Journal of Organizational Change ManagementExploring the Long-term Effects of Behaviour Modelling TrainingPaul F. Buller Glenn M. McEvoy

Article information:To cite this document:Paul F. Buller Glenn M. McEvoy, (1990),"Exploring the Long-term Effects of Behaviour ModellingTraining", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 3 Iss 1 pp. 32 - 45Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09534819010136073

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Exploring the Long-term Effects of Behaviour Modelling Training

Paul F. Buller School of Business Administration, Gonzaga University, Washington, and

Glenn M. McEvoy Department of Business Administration, Utah State University

Private and public organisations spend a tremendous amount of money each year on employee training and development programmes, over $29 billion by one estimate (Gordon, 1986). While there is some cumulative evidence that training programmes "pay off" in terms of short-term learning and behavioural changes (Burke and Day, 1986), there is little evidence of their longer term effectiveness. Few empirical investigations of training effectiveness have extended more than six months following the training. The purpose of the study reported here was to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of a behaviour modelling training (BMT) programme conducted in a non-profit multi-hospital chain. Further, the study sought to identify factors external to the training effort itself which may have contributed to maintenance of the training effects. Thus, the research contributes to our understanding of factors that enhance the utility of training programmes over the long term.

Behaviour modelling training is a popular training method based on social learning thory (Bandura, 1977) and was first applied to industrial training by Goldstein and Sorcher (1974). Generally, BMT emphasises observation, modelling, feedback and reinforcement to change behaviour. A typical sequence of events in this approach to training is:

(1) the participant is taught specific learning points or rules for handling a situation;

(2) these points are then demonstrated by a filmed model; (3) the participants practise the observed behaviours via role plays; (4) participants receive feedback and reinforcement from one another in

the training session, and (5) arrangements are made to transfer the learned behaviours to the job

environment (Decker and Nathan, 1985). The length of time in a BMT training effort varies, but usually consists of five to ten, two to three-hour sessions held over several weeks. Most reported

The authors wish to thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions on this manuscript.

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BMT applications in industry have been designed to teach interpersonal skills to managers and supervisors (Burke and Day, 1986).

Several qualitative reviews of BMT research have been reported in the literature (Decker and Nathan, 1985; Mayer and Russell, 1987; McEvoy and Sporer, 1985; McGehee and Tullar, 1978; Robinson, 1982). These reviews suggest that BMT is an effective technique when evaluated in terms of trainee reactions, cognitive learning, and behavioural changes in role play situations. However, the research is less clear on the effectiveness of BMT when measured in terms of actual job behaviour changes or performance results. A recent statistical review of 70 training interventions found that, when compared to six other training approaches, BMT produced a greater effect on subjective assessments of learning and behaviour (Burke and Day, 1986). Its effects on objective measures of learning and results could not be determined quantitatively because too few studies used these measures. However, in three studies not included in the Burke and Day (1986) analysis, BMT was found to improve objective measures of performance (Meyer and Raich, 1983; Porras and Anderson, 1981; Porras et al., 1982). Thus, there is some evidence that BMT improves short-term behaviours and performance.

One unanswered question in BMT research is the duration of training effects. Previous studies have evaluated the effects of training anywhere from immediately following to one year after the training. The average evaluation time of the 15 BMT field studies reviewed by Mayer and Russell (1987) was about six months. Only four studies have evaluated BMT effects beyond six months (David and Mount, 1984; Latham and Saari, 1979; Meyer and Raich, 1983; Smith, 1976). Although these studies report positive results on multiple criteria, there are too few studies on which to base firm conclusions. We simply do not yet know the long-term effects of BMT.

Factors Related to Long-term Training Effectiveness To transfer and sustain learned behaviour in the workplace is a difficult task. Theoretically, BMT is more conducive to effective transfer of learning than most other training approaches because it specifically acknowledges that transfer is an integral step in the training process. Although little is known about how effective transfer of learning occurs, several studies have shed some light on the subject. For example, the use of contracting to encourage trainees to practise learned skills between training sessions and following the training appears to have been successful in several studies (Latham and Saari, 1979; Porras and Anderson, 1981; Porras et al., 1982).

Reciprocal training of trainees' managers and/or subordinates may also enhance transfer (Meyer and Raich, 1983; Sorcher and Spence, 1982). The use of managers as trainers has also been examined with mixed results (Porras and Anderson, 1981; Russell et al., 1984). Finally, there is some evidence that the congruence of trained behaviours with existing behaviours is a critical precursor to lasting change (Porras and Hargis, 1982; Russell et al., 1984).

However, these activities are largely internal to the training process and, as Russell et al. (1984) suggested, they may not be enough to sustain behaviour

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change following the training. It seems reasonable that certain factors external to the training process would help to maintain newly learned behaviours over time. Borrowing from the literature on organisation development and organisational behaviour, it is probable, for example, that top management support is critical to create lasting change (Greiner, 1967). In fact, Porras and Anderson (1981) suggested that this variable may have been a key factor in their successful application of BMT. Other sources of support such as work group goals, organisational structure and norms, as well as performance appraisal and reward systems may also be important (Beer, 1980; Buller et al., 1985). Specific goals and regular feedback concerning one's own performance as well as that of the organisation should also help to sustain behaviour change (Beckhard and Harris, 1977; Locke et al., 1981). The use of periodic refresher sessions for trainees and complete training sessions for new employees may also foster the use of learned skills over longer periods of time (Goodman et al., 1980). Finally, Beckhard and Harris (1977) suggested that a key requirement for sustaining change is to provide mechanisms for addressing the confusion of roles, processes and structures that inevitably occurs following the change. These mechanisms might include the existence of a sponsor to manage the change, continual feedback regarding the outcomes of the change, and the provision of a means to resolve problems that emerge.

In summary, the long-term effectiveness of behaviour modelling training may be a function of a number of factors, some internal and others external to the training design and process. We have developed the model in Figure 1 to describe possible relationships. The model indicates that training has four possible outcomes, related sequentially: reactions, learning, behaviour, and organisational results (Kirkpatrick, 1976). These outcomes are a function of the training methodology as well as several factors external to the training. Three external factors in particular appear to be influential in determining the long-term effects of training: (1) congruence of the trained skills with existing organisational goals and norms, (2) the degree of top management and other support for using the skills, and (3) feedback regarding the results of using the skills. The purpose of the present study was to explore the relative importance of variables associated with long-term BMT effectiveness. The following four hypotheses guided the research:

(1) Trainee reactions, cognitive learning, perceptions of BMT skill use, and perceptions of the effects of BMT skills on organisation performance will be positive two years following a BMT training programme for managers and supervisors.

(2) The degree of congruence between the skills taught in BMT and the existing organisation norms will be positively associated with training outcomes.

(3) Trainee perceptions of management and other external support for the use of BMT skills will be positively associated with training outcomes.

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(4) Trainee perceptions of the existence of specifit BMT training goals and feedback regarding their own and organisation performance will be positively associated with training outcomes.

Method Design of the Study The design of this study was unique in that it examined the results of a BMT programme two years following the training intervention. In a cross-sectional survey, participants were asked to reflect on the results of the training programme they had received two years earlier. Since there were no control groups or pre-measures, the study used an after-only quasi-experimental design. Although this design has some limitations that will be discussed later, it does provide a basis for exploring how participants felt about the value of training they had received, as well as their perceptions of its effects in the organisation.

Setting and Subjects The BMT programme examined in this study was designd to teach interpersonal

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problem-solving skills to managers and supervisors in a large non-profit hospital chain in the western United States. Training was conducted on site at each of 13 hospitals. Hospitals ranged in bed-size from 20 to 520 with an average of 276. The number of trainees at each hospital ranged from seven to 161. A total of 728 managers and supervisors initially received the training.

Training Content and Process The training consisted of five, three-and-a-half-hour modules spaced about one week apart to allow time for practice of skills between sessions. Specific modules involved instructing managers and supervisors to: communicate information better, diagnose and solve motivational problems, diagnose and solve ability problems, deal with difficult employees, and refine and generalise one's skills. Managers and supervisors received the training in groups of about 20.

Several specific activities were built into the training process to help foster transfer. For example, top managers in each of the hospitals were familiarised with the training materials prior to the commencement of the programme. A person from ten of the 13 hospitals was designated as a "master trainer" to facilitate the training programme in his/her hospital. (In three of the smaller hospitals, training was facilitated by a master trainer from a nearby larger hospital.) Master trainers were trained in conducting the BMT programme by a consulting firm retained to design and co-ordinate the programme. They in turn trained the senior managers participating in BMT in their own hospitals. These managers, with the help of the master trainer, then trained their manager and supervisor subordinates who then became the trainers for the next lower level of supervisors. Thus, nearly all of the training was conducted by in-hospital personnel, and much of the training in the larger hospitals was provided by managers to their subordinate supervisors. Video segments were professionally done and used realistic hospital examples developed by the consulting organisation in conjunction with personnel from one of the hospitals in the chain. Finally, the last training session was devoted to generalisation of learned skills to a variety of management situations. Thus, the content and process of the training was similar to many other reported applications of BMT.

Data Collection The research was conducted by the authors independent of the consulting firm that developed the BMT programme. The hospital corporation sanctioned the evaluation, but did not provide any financial support. Thus, the research was an independent evaluation of the training effects.

The research employed a survey instrument and structured interviews to evaluate the effects of the BMT programme. The survey was administered at 13 hospitals to all supervisors and managers who completed the initial round of training and who were still hospital employees at the time of the survey. Surveys were distributed by the master trainer for each hospital. Respondents were instructed to complete the survey, seal it in an attached envelope, and

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mail it directly to the researchers. Six hundred and sixteen (616) surveys were distributed and 369 were returned for a 60 per cent response rate.

In addition to the survey, data were collected via individual structured interviews with the hospital administrator and the master trainer at each of the 11 hospitals. Interviews, generally lasting about half-an-hour, were conducted by the first author and an assistant. The purpose of these interviews was to generate another source of information to validate the survey results and to determine if there were any additional outside events which might have influenced the training outcomes in each hospital.

Dependent Measures Four dependent measures were used in the research. These measures follow Kirkpatrick's (1976) suggestion that training outcomes be evaluated using four criteria: trainee reactions, cognitive learning, behavioural changes on the job, and performance results. It is important to note that the latter two criteria were measured in terms of trainee perceptions rather than objective measures.

• Trainee reactions. This variable consisted of a four-item five-point Likert scale developed to assess the extent to which trainees valued the skills taught in the BMT. This scale had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.86.

• Trainee learning. This measure consisted of six items from a cognitive learning test developed by the consulting organisation that designed the BMT programme. Each of the items presented an interpersonal situation followed by five behavioural responses. The respondent was instructed to choose the best response. An example of one of the situations described on this test was: "You notice an experienced employee involved in an unsafe work practice. You approach him or her and state: . . ." (Cronbach's alpha = 0.58).

• Behavioural change. Following Goodman et al. (1980) a three-item scale was developed to assess the degree to which BMT skills were institutionalised. The scale measured trainee perceptions of the extent to which the skills (1) were being used by others, (2) had become a routine way of operating in the hospital, and (3) would have a lasting impact. Trainees were asked to rate the success of the BMT programme on each of these dimensions on a five-point scale with 1 = not successful, 3 = moderately successful, and 5 = very successful (alpha = 0.90).

• Performance. This four-item scale measured trainees' perceptions of the extent to which the BMT programme had improved overall hospital performance. Performance was defined in terms of financial, productivity, quality, and working climate criteria. Each of these criteria was rated on a five-point scale with 1 = not successful, 3 = moderately successful, and 5 = very successful (alpha = 0.87).

Independent Measures • Congruence. This variable was measured using a four-item five-point

Likert scale to assess trainee perceptions of the degree to which the

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BMT skills were congruent with existing hospital and work group norms and goals (alpha = 0.78).

• Support. A three-item five-point Likert scale was used to assess trainee perceptions of the degree to which their immediate superior and top management supported the use of BMT skills. It also measured respondents' perception of the existence of an in-hospital sponsor for the training programme (alpha = 0.66).

• Feedback. This four-item five-point Likert scale measured trainee perceptions of the extent to which they had knowledge of the goals and results of the training, both from an individual and an organisational perspective (alpha = 0.72).

In addition, measures of hospital size and trainee turnover were obtained from each hospital during interviews with the hospital administrators. These measures were considered as possible modifiers of training effects.

Results Long-term Training Outcomes A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted first to determine if there were any significant differences on the dependent measures between hospitals. Since none were found, data from the 13 hospitals were combined for all subsequent analyses. As shown by means in Table I, trainee reactions two years following the training were quite positive (mean = 4.07, out of five possible). However, learning appeared to be weak, with an average of 2.63 correct responses out of six possible on the unidimensional cognitive learning measure. Trainees perceived the BMT skills to be moderately institutionalised (X = 3.13) and to have a moderate impact on performance (X = 3.19). Analysis of performance subscales revealed that training was perceived to have the most positive impact on working climate (X = 3.43), followed by quality of service (X = 3.30), productivity (X = 3.23), and financial performance (X = 2.87). Thus, hypothesis one was partially supported: reactions to the training were favourable and trainees perceived the BMT to be at least moderately successful in changing behaviour and improving hospital performance two years after the training. However, the long-term effect on learning appeared to be negligible.

Correlates of Training Effects The second hypothesis stated that the training effects would be positively associated with the perceived level of congruence between BMT skills and hospital/work group norms and goals. This hypothesis was supported for trainee reactions (r = 0.51), behavioural change (r = 0.51), and performance (r = 0.46), all significant at the 0.001 level. The level of perceived congruence was not significantly related to the learning criteria. Thus the congruence of BMT skills was associated with positive training effects for three of the four dependent measures.

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Variable

1. Reactions 2. Learning

3. Behavioural change

4. Performance

5. Congruence

6. Support

7. Feedback

8. Trainee turnover

10. Hospital size

Note: Numbers * p <0.05

** p <0.01 ** p < 0.001

Mean

4.07 2.63

3.13

3.19

3.78

4.34

3.37

0.15

276.3

SD

0.64 1.68

0.81

0.67

0.60

0.57

0.57

0.12

145.8

in parentheses

1

0.16*** (333)

0.45*** (348) 0.50*** (343) 0.51*** (346) 0.43*** (345) 0.54*** (343)

-0.03 (352) -0.05 (352)

2

-0.11* (331) -0.10 (327) -0.02 (330) 0.09* (329) -0.02 (328)

-0.05 (334) 0.00 (334)

3

0.69*** (344) 0.51*** (345) 0.31*** (343) 0.50*** (341)

0.04 (349) -0.03 (349)

below correlation coefficients

4

0.46*** (341) 0.27** (340) 0.55*** (337)

-0.05 (344) -0.08 (344)

5

0.48*** (346)

0.41*** (343)

0.05 (347) -0.10* (347)

6

0.36*** (342)

-0.01 (346) -0.12*** (346)

are applicable sample sizes.

7

(339)

-0.04 (344) -0.14** (344)

8 9

-0.41*** (355)

10

Table I. Means, Standard

Deviations, Sample Sizes,

and Correlations of Variables

The third hypothesis stated that external support would be positively associated with the training effects. Support for this hypothesis was found for all dependent measures. External support was significantly related to trainee reactions (r = 0.43, p<0.001), learning (r < 0.09, p<0.05), behavioural change (r < 0.31, p< 0.001), and performance (r = 0.27, p< 0.001).

Hypothesis four suggested that the presence of specific goals and performance feedback regarding the effects of BMT would be positively associated with training outcomes. This hypothesis was supported for three of the four dependent measures at the 0.001 level: reactions (r = 0.54), behavioural changes (r = 0.50), and performance (r = 0.55). Specific goals and feedback had no apparent relation to learning scores.

Although not examined as a specific hypothesis, the relation of hospital size (bed size) to the dependent and independent measures was also analysed. Hospital size was not significantly related to any of the dependent measures, but was related to each of the three independent variables: congruence (r = -0.10, p<0.05), support (r = -0.12, p<0.01), and feedback (r = -0.14, p<0.01).

The relation between trainee turnover rate and the dependent measures was also examined. As might be expected, the rate of turnover was negatively correlated with three of the four dependent criteria, but none of the correlations was significant. Trainee turnover had a relatively strong negative correlation with hospital size (r = -0.41, p< 0.001), indicating that higher turnover occurred in the smaller hospitals.

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In order to determine which of the independent variables contributed most to explaining the variance in each of the dependent measures, we conducted four stepwise regression analyses. The results of these analyses are shown in Table II. As can be seen, the variable most predictive of trainee reactions was feedback, followed by congruence, and then by support. Together these three variables accounted for 41 per cent of the variance in trainee reactions. Two variables, congruence and feedback, explained 34 per cent of the variance in behavioural change. These same two variables contributed 36 per cent of the explained variance in performance. None of the three independent variables were significant in explaining variance in the learning measure.

Dependent Variable

Reactions

Learning

Behavioural change

Performance

Note: n = 311 ** p<0.01

*** p< 0.001

Independent Variables

Feedback Congruence Management support None significant Congruence Feedback

Feedback Congruence

R

0.55 0.63 0.64

0.50 0.59

0.54 0.60

R2

0.30 0.39 0.41

0.25 0.34

0.29 0.36

R2 change

0.30*** 0.09*** 0.02***

0.25*** 0.09***

0.29*** 0.07***

Table II. Results of Stepwise Regression Analyses

As shown in Figure 1, it is reasonable to expect some of the dependent variables in the previous analysis also to be predictor variables. Based on the reasoning of Kirkpatrick (1976) and others, the following relationships are plausible:

(1) trainee reactions may influence learning; (2) reactions and learning may influence behavioural change, and (3) reactions, learning and behavioural change may influence job

performance. Each of these three models were tested using the stepwise regression procedure. The original independent variables were also included in the regression models. The results are displayed in Table III.

Two variables, trainee reactions and feedback, explained 5 per cent of the variance in the learning measure. Four variables, congruence, feedback, learning, and reactions accounted for 38 per cent of the variance in behavioural change. Behavioural change, feedback, and reactions explained 54 per cent of the variance in the performance measure. These results provide some support for the theoretical argument that the four training effectiveness criteria are sequentially related, that is, each successive training outcome is a predictor of those that follow.

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Dependent Variable

Learning

Behavioural change

Performance

Note: n = 311 ** p<0.01

***p<0.001

Independent Variables

Reactions Feedback Congruence Feedback Learning Reactions Behavioural change Feedback Reactions

R

0.16 0.21 0.50 0.59 0.60 0.61 0.69 0.73 0.74

R2

0.03 0.05 0.25 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.48 0.53 0.54

R2 change

0.03*** 0.02** 0.25*** 0.10*** 0.01** 0.01** 0.48*** 0.05*** 0.01** Table III.

Results of Stepwise Regression Analyses

Using Training Outcomes as

Predictor Variables

Discussion The results of this study provide some support for the long-term effectiveness of behaviour modelling training. Consistent with previous research, the present study found that trainees reacted favourably to BMT. Although it was impossible to determine if trainee reactions changed over time, it was remarkable to find such highly positive reactions two full years after the training. The analyses suggested that the presence of specific goals and performance feedback regarding the effects of BMT were the primary predictors of positive trainee reactions. The congruence of BMT skills and existing organisational norms was also found to be an important determinant of trainee reactions. Lastly, external support contributed somewhat to positive outcomes on this criterion.

Data from an open-ended question on the survey and from the structured interviews support this interpretation. Trainees indicated that they liked the BMT programme because it was consistent with what they felt they needed, it was unique and professionally presented, it was well supported, and it produced noticeable results. Administrators and master trainers from most of the hospitals indicated that the training programme was highly visible and appeared to be well-received by participants. Thus, a combination of factors internal and external to the training appeared to be associated with the high level of sustained trainee enthusiasm for the programme.

The results with respect to the cognitive learning criterion were problematic. Previous research has generally found a higher level of learning following BMT. Since we do not know what the cognitive scores were immediately preceding and following the training, it was impossible in the present study to determine what amount of learning loss (if any) occurred. It is probable that some loss occurred. Additionally, the learning measure had only a modest level of reliability and unknown validity and, thus, may not have captured any true learning that was retained over time.

The independent variable most positively associated with higher learning scores was external support. It is possible that top management and other

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sources of support served to reinforce learning subsequent to the BMT. In the regression analysis, trainee reactions and feedback were the only variables that contributed significantly to the variance in learning, and they did not contribute much. In fact, learning was negatively correlated with perceptions of behavioural change. This finding is difficult to interpret but may be explained by reasoning that participants who learned the most, themselves were more critical in their observation and evaluation of the degree of behaviour change in others. In the final analysis, however, the findings with respect to learning outcomes are ambiguous. It is likely that ability, motivation, and other individual difference variables not measured in this study may have been more responsible for the learning criterion variations.

The findings of this study are consistent with previous research in suggesting that BMT has a positive effect on subjective measures of behaviour and performance (Burke and Day, 1986). Trainees perceived the BMT skills to be moderately institutionalised and to have a positive effect on hospital performance. The greatest perceived effect was on working climate. This is consistent with the primary goal of the training: to improve interpersonal relations. Lesser effects were perceived for quality of service, productivity, and financial performance. This is not surprising since changes in these "hard" measures are difficult to detect even under more controlled conditions, particularly two years following the training. Indeed, although the administrators interviewed were generally very positive about the training programme, none could say with any certainty that the programme had contributed to the bottom-line. Most administrators were realistic in this regard — they had not expected the programme to produce precisely measurable results when they adopted it.

The regression analyses suggested that the level of perceived congruence was an important determinant of both perceived behavioural change and performance improvement. This finding is consistent with arguments presented by Porras and Hargis (1982) and Russell et al. (1984). Congruence may be essential because individuals are more likely to accept changes that are consistent with organisational norms and individual values (Buller et al., 1985). When trainees' attitudes and values are aligned with the behaviours taught in BMT, less cognitive dissonance is likely to occur and individuals are less likely to revert to old ways of behaving (Mayer and Russell, 1987).

It is clear why some trainees viewed the BMT skills as not congruent. One possibility, derived from the structured interviews, is that some hospital administrators and master trainers had what they felt were more pressing priorities at the time the training was given. For example, one hospital was preparing for a move to a new building; another had just recently begun operations. Another possible explanation concerns the training programme itself. Those interviewed at one hospital, for example, felt that the "canned" BMT content did not fit their particular needs. This sentiment did not appear to be widespread, however.

Another factor important to positive perceptions of behavioural change and performance was the presence of specific goals and feedback regarding BMT outcomes. Specific goals and performance feedback are important because they

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direct attention and motivate sustained effort (Locke et al., 1981). As Russell et al. (1984) suggested, goals and feedback may provide the reinforcement necessary to create and maintain behavioural and performance changes beyond the training. They may also provide the structure and stability which helps individuals deal with the uncertainty of change (Beckhard and Harris, 1977); Porras and Hargis, 1982). Several hospitals were creative in making the results of the programme visible. For example, an "Interpersonal Problem Solver of the Month" recognition award was given to a trainee who was "caught" applying the skills on the job.

External supports may have served similar reinforcing and stabilising functions for participants. The data suggested that top management, boss, and in-house BMT sponsor supports were perceived to be quite strong, and that this support was associated with positive effects for each of the dependent measures.

An interesting finding was that hospital size was negatively correlated with each of the three independent variables: congruence, support, and feedback. It is reasonable to argue that congruence may be more difficult to achieve when the training has to satisfy the needs of a larger number of people. It may also be more difficult to provide visible support for the training programme and feedback about its effects when the organisation is large. All of this suggests there may be more forces to overcome in larger organisations to ensure that the training effects are sustained.

Another interesting outcome of the study was the negative relationship between hospital size and trainee turnover; higher turnover was experienced in the smaller hospitals. This finding was consistent with the operational philosophy of this and other hospital chains — to use smaller hospitals as training grounds for management positions in larger hospitals. The implications of this relationship for long-term training outcomes is clear. At some point, trainee turnover will reduce the critical mass of managers who have learned the BMT skills. Unless mechanisms are established periodically to train new managers, the organisation's skill base will be lost.

The results of this study also provide some evidence consistent with previous theory and research regarding a hierarchy of training outcomes. Learning outcomes appeared to be influenced by trainee's reactions to the training. Perceived behavioural change appeared to be influenced, although minimally, by learning and reactions. Perceived performance outcomes appeared to be influenced primarily by perceptions of behavioural change, and minimally by trainee reactions.

Of course, these and other conclusions must be viewed cautiously because of several limitations of this study. First, the cross-sectional research design and lack of control groups limited our ability to determine causality. Although we have identified some significant correlations we cannot conclude unambiguously that variables are causally related, nor can we specify the precise direction of the relationships. Future research is needed to examine the long-term effects of BMT under more controlled conditions. Second, the majority of our measures were subjective rather than objective. Moreover, all of the variables, with the exception of the learning measure, turnover, and hospital size, and other information derived from the structured interviews, were subject to the problem of common method and common source variance. This

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methodological problem undoubtedly accounted for a portion of the observed correlations between dependent and independent variables. Future studies are needed to examine the long-term effects of BMT on objective measures of behaviour and performance. A final limitation is that several variables, both internal and external to the BMT training programme, were found to be related to training outcomes. Consequently, it is not clear whether the BMT or some other "intervention" such as goal setting and feedback, or other reinforcement mechanism produced the long-term effects.

Implications for Management Practice In summary, positive long-term training outcomes appeared to be associated with (1) the perceived congruence of BMT skills with existing organisational norms, (2) the presence of specific BMT goals and feedback regarding training effects, and (3) management support and other sources of external support for the training. These findings, together with previous theory and research in BMT and organisation development, lead us to speculate that long-term training effectiveness may be a function of two related change processes: the adoption of new behaviours and the continuation of those behaviours (Goodman et al., 1980).

The adoption of new behaviours may be enhanced by designing training programmes that are congruent with existing norms, by establishing specific goals and outcome expectations, and by making initial support for the programme highly visible. A key issue appears to be the congruence of the training. Congruence would be enhanced by conducting a thorough needs analysis to ensure that the programme content and process fit the organisation. There is a potential problem, however, if the training is designed to change the organisational norms. In this case, the initial adoption of the trained skills will probably require even greater emphasis on goals and expectations and on visible and sustained top management support. Individuals will be more likely to adopt skills that are incongruent when it is clear that the use of those skills is expected and will be supported.

The continuation of newly learned behaviours in the workplace may be enhanced by providing feedback concerning their effects, and by maintaining visible sources of support and reinforcement for their use. In this regard, the incorporation of the new skills in the performance appraisal system and the use of rewards for effective application of those skills may provide more powerful means for sustaining long-term effectiveness. It would also be useful to provide information regarding the effects of the training on individual, group, and organisational performance. This information could include both soft data (e.g. testimonials such as, "I tried it and it works") and hard data regarding unit performance. Our clear impression from the structured interviews conducted in this study was that positive trainee reactions and examples of employees using the new skills were enough evidence for administrators to confirm the value of the training. Most of those interviewed believed that hard evidence of bottom line improvements would be difficult, if not impossible, to detect.

A particular concern regarding continuation of the trained skills is trainee turnover. Over time, turnover will have a negative impact on the use of skills. Unless formal mechanisms are in place to train new employees, the skill base

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of the organisation will diminish. In this regard, periodic refresher training courses may also help to maintain long-term use of skills. The availability of refresher training also provides a visible signal of ongoing support of the programme to organisation members.

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McGehee, W. and Tullar, W. (1978), A Note on Evaluating Behaviour Modification and Behaviour Modelling as Industrial Training Techniques", Personnel Psychology, Vol. 31, pp. 477-84.

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Porras, J., Hargis, K., Patterson, K., Maxfield, D., Roberts, N. and Bies, R. (1982), "Modeling-based Organisational Development. A Longitudinal Assessment", The Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, Vol. 18, pp. 433-46.

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