empirical findings of these researchers and their respective models of

leadership. This is heartening in itself, as it provides some substantiation for

each of these views of leadership. Furthermore, the differences between theapproaches offer a richer view of leadership behaviour since the insights and

information have been gained from several related perspectives, rather than

any single one.

The danger, however, would be in subserviating subsequent data to fit

these models. Regrettably, this is as common a practice in leadership as in

many other research fields. It might therefore be wiser to regard these

theories as valuable only in so far as each would appear to draw attention to

the nature to a particular relationship between managers’ behaviour and a

desirable outcome for the subordinate, the organization, or both.

What is also encouraging to the trainer involved in increasing a manager’seffectiveness as a leader, is that these theories have concerned themselves

c1



LEADERSHIP :EXTRAPOLATING FROM THEORY AND RESEARCH 297

with what leaders actwlly do. They discuss, in behavioural terms, the leader’s

function within an organization and, more specifically, in relation to subor-

dinates, and the resultant effect on their performance and level of satisfac-

tion. However, as welcome as this approach is, it brings contingent limi-tations, by its very nature as a behavioural approach. Three of the four

models referred to (that is, with the exception of the\Vroom-Yetton model)

represent only one standpoint in the study of leadership, namely one which

is based on the assumption that a leader can predict and control the behav-

iour of subordinates to a significant extent.

Even if this were true, the author is in no way suggesting that one can

transform individual managers into impressive leaders merely by training

them in behavioural conditioning techniques. As is undoubtedly true, inter-

active skills are enormously complex, requiring amongst other things skills in

sensitivity, perception, empathy, selection of information, processing of infor-mation, and so on. The behavioural component, although forming one vital

and integral element, is only one link of the sequence of psychological pro-

cesses in social interaction. Success in social interaction requires far more

than simply the competent performance of particular behaviours.

Since individuals with whom one interacts are enormously varied, as are

the situational features, the organizational characteristics, and a multitude of

other variables, it would be dangerously naive to believe that any research

project or theoretical model could arrive at a prescriptive description of

‘leadership skills’ to fit particular situations, and which guarantee a suc-

cessful outcome. This does not mean, however, that we cannot pursue

research aimed at identifjring certain consistencies in managerial behaviour

which have been found to be associated with a desired outcome.

Another major point to be borne in mind, is the fact that skills displayed

by managers interacting with subordinates, relate to only one of the roles

which constitute a manager’s responsibility. There now exist several empiri-

cal studies of the variety and relative importance of activities that make up

the manager’s job, and leadership as discussed here constitutes just one,

though unquestionably important role in a much wider range of daily activi-

ties (Alban Metcalfe, I 98I b).Bearing these serious reservations in mind, it would still appear valuable

for management educators and academic researchers to explore in greater

detail the nature of the behavioural skills found to be related to leadership.

Such research might profitably begin by reducing the critical gap which

exists between the leadership skills which have been identified by the theo-

r i s t s cited at a macrolevel, and the potentially very much more specific

operational definitions of the behaviours which constitute those skills. For

example, one of the studies which have been cited refers to particular leader-

ship skills as ‘job rewarding behaviour’ (Sims, 1 9 7 7 ) . Another (House, 1973)

refers to leadership skills in terms of goal clarifying behaviour. Vraom andYetton (1973) recommend sharing problems with relevant subordinates as



BEVERLY M. ALBAN METCALFE298

effective behaviour in particular circumstances; and Oldham (1976) advo-

cates comprehensive feedback systems. Analyzes at a microlevel are designed

to provide answers to the questions which are quite likely to follow, such as:

‘How can I reward a subordinate in an effective verbal manner?’

‘How does a manager clarifL the goal of a subordinate?’

‘How does a manager share a problem with a subordinate?’

‘How o you give feedback in such a way as to motivate the subordinate?’.

nate?’.

Undoubtedly, macrolevel studies have produced a rich source of data, but

the frustration remains for those concerned with extrapolating from theor-

etical models to immediate, practical applications, for example, in the form

of leadership skills training programmes. How then can one bridge the gapbetween macro- and micro-skills?

SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAMMES

Any skills training programme must be based on the fundamental belief that

skills are learnt and, therefore, can be acquired under suitable conditions,

provided a certain basic potential exists; and a great deal of research has

already been conducted into principles and models of skill acquisition (e.g.

Legge, 1970; Robb, 1972).

For training purposes, the behaviour to be taught must initially be ana-

lyzed into simple and discrete behavioural components, and a model of the

behavioural sequences presented. Which particular model is presented will

depend on the particular purpose for which the behaviour is intended. For

example, it may be a model of a selection interview, or a negotiation be-

tween a manager and a union representative; or it may be a departmental

meeting.

Alternatively, a less specific, more generalizable situation might be rep-

resented by a model, with the intention of teaching a general skill that, once

it has been mastered, can be readily transferred across a wide variety ofsituations, such as those mentioned in the examples above.

The element of practice in managerial skills training is as crucial as it is in

learning new motor skills. However, since the individual must necessarily

take risks and possibly experiment with unfamiliar behaviours, it must be as

non-threatening as possible. At the same time, there must exist the element

of realism so as to facilitate transference of learning from the training situ-

ation to that of real-life.

Practice without feedback is of minimal value (Holding, 1965). It should

also be as exact as possible in identifying which particular behaviours re-

quire modification. Furthermore, suggestions of alternative behaviours thatmight be more appropriate should always accompany a negative criticism,



LEADERSHIP :EXTRAPOLATING FROM THEORY AND RESEARCH 299

since the trainee needs to know what should have been done (Holding,

1965). Effective behaviours also require appropriate reinforcement. The

timing of giving this feedback is an important factor in its resultant efficacy.

The shorter the time lag between performance and knowledge of results, thebetter (e.g. Denny et al., 1960).

Finally, it is of extreme importance for the learner to be sensitized to what

Holding calls ‘the intrinsic cues of the situation’, in other words, what is

generally going on. Consequently, the success of techniques augmenting

feedback will largely be dependent upon whether they make the subject

aware of these cues and perhaps provide some standard against which the

individual can assess the performance. This is where behavioural analysis

techniques can provide a rich source of learning experiences in recognizing

categories, in appreciating the possible effects of a variety of alternative

behaviours (cf. Rackman and Morgan, 1g77),and in divising ways ofevalu-ating its success.

Implications fo r Social Skills Training

A wealth of research data has accumulated on the subject of non-verbal

behaviour (e.g. Argyle, 1978; Mehrabian, I 970; Siegman and Feldstein,

1978);on communication (e.g. Barnlund, 1970; Knapp, 1972; Mortensen,

1972); on unconscious motivation in social behaviour (c.g. Freud, 1909);

and on situational effects on behaviour (e.g. Magnusson and Endler, 1977).

It is clear that research in social interaction cannot disregard the influence of

these variables.

The author is dissatisfied with the model of social skill as analogous to that

of motor skill, initially developed by Argyle and Kendon ( I 967). This model

apparently neglects the influence of crucial, less conspicuous variables in the

social interaction process. A model of social skill is proposed which attempts

to include the influence of these variables [I] (See figure I ) .

A major factor that must be taken serious account of in any social skills

training programme concerns the element of threat experienced by the

trainee. Unlike the teaching of purely mechanical skills, like typing or driv-ing a car, which may be completely novel situations for the trainee and are

relatively low-risk in terms of the potentially damaging effect of criticism,

social skills training necessarily requires criticism of one’s personal

effectiveness-a skill which only few of us cannot believe we possess to a

greater or lesser degree. It would be unusual if remarks and criticism, how-

ever tactfully and gently phrased, did not affect one’s self-esteem and self-

image. Therefore several precautions must be taken by the trainer to mini-

mize damage to an individual’s confidence or cause him to create defences

and barriers to protect his self-concept (Alban Metcalfe, 1979). Fur-

thermore, there are other very potent sources of resistance to change whichemerge when attempting to modify a skill which has become second, if not



BEVERLY M . ALBAN METCALFE

unconxrxrsprocessing,,’ CENTRAL pRo(xssIb6 ‘,

A orocesses information \

/ P

Feedbock/unconsciousbut percewed

9 PERCEPTUAL

I FEEDBACK CI A s perceptionof EB ’s nv I 6, ’sresponses, Pbehovsours chonge in situation Tless obvtousbut perceived

R

\nv = non verbal\ l R P o s E F u L cmoN/ //

\\

\

\

\ A’ S intentional /\, verbal and non-verbol /

.‘A’s nv sq m ls of which

ehaviour\

L---A unoware

\

intent onsc information into of which A

0 objectives of which unaware

IIT

1 P LA N O FA C TIO N 4V A f o rm to tes o A S

E strategy far U ~ C O ~ K I O U S

achieving object ives plan of

FORMATITIMV OF NTENTlONS \ A sA consolidates

action

/

MOTOR CHOICE OF A’s unconscious/ACTION ,CholCe Of OCtlon

Figure I . A model ofsocial skill

first, nature to the individual and which has become very closely associated

with his personal and psychological well-being. After all, many managers,

not surprisingly, would find it quite traumatic to tamper with those skills

which they doubtless believe to be largely responsible for getting them into

the fortunate position in which they now find themselves.

It is precisely these major points of difference which distinguish training in

social skills from training in purely motor skills. By definition social skill is

about developing particular human behaviours in interaction, (as opposed to

involving another physical object, such as a car or a tennis raquet). Itfollows from this that it is inappropriate to suggest that there is a ‘correct’

prescription of behaviours, the performance of which leads to interpersonal

success-despite who uses them, when, how and with whom. In fact it is at

this point that the word ‘training’ appears somewhat inappropriate, with its

connotations of predetermined ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ responses.

The ultimate value of social skills education is concerned with increasing

the individual’s repertoire of interactive behaviours and, most importantly,

increasing awareness of factors which might be contributing to the ef-

fectiveness of the particular encounter. This, of course, implies that at any

time the individual has a greater choice of not only action, but also percep-tions, since perceptions are by their very nature highly selective.



LEADERSHIP : EXTRAPOLATING FROM THEORY AND RESEARCH 30 I

Which Particular Social Sk ills to Teach

In order to identify the particular skills to teach that are of relevance to

leadership effectiveness, it might be valuable to take a closer look at some of

the more recent findings and conclusions of relevant theoretical and empiri-

cal studies.

Vroom and retton (Ig73)model of leadership. This concludes with a taxonomy

of decision processes which include the following preliminary behaviours :

Aii-You obtain any necessary information fiom subordinates ;

Ci-You share the problem with the relevapt subordinates individually,

getting their ideas and suggestions;

Cii-You share the problem with your subordinates in a group meeting.

In this meeting you obtain their ideas and suggestions.

Gii-You share the problem with your subordinates as a group. Toge-ther you generate and evaluate alternatives and attempt to reach

agreement on a solution. Your role is much like that of chairman,

coordinating the discussion, keeping it focused on the problem and

making sure the critical issues are discussed. You can provide the

group with information or ideas that you have but you do not try

to ‘press’ them to adopt ‘your’ solution and are willing to accept

and implement any solution which has the support of the entire

group.

Sims’ (1977) theory that the manager is the manager of reinforcment contingencies.Employee performance is seen as directly influenced by the efficiency of the

leader to administer rewards contingent upon performance. Positive reward

behaviour was found to directly influence employee performance and included

behaviours such as : ‘complimenting outstanding work’; ‘showing interest in

employee suggestions of improved ways of doing things’; ‘offering help in

handling problems a t work’; ‘listening sympathetically to complaints’ as well

as more concrete rewards of pay recommendations (Adam, 1972, found

money as effective as praise). Punitive reward behaviour, which was found to

have an interactive effect with Advancement reward behaviour, included :

‘reprimands, recommendations of dismissal; ecommending no promotion’.

Advancement reward behaviour included direct encouragement, recommending

promotion and helping obtain transfer.

House and Dessler (1974) he path-goal t h e o r y of leadersh$. One of the strategic

hnctions of the leader is to enhance the psychological states of subordinates

that result in motivation to perform, or in satisfaction with the job.

These strategic functions include:

( I ) ‘Recognizing and/or arousing subordinates’ needs for outcomes over

(2 ) ‘Increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for work goal attain-

which the leader has some control’;

ment’;



BEVERLY Y. ALBAN METCALFE302

(3) ‘Making the path to these payoffs easier to travel by coaching and

(4) ‘Helping subordinates clarify expectancies’;

(5) ‘Reducing frustrating barriers’;

(6 ) ‘Increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction contingent upon

direction’;

and

effective performance’.

Oldham (1976) motivational strategies of leaders. Leaders should engage in activi-

ties that directly increase subordinate motivation, viz :

Personally rewarding behaviour, c.g. ‘simple congratulations for a job well

done’;

Personal& punishing behamour, e.g. ‘verbal criticism or a disappointing

frown’;Setting goals : ‘establishing specific performance objectives, mutual goal

setting where more frequent discussions of performance and on mutual

problem-solving’;

Designing information feedback systems: ‘the more comprehensive and com-

plete the feedback can be more effective in increasing the employees’

motivational level’;

Placing personnel: Manager’s allocation of subordinates to jobs that meet

needs and skills of the subordinate or challenges these skills;

Designzngjob s y s t em : I t is essential for the supervisor to assess the skills

and needs of his subordinates prior to placement, and to attempt to

match individuals having higher order needs and skills with the more

challenging jobs. This requires feedback and obtaining information of

subordinate needs.

Materially rewarding and materially punishing: In the light of contemporary

financial problems it is worth noting that Oldham adds‘Results have

shown that in many cases there is little difference in the impact that

inter-personal and material rewards have on subordinate behaviour’.

Designing reward system : Try to evaluate correctly the subordinates’

needs then alter the reward conditions in such a way that more mean-ingful and need satisfying incentives are offered and are obtainable for

good work.

There would appear to be a great deal in common with some of the

behaviours identified as related to leadership effectiveness in the theories

above. Furthermore, very fm, if any, can be achieved without some form of

social inter-action, ranging from simple congratulations, through relatively

unstructured conversations, to more structured interviews with definite ob-

jectives such as those that aim at giving feedback of performance; obtaining

information of subordinate needs; establishing objectives;clarifying expect-ancies; solving problems; decision-making, and so on. But these are still not



LEADERSHIP : EXTRAPOLATING FROM THEORY AND RESEARCH 303

defined in terms of specific micro elements of behaviour. It might then

appear useful to focus on the skills required in the social interaction to devise

one aspect of a leadership skills training programme. As the interview pro-

vides a rich source of such data it might be valuable to analyze its processesin close detail. Since the appraisal interview provides a situation in which

several or all of the above activities might be present, it would appear to be

a particularly appropriate focus of research activity.

Intem’ewing Skills

A great deal of research has been conducted into the skills required in

interviewing since it seems to be such a ubiquitous activity for the manager

(e.g. Maier, 1976; Randell ‘978).

Clearly what is now needed, is to observe managers behaving skillfully in

their leadership role in the appraisal interview, and then to analyze what

they did, in such a way as to identify types of behaviour which directly relate

to a successful outcome and which can be useful in a social skills programme.

The word ‘success’ is of crucial importance here. The author suggests that it

is defined in terms of the achievement of goals, standards of performance,

changes in motivational state, or whatever is the desired outcome of the

particular manager, or subordinate, or organization ;or some combination

of these variables for that particular situation.

This also means that ‘success7 must be observable in some form-whether

directly or as an artefact-as a direct outcome of the manager’s behaviour.In the case of the appraisal interview this could be measured by the respon-

ses of a subordinate to a questionnaire on interview experiences-and

change in subordinate’s performance-or whatever criteria one chooses to

adopt.

Such research would be seen as an attempt to avoid the not uncommon

situation already referred to, in which researchers pursue data which sup-

ports their particular preconception of what leadership should be rather than

what it is.

There is no doubt that skillful interviewing behaviour is highly complex

and demanding. It requires, among other things, skills in perception, selec-

tion of information, decision-making, persuasion, sensitivity, empathy,

verbal skills and motor control.

The author believes that the skill of using these devices more effectively in

any social interaction is very largely the function of the complexity of experi-

ential dynamics present in the transactions. That is, in the kinestics, proxim-

ity and the variety of non-verbal aspects of speech, including timing, tone,

expression and other aspects of paralanguage. Consequently, she is at the

moment undertaking research into the micro-behavioural analysis of the

content and process of effective versus less effective managers’ interviewing

techniques.



304 BEVERLY M. ALBAN METCALPE

Ultimately, skills of social interaction, such as those exercised in interview-

ing, are not only concerned with what is said, but also how it is said, and in

response to what.

CONCLUSION

There appears then, to be a considerable amount of similarity in the re-

search findings as to what kina3 of leadership behaviours are most effective. I t

has been suggested in this article that a great deal may be gained from

extrapolating from current behaviourally-based theories to practical leader-

ship skills training programmes. However, for skills training purposes they

need to be broken down into micro elements and a training programme be

devised using them.

The fact that social interaction is so rich in complex, interwoven psycho-

logical processes means that by identifying behavioural clues to the nature of

success in some circumstances, we are only providing data from one particu-

lar perspective, on one aspect of the subject. As useful as this would appear to

be, it would be dangerous to believe that one can build an equation from

these findings to guarantee success in all similar and dissimilar situations.

The fact that social interaction is in part based on instinctual reactions or

devices learned from fundamental experiences of coping, implies that there is

more to it than meets the eye. But with these very important factors in mind,

it would appear timely to move away from our celebrated obsession with

theory, and preconceptions of what leadership should be, and try to under-stand more precisely the everyday nature of the phenomenon.

NOTES

[I] The research on which this paper is based was conducted by the author whilst a t

[ z] The model presented here is described in greater detail in Alban Metcalfe

the Management Centre, University of Bradford.

(Ig814.

REFERENCES

ALBANMETCALFE,. M. (1979).Lcadcrship Theoriesand their Zmplicatwnsfor ManagendSkills. Unpublished MBA dissertation, Management Centre, University of Brad-ford.

ALBANMETCALFE,. M. rg8xa). ‘Model of psychological processes in social interac-

tion’. Pmc@aOland Motor Skilh ,w, .ALBANM E T C A L ~ ,. M. (rg81b). ‘How relevant is leadership research to the study

of managerial effectiveness? Working paper, Management Centre, University of

Bradford.ADAM,E. ( I 972). ‘An analysis of changes in performance quality with operant con-

ditioningprocedures’.3 d f Applied P~choIogy, 6,q80-86.ARGYLE,M. nd KENWN.A . (1967). ‘The experimental analysis of social per-

formance’. In Ekrkowitz, L. (Ed.), dvances in &~erimenrol SociolPgchology, Val.3.New York: Academic Press.



LEADERSHIP : EXTRAPOLATING FROM THEORY AND RESEARCH 305

ARGYLE,M. (1978).The Psychoiogy of Interpersonal Behatiour (3rd edn). Harmonds-worth :Penguin.

ARGYRIS,C. (1976). ‘Problems and new directions for industrial psychology’. InDunnette, M. D. (Ed.),Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago:

Rand McNally.BARNLUND,. L. (1970). A transactional model of communication’. In Soreno, K.

K. and Mortensen, G. D. (Eds.), Foundations of Communication Theory. New York:Harper and Row.

DENNY,M. ., ALLARD,M., HALL,E. and ROKEACH,M. (tg60).\‘Delay of know-

ledge of results,knowledge of task, and the intertrial interval’. 3 0 ~ dfExpnimCn-to1 Psychology,60.

EVANS,M. (1970). The effects of supervisory behavior on the path goal relationship’,Organizational Behamor and Human Performance, 5, 2 7 7 9 % .

FREUD,S. (1909). Five Lectures on Pychoanalvs;s, (Standard Edition 1 1 ) . London:Hogarth.

HOLDING,. H. (1965) .Principles of Training. Oxford: Pergamon.HOUSE, . J. (1973). ‘A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness’. In Fleishman, E. A.

and Hunt, J. G. (Eds.), Current Deoelofimmts in the Study ofLe&ship. Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press.

HOUSE,R. J. and DESSLER,G. (1974).‘The path-goal theory of leadership: somepost hoc and a priori tests’. In Hunt, J. G. and Larson, L. L. (Eds.), ContingencyAppoaches to L c h s h i p . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

KNAPP,M. L. (1972).Non-verbal Cornmunuation in Human Interaction. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston.

LEGGE,D. (Ed.) (1970).Skills. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Lomn, J. W. (1977) .Harvard BurinJJ Review, 57 , p. 2.MAGNUSON, . and ENDLER, . S. (Eds.) (1977).Persrmalig at the Crossroads: Current

MAIER, N. R. F. (1976).The Appraisal Interview: Three B& A~roaches .New York:

MEHRABUN,. (1970).Tactics ofsocial InJumc. London: Prentice-Hall.MORTENSEN,. D. (1972).Communication: The Study of Human heructio n. New York:

McGraw-Hill:OLDHAM,. (1976). ‘The motivation of strategies used by managers: relationship to

effectiveness indicators’. Organ&iona/ ~ e h v i o rnd Hitnron P d o m e , r5,6-6.RACKHAY,N. and MORGAN, . (1977). Behaviour Adysis in Traimng, London:

McGraw Hill.RANDELL, . A. (1978).‘Interviewing’. In Warr, P. (Ed.), Psychologv at Work (2nd

edn). Harmondsworth: Penguin.

ROBB,M. (1972).Dynamics of Motor Skill Acquisition. London: Prentice-Hall.SIEGMAN,. W. and FELDSTEIN, s. (1978). Non-verbal Behavior and Communication.New

York: Wiley.SIMS,H. P. (1977). ‘The leader as a manager of reinforcement contingencies: An

empirical example and a model’. In Hunt, J. G. and Lanon L. L. (Eds.), Leader-ship: The Cutting Edge. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

VRoom, v. H. and YETTON, . W. (1973).Leaahhip and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press.

Issues n Interactional Psychology. London: Wiley.

University Associates, Inc.

Documents

Journal of Management Studies Volume 19 Issue 3 1982 [Doi 10.1111%2fj.1467-6486.1982.Tb00110.x] Beverly m. Alban Metcalfe -- Leadership- Extrapolating From Theory and Research to Practical