Foreword

ItismyprivilegetowriteafewintroductorythoughtsonthisfinetributetothelifeandinfluenceofJohnHoward. I think the Rev.William E. Hart has performed a praiseworthy service to the penalreformmovement in Canada. I believe his is the most ambitious project to explain Howard andsummarizehisfindingthathasbeneattemptedinthiscountry.Othershavemadeusefulreferencesbutnone,Ithink,hasassembledsomuchimportantmaterialorarrangeditinsuchausefulformat.TheHonoraryLifePresidentoftheJohnHowardSocietyofSaintJohn,NewBrunswick,hasbroughtout this “Appreciation”, as he calls it, at an appropriate time. John Howard Societies have beenformedacrossCanadafromVancouver,BCtoSt.John’sNFLD.ThousandsofCanadianshavecometoknow the name possesses limited knowledge and understanding of the man himself. Mr. Hart’streatisewillserveasausefulinformationtextbookontheJohnHowardstoryandtradition.PerhapsIcanaddafewnotestothoseofMr.Hartandwillitemizeasfollows:-

1. Howard’sReligion

R.S.E. Hinde, in his book on the British Penal System (1773-1950), makes this significantevaluation:

“Howard’s religious enthusiasm even extended to his housing programme. Thisexcellent and extraordinary man, wrote an anonymous admirer, constantly builds acottage every year on his own estate, and puts a poor family in possession of it, onexpresscondition,however,thattheyattenddivineserviceeverySabbath,atChurch,atMass, atMeeting or Synagogue. If Howardwas actively Christian, hewas certainlybroad-minded and tolerant of the religious beliefs of thosewhomight disagreewithhim.Hewasnobigot”.

John

JohnHoward

~

AnAppreciation

By

Rev.WilliamE.Hart

Tohave held these views in the 18th centurywas certainly themark of an enlightened andtolerantindividual.ThetraditionbasedonHoward’sreligioustolerancemayhelpexplainthepresentstrictlyundenominationalstatusoftheJohnHowardmovementinCanada.

2. Howard’sHonors

IhavebeforemeHoward’smessagetothe“Gentleman’sMagazine”whereinhetriedtocalloff the campaign to erect a John Howardmonument. (This project had been inspired by aletter to this influential organ in May, 1786.) Howard became greatly disturbed when heheardthat615personshadsubscribed.Inanattempttodiscouragetheproposal,hewrote…“HaveInotonefriendinEnglandthatwouldputastoptosuchaproceeding?”Itshouldnot,however,bethoughthatHowardmetonlywithhonorsandapprobationinhislifetime.Hewasassailedwithcriticism,someofitverymuchlikethatencounteredbymodernprisonreformers.Forinstance,itwasalleged,“thatthebenevolentHowardismakingthejailsof therealmsocomfortable that felonscommit freshcrimestoreturntothem”. Onewritercontendedthat“honestlaborersenvythebetterfoodandgreaterleisureenjoyedbytheJohnHoward’sconvicts.” Suchcritics,oldtomodern,overlookthemore importantconsiderationthatlossoflibertyisthegreatestpunishmentofall.

3. Howard’sPraisefromEdmundBurke

Mr.HartquotesthetributemadeattheGuildhallinBristolin1780bythisfamousorator.Itisverymoving.I,however,wouldliketoadditsfinalparagraphwhichMr.Hartdidnotuse.Thisreadsasfollows:-

“Howard will receive, not by retail, but in gross, the reward of those who visit theprisoner;andhehassoforestalledandmonopolizedthisbranchofcharity, thattherewillbe,Itrust,littleroomtomeritbysuchactsofbenevolencehereafter”.

We know now; form sad experience in England, Canada and elsewhere, that the Hon.Mr.Burkefeelintopropheticerrorhere.EverycountryineverygenerationneedsaJohnHoward.Thepenalpatternhasbeenall too clear. Reforms,aftermuch struggle, arebroughtabout.Complacencythensets inanoldevils reappear. Wewanttopreventsuchregression in theCanadaofthefuture.Thiswemayaccomplish–ifwecanmaintainstrongJohnHoward(andElizabethFry)SocietiesacrossCanadawithpeoplebehind themwhohavesomethingof thecompassionandthezealofJohnHoward.

J.AlexEdminsionNationalParoleBoard,Ottawa,Canada

JohnHoward

JohnHowardwasaremarkablemanandwelldeservesthehonorspaidtohim in his own lifetime and in ours. He was much provoked when hefound that his friends and admirers were setting up a fund to raise amemorialtohim.Iwonderwhetherornotitwouldpleasehimthattodaypeople who band themselves together to help prisoners call theirorganizations“JohnHowardSocieties”.MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutJohnHoward,includingvariousbiographies.ButwhenItriedtobuyhisbiographytherewasnothinginprint.However,in1958therewaspublishedinEnglandabiographyaboutthreetimesthelengthofthisappreciation,“JohnHowardPrisonReformer”writtenbyD.L.Howard and published by Christopher Johnson Publishers Ltd., 11-14Stanhope Mews, West London, Sw7. Alexander Edminson, a Canadian

leader in prison reform,whowrote the forward to this story, has lentme a biographywritten byHepworthDixon,andpublishedin1869.Ithasbeenmygreatgoodfortunetobeabletoborrowfromthe library ofmy AlmaMater, theUniversity of Kings College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Howard’s ownmonumentalworks “That Stateof thePrisonsof EnglandandWaleswithPreliminaryObservationsandanAccountofSomeForeignPrisons”,publishedin1777withanappendixpublishedin1780,and“AnAccountofthePrincipalLazarettosinEuropewithVariousPapersRelativetothePlague;togetherwith Further Observations on Some Foreign Prisons andHospitals; and Additional Remarks on thePresentStateofThoseinGreatBritainandIreland”,publishedin1789,ayearbeforehisdeath.Thisbiographyand theseworksofHowardaremyprincipal sources. This story shouldbeofparticularinteresttomembersofJohnHowardSocieties.Toknowsomethingaboutthemanwhosenobleandillustriousnamewebearshouldbeaninspirationtoustocarryonoureffortsforprisonersinhisspiritofselflessdevotion.HisReligion

JohnHowardwasamanofreligiousfervourandoftenhewrestledinprayer.Thefollowingextractsfromhisdiarygiveagoodindicationofhischaracter,andofthepowerthatmadehimsoeffective:

“Hague,SundayEvening,Feb.11,1770:Ihopefortenderconscience,bygreaterfearofoffendingGod–atempermoreabstractedfromthisworld–moreresigned,todeathorlife–athirstingforunionandcommunionwithGod…Oshout!Mysoul–grace,grace!Free,sovereign,richandunboundedgrace!NotI,notI,anill-deserving,hell-deservingcreature,butwhensinaboundsItrustgracesuprabounds–evenIhavestillsomehope–whatjoyinthathope!–thatnothingshallseparatemysoulfromtheloveofGodinJesusChrist”.“Lyons,April4,1770:RepeatedinstancesoftheunweariedmercyandgoodnessofGod!Preservedhithertoinhealthandsafety!BlessedbythenameoftheLord!Endeavour,Omysoultocultivateandmaintainathankful,serious,humbleandresignedframeandtemperofmind. MayitbethechiefdesirethatthehonorofGod–thespreadoftheredeemer’sNameandGospel–maybepromoted.O!considertheeverlastingworthof

Spiritual and Divine enjoyments; then wilt thou see the vanity and nothingness ofworldlypleasures.”“Naples, May 27, 1770: My highest ambition the honor and glory of God… Stop;rememberthouartacandidateforeternity.Daily,fervently,prayforwisdom.LiftupthineheartandeyesuntotheRockofAges–andthenlookdownuponthegloryofthisworld.Alittlewhilelongerandthyjourneywillbeended.Bethoufaithfuluntodeath.Dutyisthine,thoughthepowerisGod’s.”“Rotterdam, Sunday evening, September 2, 1770: Very desirous am I of returning (toEngland)witharightspirit,notonlywiser,butbetter;withacheerfulhumility–amoregeneral love and benevolence tomy fellow creatures –watchful ofmy thoughts,mywords,myactions–resignedtothewillofGod,thatImaywalkwithGod,andleadamoreusefulandhonorablelifeinthisworld”.

Hewasmethodicalinhishabitsandlivedaccordingtoastrictdiscipline.Itwaspartofhisreligiontobeabstemiousinfoodanddrink,disdainingallrichmeatsandwines.Hisdressandhismannerswereunassuming. He cared less than nothing for high society and its pleasures. John Howard was aChristiannotatallconformedtothisworld.Hiscouragewasmanifestedinawaythathespoketoprinces,whentheoccasionoffered,concerningtheill-treatmentofprisonersintheirdungeonsandmoreinthewayinwhich,withperfectimpunity,heenteredpest-housescrawlingwithdiseaseanddeath.His labourswere tireless. I donot suppose therehaseverbeenanyone,beforeor since,whohasvisitedsomanyprisons.Theexplanationofhislifeisreligion–itwasforhimwhatthemainspringistoawatch.ComparingJohnHowardwithSt.Paul,itismyconvictionthattheirworkwassoeffectivebecausetheybelieveditwasGod’smissionforthem,onetopreachamongtheGentilestheunsearchablerichesofChrist,andtheothertorelievethedistressofprisoners.IwonderhowoftenJohnHowardthoughtofourLord’swords–“Iwasinprison,andycametome”,andwhattheymeanttohim.HisWealth

Hisfatherwasamerchantandamassedaconsiderablefortune.Johninhisyouthwasapprenticedtoa grocer but the business world did not appeal to him. While only a young man and still anapprentice,heandhissisterinheritedtheirfather’sfortune.Hefeltthatthisinheritancewasnotforhisownpleasureandprofitbutthathismoneywaslefttohimintrustforthegoodofmankind.Hewasneverlimitedinhiserrandsofmercyforlackoffunds.Heneverhadtoaskhimselfwhereisthemoneycoming from. Amemberofparliament, surprisedat theextentofminutenessofhisprisoninspections,askedthenaturalandinnocentquestionatwhoseexpensehetravelled.ButHowardwassoindignantthathecouldhardlyreply.Hespendagoodpartofhisfortuneaswellasagoodpartofhislifeinhismissionsofmercy.

HisHealth

Hehadaconsumptivetendencyanduntilthetimehetookuphislife’sworkhetookverygoodcareofhimself. At one time he could almost be described as a valetudinarian, that is a person muchpreoccupiedwithhis stateofhealth. It isamazing thatamanofdelicatehealthwho,untilmiddleage,hadlivedaquietlifeasacountrysquire,couldsothrowhimselfintosuchstrenuousandperilouslabors.Tousinthisdayoffastandeasytravel,42,000milesmaynotseemagreatmatter.Buthistravellingwasonhorsebackorbystage-coach.Hevisitedthemostnoxiouscells,wheregaolersandphysicians were afraid to follow, believing that God who had given him his mission, wouldovershadowhimbyhisProvidence. Hedidcontractvariousfeversandattheageof64diedoftheplagueinChersoninSouthernRussia.HisUnfortunateMarriagesandLifeasaCountrySquire

Histwomarriagesdidnotlastmorethantenyears.Hisfirstmarriageistypicaloftheman.Hewasboardingwithawidow,Mrs.SarahLoidore.Heexperiencedasevereattackofillness,andhislifewasalmostdespairedof. Hewasso impressedwiththekindnessofMrs.Loidorewhonursedhim,andwithhertendercareofhim,acomparativestranger,thathefelttherewasnootherwayforhimtoexpress his appreciated and gratitude except to propose marriage. It must have been a curiousstruggle for sheprotested that shewas tooold,beingmore than twicehis age, 52 years tohis 25years,andmuchbelowhisstationinlife,buthepersistedandprevailed.Neitherpartyhadanycausetoregretthisstrangemarriage.However,afterthreeyearsshedied.Hissecondwife,HenriettaLeeds,wasofhisownageandstationandincharacteranddispositionandineveryotherwaysheafittingpartnerforHoward.Thiswasatrueandtenderromance.Perhapsitwas because of some occasion from his first marriage, but during his courtship he was sostraightforwardandbluntandungallantas to stipulate that if after theyweremarried they shouldhaveadifferenceofopinionhiswillshouldrule.NodoubtHenrietta,likemanyothergoodwife,hadherownsweetwayofgettingherownway,withoutherdearJohnrealizingit.WhentheysettleddownonhispatrimonialestateatCardington inBedfordshire, they immediatelyset about building, planting, altering and improving their dwelling and their neighborhood. It iswonderfulwhat changes onemanwhohas theposition, themeans for it, and the inclination, caneffect. Howard on his estatewas like a Hebrew patriarch, benevolent and paternal. Many of histenants lived in dirty, miserable hovels, and he believed that if he gave them homes fit for self-respectingmenitwouldaddmuchtotheirhappinessandalsobringanimprovementintheirmorals.ForHowardtoholdaconvictionwastoactupon it. Hetookapersonal interest inhis tenantsandvisitedthemintheirhomes.He saw the necessity for schools and at his own expense built them and found good teachers forthem.Thechiefthingthatherequiredofthepupilsisthattheyattendedtheirownchurchorchapelregularly. He did somewhat fear, for the girls particularly, his schools would make the childrendiscontentedwiththeirhumblespheresoflife.

In thesephilanthropieshiswifewasofonemindwithhim. Itwas then the custom forwomenofpositiontowearexpensive jewelry. Henriettasoldnearlyallher jewelryandputtheproceeds inafundforthereliefofthepoor.Theirjoywasgreatwhen,afternearlysevenyearsofmarriage,asonwasborntothem.Butthisjoywassooncutshort.Henrietta,whoseemedtobeingoodhealthafterherchildwasborn,diedverysuddenly.Herhusbandgrieveddeeplyandeveryyearhekepttheanniversaryofherdeathinsolemnfast. Herminiaturehe carriedwithhim into thedeepest dungeonsof Europe. But had she lived,Howard might never have taken up his life work of prison reform and certainly would not havetravelledsoextensively.HisWaywardSon

Howardtookpainstogivehisson,Jack,thebestoftutorsandschools. Theboyturnedouttobeaheartbreakingdisappointmenttohisfather.Allthefatherwas,thesonwasnot.Helivedaselfish,reckless,dissolutelifeinthecourseofwhichhecontractedvenerealdisease.Hewentinsane,thoughattimeshehadlucidperiods.HowardwasmuchconcernedfortheonlychildofhisbelovedHenrietta.Hehopedagainsthopethathissonmightrecovertoliveasane,responsiblelife.ThefatherwasinquarantinefortheplagueatVenicewhenwordcameoftheseriousmisconductofhisson. Confined incloseandfoulquarters,withaburningfever,heartsickoverhissonandabletodonothingforhim,Howardfelt,himself,thebitternessoftheprisoner’scell.Finally,thesondiedinaninsaneasylumattheageofthirtyfour.Howcouldsuchafatherhavesuchason?Howard’srelationshipwithhissonhasbeenthesubjectofmuchcontroversy. TheconclusionthatIhavereachedisthatHowardwasanythingbutwiseinthetreatmentofhisson. Heexpectedan instant,complete,unreasoningandunreasonableobedience.Sosuccessfuldidhethinkhis trainingthatheclaimedthathissonwouldcutoffhis lefthand ifhisfatherorderedhim.Hedidnotseemtorealizethathissonhadastrongwillofhisown,andbrokeawayfromgivinghisfatherthatsamekindofobediencethatthefathergavetoGod.Howardcametorealizethatiftheboy’smotherhadlived,hislifewouldhavebeenverydifferent.APrisonerofWar

JohnHowardmusthavelikedtotravel. AsayoungmanhevisitedsunnyItalyforthebenefitofhishealth.Betweenhistwomarriagesheplanned,intheyear1755,togobyseatoLisbon.Thiswastheyearof the great earthquake, andmany in Lisbonwerehomeless anddestitute. ItwasHoward’spurposetoseethereliefoftheirdistressfromhisprivatefunds.ButhedidnotseeLisbonuntilmanyyearsafterwards. EnglandandFrancewereatwarandhisshipwascapturedbyaFrenchprivateer(wewouldcallitlicensedpiracy),andallonboardweremadeprisoners.TheywerecarriedtoBrestandtreatedwithbarbarity.Hewasconfinedwithmanyothers inadungeon,dark,damp,andfilthybeyonddescription.ManydiedandinonedaythirtysixwereburiedinaholeatDinan.Heinspiredin his captors confidence in his uprightness andwas allowed to reside in lodgings upon giving hispromise not to attempt to escape. The authorities gave him permission to return to England thebettertonegotiate,ifpossible,anexchangeforhisrelease.Ifhefailedinthishepromisedtoreturn

to captivity. He was able to stay in England and he interested the Commissioners for Sick andWoundedSeamentobestirthemselvesonbehalfofBritishprisonersofwar.SheriffofBedford

After the death of his second wife, Howard made for his health, an extended tour on thecontinent…France, Italy, Germany, and Holland, and then returned home to Cardington. In 1773,whenhewas fortyseven,hewasnominatedasSheriffofBedfordandhis life’scrusadewas finallybegun.TherewasdangerforhiminacceptingthisofficeforhewasaDissenterandtheTestActwastheninforce;thetestbeingthatnooneunabletotakecommunionintheEstablishedChurchcouldholdpublicoffice. ThepenaltyforviolatingtheTestActwasafineoffivehundredpoundsandtheloss of certain rights as a citizen. But Howard decided to put the Test Act to the test. If hisappointmentwasopposedbecauseofhisreligionhefeltthattheresultingpublicitywouldworkforthe cause of tolerance, and if his appointment stood, it would help abrogate this unjust andunpopularlaw.Thereligiousintoleranceofthosetimesisfurtherillustratedbythefollowing:“OneoftheroomsforDebtorsiscalledtheQuaker’sRoom;because,itissaid,whenthosepeopleweresocruellypersecutedinthelastCentury,vastnumbersofthemwereconfinedtoit”.BedfordGaol isworld famous for twomen associatedwith it. Beginning in 1660, the year of thereturnof themonarchy, JohnBunyanspenttwelveyears inBedfordGaolandtherewrotePilgrim’sProgress,thegreatestreligiousbook,outsidetheBible,intheEnglishlanguage.FromBedfordGaolacenturylater,JohnHowardbeganapilgrim’sprogressthatledhimtomanygaolsinmanycountries.TheBeginningofHisCrusade

Howardhadnointerestinthepompandceremonythatpertainedtohissheriff’soffice.Buthedidbecomeconcerned for theprisonersunderhis charge. Hewas shocked to findamong themmanyinnocentmen. Thesearehisownwordssetting forthhowandwhyhetookuphiscrusadefor thereliefofthedistressofhisprisoners:“Thedistressofprisoners,ofwhichtherearefewwhohavenotsome imperfect idea, camemore immediately undermynoticewhen Iwas sheriff of theCountyofBedford; and the circumstanceswhich excitedme to activity on their behalf,was the seeing some,who,bytheverdictofthejuries,weredeclaredNOTGUILTY–someonthegrandjurydidnotfindsuchan appearance of guilt as subjected them to a trial – and somewhose prosecutors did not appearagainstthem–havingbeenconfinedformonthsdraggedbacktogaol,andlockedupagainuntiltheyshould pay sundry fees to the gaoler, the clerk of assize, etc. IN order to redress this hardship, Iapplied to the justices of the county for a salary to the gaoler, in lieu of his fees. The benchwasproperly affected with the grievance, and willing to grant the relief desired; but they wanted aprecedentforchargingthecountywiththeexpense.Ithereforerodeintoseveralneighboringcountiesinsearchofaprecedent;butIsoonlearnedthatthesameinjusticewaspractisedinthem;andlookingintotheprisons,Ibeheldscenesofcalamity,whichIgrewdailymoreandmoreanxioustoalleviate!”(Fromtheintroductoryremarksonhisgreatwork,“TheStateofthePrisons”).

ThefirstofhismanyprisontoursincludedthecountygaolsofCambridge,Huntingdon,Northampton,Leicester,Nottingham,Derby,andStafford. Byaprovidentialcircumstance,JohnHowardsoonwasabletopresenthisfindingstotheHouseofParliament,thehighesttribunalintheland.TwoNewGoodLaws

Forthemostpart,JohnHowardworkedalone,suchwashisnature,butinthisreformhehadaveryhelpful ally inMr. Popham, amemberof parliament for Taunton inWestern England. At TauntonJudge Jeffreysopenedthe ‘BloodyAssize’hanging134,and transporting400of its inhabitantswhohadaccorded‘King’Monmouthanenthusiasticwelcomeintheyear1685.IndependentlyofHoward,Pophamhadbeentryingtogetparliamenttopassabillsubstitutingsalaryforgaoler’sfees.Abilltothis effect had passed two readings, but the third reading was deferred for certain amendments.Howard,whohadbynowmadeatourofthegaolsinthewesterncountries,wasaskedtopresenthisfindingsbeforeparliament.Hehadthefacts,aminutepersonalfirsthandknowledgeofhowprisonerswere treated, and he presented his argumentwith force and clarity. Hemade a deep impressionuponhisaudience.HewascalledbackbytheHousetobethankedforthehumanityandzealofhisphilanthropicefforts.HewasveryappreciativeofthesignalhonorpaidtohimandhisfirstvolumeonTheStateof thePrisons isdedicated to theHouseofCommons. Thehighlightofhiswholecareercame almost at the beginning of his crusade for the relief of prisoners. This experience greatlyincreasedhisstatureandhisreputation.Thoughhewasbutaprivatecitizen,hecarriedwithhimasenseofauthoritythatopenedtohisinspectionofmanyprisonseveninforeignlands.Thefirsttwoprisonreformbills,basedontheoriginaldraftofMr.Popham,passedMarch31,1774,declaredthatallprisonersagainstwhomnobillof indictmenthadbeenfoundbythegrandjury,orwho should be discharged by proclamation forwant of prosecution, should be immediately set atlarge in open court, without any payment of any fee or sum ofmoney to the sheriff or gaoler inrespectofsuchdischarge;andabolishingallsuchfeesforthefuture,itdirectedthepayment,inlieuofthem,ofasumnotexceeding13s.4d.outofpublicfundsforeveryprisonerdischarged.The other bill, which became law on June 2 of the same year, was concerned with health andsanitation in the prisons. It required the Justices to see that all prisons within their respectivejurisdictions,bescrapedandwhite-washedonceayearatleast–thattheroomsberegularlywashedandventilated,thatinfirmariesbeprovidedforthesick,andpropercarebetakenofthem–toorderclothes for them when needed – whenever possible to prevent their being kept in undergrounddungeons–and,generally,totakesuchmeasuresasshalltendtorestoreandpreservetheirhealth.Howard realized that in his day considerable timemight elapse between the passing of any act atWestminster and its enactment in all corners of the land, and the prolonged suffering of manywretched prisoners, at his own expense had these acts printed, and a copy of them sent to everywardenandgaolerintheKingdom.RenewedZeal

Encouraged by this notable success, Howard renewed his exertions on behalf of prisoners. In theintroduction toTheStateof thePrisonshewrote,“Thereare stillmanydisorders thatought tobe

rectified:prisonerssuffergreathardships,fromwhichIamdesiroustosetthemfree:theGAOLFEVERisnot,asIampersuadeditmaybe,totallyeradicated.Thesearemymotivesforprintingthisbook.Ithink it will show plainly, thatmuch is yet to be done for the regulation of prisons: and I am notwithouthopethatthepresentParliamentwillfinishwhathasbeensolaudablybegunbythelast.”“Iwas called to the first part ofmy task bymy office. To the pursuit of it Iwas prompted by thesorrowsofthesufferers,andlovetomycountry.Theworkgrewuponmeinsensibly.IcouldnotenjoymyeaseandleisureintheneglectofanopportunityofferedmebyProvidenceofattemptingthereliefofthemiserable.TheattentionofParliamenttothesubject,ledmetoconcludethatsomeadditionallaborwouldnotbe lost;and Iextendedmyplan. Thedifficulty I found insearchingoutevidenceoffraudandcrueltyinvariousarticles,togetherwithothersourcesofdistress,obligedmetorepeatmyvisitsandtraveloverthekingdommorethanonce”.HisThoroughInvestigation

Howardwasverymethodicalinhisinvestments.Hewrote,“Ienteredeveryroom,cell,anddungeonwithamemorandumbookinmyhand,inwhichInotedparticularsonthespot.”Ithinkhemusthavecarriedatapemeasuretomeasurethedimensionofcells,windows,etc.InhisnotesonaprisoninFlandershewrote,“Threedrearydungeonsdownnineteensteps:alittlewindowineach;noprisoners.Iwentdown,butmynotingthedimensionsofwindows,etc.soenragedtheKeeper,thathewouldnotindulge my curiosity any farther.” I think he was too modest in the first part of the followingstatement:“ButIdidnotexaminewiththeaccuracyofaSurveyor,andhopeIshallnotbethoughttoodirectinthestyleofaDictator.”The following statementneedsnocomment: “Iheard the Justiceshadviewed theOUTSIDEof thisprison(MarlboroughinWiltshire).”LetusconsidersomeoftheconditionsinsidetheprisonsthatsostirredHoward.SomePrisonAbuses

a)GaolFever

Themostscandalousconditionthathemetwasthegaolfever,thenveryprevalentinEngland,buthedidnotfinditanywhereabroad.IncontrastingtheprisonsofEuropeandEnglandhewas“puttotheblushformynativecountry”.Idonotknowwhetherthegaolfeverisonespecificdisease,orwhatthemedicalmanwouldcallitorwhether it nowexists. Itwas causedby close confinement in foul infected cells. Concerning gaolfeverHoward concluded,“Frommyownobservations in1773and1774, Iwas fully convinced thatmanymoreweredestroyedby it thanwereputtodeathbyall thepublicexecutions inthecountry.Thisfrequenteffectofconfinementintheprisonseemsgenerallyunderstood,andshowshowfullofemphaticalmeaning is thecurseofa severecreditor,whopronounceshisdebtor’sdoomtoROT INGAOL.Ibelievethefullimportofthissentence,fromthevastnumberswhotomycertainknowledge,someofthembeforemyeyes,haveperishedinthegaols.”

“InBaker’sChronicle,page353,thathistorianmentioningtheAssizeheldinOxfordCastle1577(calledfrom its fatal consequence theBlackAssize) informsus that ‘allwhowerepresentdiedwithin fortyhours;theLordChiefBaron,theSheriffandaboutthreehundredmore,LordChancellorBaconascribesthistoadiseasebroughtintocourtbytheprisoners,andDoctorMeadisofthesameopinion.”“Launceton.Ioncefoundtheprisonerschainedtwoorthreetogether.Theirprovisionisputdowntothemthroughaholeinthefloorofaroomabove(usedasachapel);andthosewhoservethemthere,oftencatchthefatalfever.AtmyfirstvisitIfoundtheKeeper,hisassistantandalltheprisonersbutonesickofit,andheardthatafewyearsbeforemanyprisonershaddiedfromit,andtheKeeperandhiswifeinonenight.”Notetheseshortextracts: “Thisprisonhasbeenfataltovastnumbers. TwoorthreeyearsagotheGaolFevercarriedoffmany.”WhenIwastherefirst,IsawonedyingontheflooroftheGaolFever.Mr.Rule,thesurgeontoldmethathewasbycontractexcusedfromattending inthedungeonsanyprisonersthatshouldhavetheGaolFever.”Howard argued that gaol fever should and could be exterminated not only in compassion to theprisoner, but for the safety of the populace. His remedy was better living quarters, morecommodious,drywithmoresunlightandair.Heparticularlyadvocatedtheregularuseofwhite-washtocleanseandtosweeten.AnotherremedywasvinegarforwashingbutIwouldpreferashedidthelimeforwhite-washing.Anothergreatscourgeof thatdaywassmallpoxbut itdoesnotseemtobemoreprevalent ingaolthanelsewhere.b)Close,FoulQuarters

UndertheheadingifAIR,Howardwrites:“AndastoAIR,whichisnolessnecessarythaneitherofthetwoprecedingarticles(foodandwater)andgiventousbyProvidencequitegratis,withoutanycareorlabor of our own. Yet, as if the bounteous goodness of Heaven excited our envy, methods arecontrivedtorobprisonersofthisgenuinecordialoflife,asDr.Halesveryproperlycallsit:Imeanbypreventingthatcirculationandchangeofthesalutiferousfluid,withoutwhichanimalscannotliveandthrive.Itiswellknownthatairwhichasperformeditsofficeinthelungsisfeculentandnoxious.In1756atCalcuttainBengal,outof170personswhowereconfinedinaholethereonenight,154weretaken out dead. Air which has been breathed is more poisonous to amore intense degree by theeffluvia from the sick,andwhatelse inprison isoffensive. I didnotwonder that in those journeysmanygaolersmadeexcuses;anddidnotgowithmeintothefelons’wards.”Howard’s conclusionwas not that a person can get used to unendurable conditions but that if hefoundonlyafewhoursinsuchill-smellingcellssoaffectedhimhowmuchworsemustitbeforthepoorcreaturesconfinedinthemmonthsandyears.“ChesterCastle.Ononesidearesixcells(stalls)eachaboutsevenfeetandahalfbythreeandahalf,lwithabarrackbedstead,andasmallapertureoverthedoor.Ineachofthesearelockedupatnightsometimesthreeorfourfelons.Nowindow;notabreathoffreshair;onlyanaperturewithagratein

the ceilingof thepassage, into thePope’s kitchenabove. Theypitch thesedungeons threeor fourtimesayear;whenIwas inoneofthemIorderedthedoortobeshut,andmysituationbroughttomindwhatIhadheardoftheBlackHoleofCalcutta.”“PlymouthTownGaol.Oneofthetworoomsforfelons,theclink,seventeenfeetbyeight,aboutfivefeet high, with a wicket in the door seven inches by five to admit light and air. To this, as I wasinformed,threemenwhowereconfinedneartwomonthsundersentenceofTransportation,cameinturnsforbreath.ThedoorhadnotbeenopenedforfiveweekswhenI,withdifficulty,enteredtoseeapale inhabitant. He had been there tenweeks under sentence of Transportation, and said he hadmuchratherhavebeenhangedthanconfinedinthatnoisomecell.”“YorkCityandCountyGaol. Themen felonsward isdownelevensteps; thatadjoining forwomen,down ten. The two night rooms formen are each five feet and a half by five. The night room forwomenaboutsixfeesquare.Alltheroomsforfelonsarecloseandoffensive;noamendmentsincethelateAct.Ihaveseenliquorshandedtothosewhoseemedtohavehadenoughbefore.Nowater,butwhenthereistoomuch,thatisinaveryhighflood,thenitflowsintotherooms.”In a few prisons great relief was afforded by the use of sail ventilators operated by hand, thuschangingandrefreshingtheair.Someofthecellswereunderground(Howardhadthecustomofcountingthenumberofstepshehadtogodown)andinconsequenceweredarkanddamp.Sometimesthefloorswereofearth.Inonedungeonoftentherewasaninchortwoofwateronthefloor.Concerningsewers,Howard’sbriefobservationveryoftenwasnosewersoroffensivesewers.Though the gaols were crowded, the rooms the prisoners should have used for other purposes,rentedout,usedas lumberrooms,usedforfarmanimalsandfowlsandthedunghillsdidnotmaketheairanypleasanterorhealthier. Glasswindowswere then taxedas luxuries. “TheKeeperpayswindowtax£3:7:0,andIsawsomewindowswerestoppedup.”“Water.ManyprisonershaveNOWATER.ThisdefectisfrequentinBridewells,andTownGaols.Inthefelonscourtsofsomecountygaols,thereisnotwater; insomeplaceswherethereisnowater,prisonersarealwayslockedupwithindoors,andhavenomorethanthekeeperorhisservantsthinkfittobringthem;inoneplacetheyarelimitedtothreepintsadayeach–ascantyprovisionfordrinkand cleanliness!” Howard would have in every prison a pump or better a stream where all theprisonerscouldhavereadyaccesstoit.Hewouldhavenewprisonsbuiltinairysituations,preferablynearastream,andwithnoundergroundcells.Intheindextohisfirstpublicationthereare58entriesundertheheading“Water,instanceswherenotaccessible.”c)Bedding,ClothingandFiring

StrawseemstohavebeentheprincipalbeddingandoneofHoward’smostfrequentobservationswasnostraw.“InmanygaolsandinmostBridewellsthereisnoallowanceofSTRAWforprisonerstosleepon;and ifbyanymeanstheygeta little, it isnotchangedformonthstogether,sothat it isalmost

worntodust.Somelieuponrags,othersuponthebarefloors.WhenIhavecomplainedofthistothekeepers,their justificationhasbeen‘thecountyallowsnostraw;theprisonershavenonebutatmycost’.Onetimeheremarkedthestrawwasnotonthefloorbutonframesorbedsteads.Onegaolhepraisedforhavingplentyofcleanstraw,thegaolerhavingpermissiontobuyasmuchaswasneededandthecountypayingforit.”Littleattentionwaspaidtotheprisoners’clothing,but inafewinstancesclothingwasprovidedforthemtoappearincourt.Howardadvocatedahotovenforkillinginfectionandvermininclothes.Hecites the following:“Iwas informed that anofficer, confinedhere someyears since, for only a fewdays, took inwithhimadog todefendhim fromvermin,but thedogwas soondestroyed,and theprisoner’sfacemuchdisfiguredbythem.”ThefollowingIquotebecauseitisparticularlygenerousprovisionforprisoners’clothing,andbecauseitmakesquaintreading:“Whenfelonscometothisprison(countygaolatReading)theyarestrippedandwashed,andthentheyputonclothesprovidedbythecounty.ThemenhaveaRussia-drabcoatandbreeches,aflannelwaistcoat,twocheckshirtsandtwopairofyarnhose. Thewomena linseywoolseygownandpetticoat,aflannelpetticoat,twodowlasshifts,twopairsofyarnhose.”d)Food

In his notes Howardmade hardly anymention of food except bred and sometimes it was in veryscantysupply.Ofthecountieshewrote,“ItwascommendableandexemplaryintheJusticesofthiscountytofixthefelonsallowancebyacertainweightofgoodbread,notvariablewiththeprice.”andheadvocatedthatthispracticebemadegeneral.Thefollowingcasesarechosenassamplesofnearstarvation:“Thecommon-sidedebtors,whomIsaweatingboiledbreadandwater,toldmethatthiswastheonlynourishmentsomehadliveduponfornearatwelvemonth.Twooffenders,whomIsawlasttime,wereforfineswhichtheynevercanpay;theyhadnotthecountyallowanceandwerealmoststarved.Sixprisoners,whomIsawthereatmyfirst visit, complainedofbeingalmost famished. Theywere senthither from theAssizea fewdaysbeforetoHARDLABOR(asthesentenceusuallyruns)formonths.TheJusticeshadorderedthekeepertosupplyeachofthemdailywithatwo-pennyloaf,buthehadneglectedthem.Theybrokeoutsoonafter.”“Atsomeprisonsbeggingwasallowed.Theyhangoutabeggingboxinthefrontofthehouse;andattendtoitinturn.Itbringsthemonlyafewpenceaday;andofthispittancenonepartakebutthosewhoatentrancehavepaidthekeepertwoshillingsandsix-pence;andtreatedtheprisonerswithhalfagallonofbeer.ThelasttimeIwastherenomorethanthreehadpaidfortheprivilege.”“IhavebeeninformedthatatChristmas,felonschainedtogetherwerepermittedtogoabout,oneofthemcarryingabasketforfood,another,aboxformoney.”Andatthesameprison,“Justoutsidetheprisongateisaroundstaplefixedinthewall;throughitisputachain,ateachendofwhichacommon-sidedebtorpadlockedbytheleg,standsofferingtothosewhopassby,nets,laces,purses,etc.,madeintheprison.ThetwowhomIsawtherelastwereCrown

debtorsnotclearedbytheLageInsolventAct.”ItwasinmakingsucharticlesthatJohnBunyanspentmanylonghoursinBedfordGaolahundredyearsbeforethis.Poordebtorswereallowedbylawtwoshillingsandfourpenceperweek,whichallowancewascalledgroats,butoftentheydidnotreceivethattowhichtheywereentitled.Charitablepersons,movedatthedistressofprisonersleftlegaciesfortheirrelief,oneofthemdatedbackasfaras1555,andalsolegacieswereprovided for the releaseofpoordebtors. Howard copied thismemorialof a legacy:“Mrs.HasterReedgavesixpenceaweekforever,tothisprisontobepaidoutofatenementcalledVenintheParishofCulenton,andlaidoutinmiddlingwheatbreadanddistributedalwaystotheprisonersin the shew. The shewor shoe is the commonword for poor debtors,who beg by letting down ashoe.” Butoften the recordof these legacieswas lostand theprisonersdidnot receivewhathadbeenmeantforthem. Greedaswellasnegligencenodoubthadapart inthismisappropriationoffunds.Thefollowingextractmentionsaverynotableperson:“Abouttwentyfivewerefines;whonothavingthe county allowance, nor any employment, were in September very pitiable objects indeed; halfnaked,andalmost famished. But inDecember thisappearancewasmuchaltered. Mr.Raikesandother gentlemen took pity on them, and generously contributed toward the feeding and clothingthem.”ThisistheRobertRaikeswhofoundedtheSundaySchoolmovement.ToconcludethissectionentitledFoodisthispitifulstory:“Theroomformenisfullelevenfeetsquare,andsixhigh;windoweighteeninchessquare;nochimney.Earthfloor,verydamp.ThedoorhadnotbeenopenedforfourweekswhenIwentinandthenthekeeperbeganshovellingawaythedirt.Therewas only one debtor who seemed to have been robust, but was grown pale by ten weeks closeconfinement,withlittlefood,whichhehadfromabrother,whoispoorandhasafamily.Hesaid,thedampnessoftheprison,withbutlittlestraw,hadobligedhim(hespokewithsorrow)tosendforthebedonwhichsomeofchildrenlay.Hehadawifeandtenchildren,twoofwhomdiedsincehecametither,and the restwerealmoststarving. Hehaswrittenmea letter since,bywhich I learn that isdistresswasnotmitigated,andhehasacompanion,miserableashimself.Noallowance.Keepernosalary. Fees8s4peveryaction. No table. Ayearor twoago fiveprisoners, Iwas informed,grewdesperatebywhattheysufferedinthiswretchedprisonandbrokeout.”e)Irons

Someprisonsweretheprivatepropertyofbishops,lords,andothersuchpersonages.Thisseemstobe a survival from the feudal system. (In them the gaolerswerenot subject to the control of themagistratesandmoreapttoabusetheprisoners).Withtheinheritedprisonthepropertywasnotadefiniteamountsetapart forupkeep. It isnot surprising thatmanyof theseprivatepersonsweremuchoutofrepair.Howardoftenterselydescribedtheminruinouscondition;notsecure.Tomakeforsecurityironswereloadedontheprisonersratherthanthemorecostlyrepairoftheprisons.ThemostnotoriousofsuchinstancesHowarddescribesasfollows:“Thisgaol,thepropertyofthebishop,whoisthelordofthefranchiseoftheIsleofEly,wasinpartrebuiltbythelatebishopabouttenyearsago;uponcomplaintofthecruelmethodwhich,forwantofasafegaol,thekeepertooktosecurehisprisoners.Thiswasbychainingthemdownontheirbacksuponafloor,acrosswhichseveralironbars,with an iron collar with spikes about their necks, and a heavy iron over their legs. An excellent

magistrate, JamesCollyer,Esq.,presentedanaccountof this case,accompaniedwithadrawing, totheKing,withwhichhisMajestywasmuchaffectedandgaveimmediateordersforaproperinquiryandredress.Inanoffensivedungeontherewerethreetransports,whouponsuspicionofintendinganescapewerechainedtothefloor.TheyhavenottheKing’sallowanceof2s6daweek.”Butloadingprisonerswithironswasalsopracticedingaolswhichweresecure.Avaricehadapartinit for somegaolers granteddispensations andgave their prisonerswhat they called “the choiceofirons”iftheypaidforit.Theironsmadewalkingandevenlyingdowntosleepdifficultandpainful.Insomecountygaolsironswereplacedonwomen,aseverityHowarddidnotfindanywhereinEurope.Morethanonce,uponhisstrongremonstrancewomenwerereleasedfromtheirirons.Often the place of trial was ten to fifteen miles from the place of incarceration and irons wereparticularly irksome for the prisoners inwalking from one to the other. Howard commended theofficialsinonecountyforprovidingconveyancefortheprisoners.Sometimesgaoldeliverywasonlyonceayear,whichmeantaninnocentmancould languishtenorelevenmonthsingaolawaitingtrialandinHullgaoldeliverywasonceinthreeyears.Thereseemedtobeverylittleaccommodationforprisonersinsomeoftheplaceswheretrialswerebeingheldandone of themost shocking things in Howard’s account is this, “Numbers of both sexes are shut uptogetherformanydaysandnightsinoneroom.Thisoccasionssuchconfusionanddistress,andsuchshrieksandoutcries,ascanbetterconceivedthandescribed.”Thatwasageneralobservationbasedon such specific instances as this: “Gaol delivery once a year. Assize held at Newcastle, witherprisonersareconveyed,andmenandwomenconfinedtogether,commonlyawholeweek,inadirty,dampdungeondownsixstepsItheOldCastle.”LetusinterruptthiscatalogueofinhumanityandmiserytomakeSOMEEXPLANATIONS:Bridewell:Ahouseofcorrectionfortheconfinementofdisorderlypersons;socalledfromahospitalbuiltin1553nearSt.Bride’sorBridget’swellinLondonwhichwassubsequentlyturnedintoaworkhouse.Imprisoned Debtors: In those days and until much later, as in Bible times, persons could beimprisonedfordebt.Somegaolswereexpresslyfordebtors.Inothersdebtorsweresupposedtobekeptseparatefromfelonsbutthiswasnotalwaysdone.Howardquotesthepopularsaying“prisonspay no debts” and adds “neither do theymendmorals”. Of the Carlisle City Gaol in Cumberland,Howardwrote,“Iwastoldthatmanyapoortravellerfromthenorthwhohadcomebysomecalamityhad contracted an unavoidable debt for forty shillings, had been confined at a distance from hisfriends in the prisons where this is no provision, nor any means of procuring it.” One can readbetweenthelinesandthinkoftheScotsmengoingtothesouthofEnglandtomaketheirfortunesandfindinginsteadthatthefarpastureswerenotsogreenafterall.Master’sSideandCommonSide:Howardtookitforgrantedthathisreaderswouldknowwhatthisdistinctionmeant. Probablyhedidnot realize that anyonewouldbe readinghis bookalmost two

hundredyearsafterhewroteit.Perhapsthemaster’ssidewasforthegentryormoreprobablyforthosewhocouldaffordtopayfora littlebetteraccommodation. InthetablesoffeesattwogaolstherewasadifferencemadebetweenKnights,Esquires,Gentlemen,andYeomen.Transports:Undertheharshlawsofthosedaysthepunishmentforagreatnumberofoffenceswastransportation or execution. Howard regarded both as a great waste of man power. PrisonersawaitingtransportationwerecalledTransports. Concerningthemandthehulks inwhichtheywereconfinedmorelater.OtherAbuses

f)Garnish

Howardmakesfrequentreferencetogarnish.ThiswordasappliedtoprisonswasnotfamiliartomeandIfoundinWebster’sDictionaryasthethirdmeaningofthenoungarnishthis: ‘Anentrancefeedemandedbytheoldprisonersofonejustcommittedtojail.’Howard’sgeneraldescriptionofthisabusecannotbeimprovedon:“Acruelcustomobtainsinmostofourgaols,whichisthatoftheprisonersdemandinganewcomergarnish,footingor(asitiscalledinsomeLondongaols)chummage.‘Payorstrip’arethefatalwords.Isayfatal,fortheyaresotosome;who,havingnomoney,areobligedtogiveupsomepartoftheirscantyapparel,andiftheyhavenobeddingorstrawtosleepon,contactdiseases,whichIhaveknowntoprovemortal.Inmanygaols,tothegarnishpaidbythenewcomer,thoseweretherebeforemakeanaddition;andagreatpartofthefollowingnightisoftenspentindrunkennessandrioting.Thegaolerortapsterfindinghisaccountinthepracticegenerallyanswersquestionsconcerningitwithreluctance.”Thismightbetranslatedintoamodernvernacular.“Welcome,chum,toourhappymidst;let’shaveaparty.”Intheseremarksonindividual gaols,Howardnotes theamountof garnishexacted, andoften itwashigher fordebtorsthanforotherfelons.Atonecountygaolhefound,“Inthetap-roomtherehungapaper,onwhich,among other things, was written ‘Prisoners pay garnish or run the gauntlet’.” But often hisobservationwas‘garnishlatelycancelled’soperhapsthisevilpracticewasonthewayout.g)Drinking

Againandagain,nolessthan42timesarenotedintheindex,HowardobservedthattheclausesoftheActagainstspirituousliquorswasnothungup.Thisreferredtohardliquors.Inmanygaolsthegaolerhada license forbeer, in somebothbeer andwines, and in these gaols a largepart of thegaoler’srevenuecamefromthetap.Asimilarsituationexistswherealargepartofthegovernment’srevenuecomes from the saleof spirits. Inoneprison,“OnMondaynight there isaWineClub;onThursdayaBeerClub,eachlastingusuallytilloneortwointhemorning.Ineednotsayhowmuchriottheseoccasions,andhowthesoberprisonersareannoyedwiththem.”Inanotherprison,“Thetapislettoaprisoner…IwasincrediblyinformedthatoneSundayinthesummerof1775,about600potsofbeerwere brought in from a public house in the neighborhood (Ashmore’s) the prisoners not thenliking the tapster’s beer.” Inmanyprisons this sort of thingoccurred: “I sawamong theprisonersseveralbutchersandothersfromthemarketwhoareadmittedhereasatanotherpublichouse.Thesame may be seen in many other prisons where the gaoler keeps or lets the tap. Besides theinconvenience to prisoners frequenting a prison lessens the dread of being confined in one.” The

following inscription over a prison gate tells much by what it permits as by what it specificallyprohibits:“NopersonadmittedintotheprisononaSundayafternineo’clockinthemorninguntilfiveintheevening.”h)GamingandIdleness

“Gaming in various forms is very frequent; cards, dice, skittles, Mississippi and Porto-bello tables,billiards, fives, tennis,etc.” Iwonderwhat thegameofMississippiwasandwhat resemblance thetennismentionedbearstothatplayedatWimbledon.IdoubtifHowardwouldviewwithfavourthegreatamountofleisurewhichourfortyhour(orless)workweeknowgivesusandthewaytheleisureisused.Butheobjectedtothegamingalsobecauseofthecheating,swearingandbrawlingthatwentwithit.HowardwasagreatbelieverinusefulworkandhefoundlittleopportunityforitinmostEnglishgaols.Itissurprisingthathedoesnotwritemoreabouttheidlenessthatwassoprevalent.Hiscomplaintfollowingwelldescribesthepresentsituationinmanyofourcountygaols.“PettyoffenderswhoarecommittedtoaBridewellforayearortwoandspendthattime,notinhardlabor,butinidlenessandwickedcompany,oraresentforthattimetoCountygaols,generallygrowdesperate,andcomeoutfitted for theperpetuationofanyvillainy. Howdirectlycontrary this is to the intentionofour lawswithregardtotheseoffenders;whichcertainlyistocorrectandreformthem!Insteadofwhich,theirconfinement doth notoriously promote and increase the very vices it was designed to suppress.Multitudesofyoungcreatures,committedforsometriflingoffence,aretotallyruinedthere.Imakenoscrupletoaffirm,thatifitwerethewishandaimofMagistratestoeffectthedestructionpresentandfutureofyoungdelinquents,theycouldnotdeviseamoreeffectivemethod,thantoconfinethemsolonginourprisons,thoseseatsandseminaries(astheyhavebeenveryproperlycalled)ofidlenessandeveryvice.”IrememberhowverysimilartothisisJudgeBaconDickson’sdescriptionoftheidlenessandvice inthecountygaolsofNewBrunswick, IhisRoyalCommissionReport! “Afewhoursspentwith theprisoners in the cell corridorsofalmostanyofour countygaolswill convinceany thinkingpersonthattheprisoners,withfewexceptionswillbeturnedoutweakenedphysicallyandmorallybytheirsojourninprison,andthisappliesmoreparticularlytothemoreyouthful.”i)WomeninPrison

OnethingthatmuchimpressedmeasIread“TheStateofthePrisons”wasthenumberofwomeninprison. Today, in all of Canada there are only about 100women serving penitentiary terms. Thewomenweretreatedwithequalseverity.“Damprooms,nochimney;smallyard;nopump;nosewer.Yetthekeepersaidawomanwithachildatherbreastwassenthitherforayearandaday;thechilddied.”Howard found it necessary to recommend that men and women prisoners be kept altogetherseparate.Aglaringexampleoffailuretodothisfollows:“Noproperseparationofthesexes,oroftheBridewellprisonersfromtherest.Fromthemagistrates’inattentiontothisimportantpoint,thereisthemostlicentiousintercourse;andalltheendeavoursofthechaplaintopromotereformationmustnecessarilybedefeated,whenthemostabandonedaredailyencouragingtheothersinvice. Fiveorsixchildrenhavelatebeenborninthisgaol.”

“Debtorscrowdthegaols(particularlythoseinLondon)withtheirwivesandchildren.Thereareoftenby thismeans tenor twelvepeople in amiddle-sized room; increasing thedangerof infection, andcorruptingmoralsof children. Thispointought,nodoubt, tobe treatedwith tenderness.Manandwifeshouldnotbetotallyseparated.Seeingtheprisoncrowdedwithwomenandchildren,Iprocuredanaccuratelistofthem;andfoundthaton(orabout)the6thofApril1776,whentherewereonthemaster’sside213prisoners,onthecommonside,30.Total423,theirwives(includingwomenofanappellationnotsohonorable)andchildrenwere475.”Gaolers,Chaplains,Surgeons

The reader will probably realise that the passages quoted above were chosen as being the mostglaringexamplesofcrueltyandneglectoftheprisonersofthatday.Allwasnotuniformlyevil.Thedescriptionof theprison at York Castle begins, “In the spacious area is a noble prison for debtors,whichdoeshonortothecounty.”AtNewcastlewasanothergoodprison.“InthisNewgate,whichisthegateattheupperendofthetown,alltheroomsexceptthecondemnedroomsareupstairs,andairy; I always found them remarkably clean, strewedwith sand, etc. The corporation allows bothdebtorsandfelonsfiringandcandlesinplenty;andeveryprisonerbothachaff-bed,twoblanketsandacoverlid.DebtorsarenotthusaccommodatedinanyotherprisoninEngland.”Howard, in commenting on the better treatment received by prisoners of war, argued that allprisonerswerehumanbeings,andallshouldbetreatedwithhumanity.Thedifferenceintreatmentof prisoners from county to county was one of the reasons why in England in the year 1877, allprisonsweretakenundernationaladministration. Whereverhecould,Howardnamedcertaingaolofficialswhowerecompassionateandattentive toduty. “Iwasconcernedatmy lastvisit that thehumanegaoler,Mr.Crafter,wasdead.Buthissuccessor,Mr.Harleisequallyworthyofthetrust.Dr.Rotheram, a physician in this town (Newcastle), visits the prisoners very assiduouslywithout fee orreward.ThisistheonlyinstanceofthekindIhavemetwith.”AtIpswich,“Aneatchapellatelybuilt.Mr.Brome,thechaplain,doesnotcontenthimselfwiththeregularandpunctualperformanceofhisstatedduty;heisafriendtotheprisonersonalloccasions.”Sometimesmenpaidfortheofficeofgaolerofwhichthefollowingisaninstance:

“CountyGaolatNorthampton.Gaoler,JohnScofield.Salary,none:hepaysthecounty£40ayear.Fees,Debtors )Felons )Transports:Iftwo£7each;ifmore£6:16:6each.Licence,forBeerandWine.”

Itmaybetakenforgrantedthatthisgaolerexpectedtogetbackhis£40ayearandmorewithit,inonewayoranotherfromtheprisoners.Howard advocated clean and airy infirmaries for the careof sick prisoners. There is anoccasionalreferencetolunaticsbeinglockedupinprisons.Sometimesasurgeonisappointed,sometimesnot;sometimeshehadasalary,sometimeshemadeabill.

£0;15;4.

Howardwasastrongbeliever inthevalueoftheChristianreligionfortherightconductof life. Hefound more provision for religion than we have in our county gaols today. But sometimes thechaplainswereveryperfunctoryintheirduties.Concerningchaplainshewrote:“Ihadthepleasuretofind a chaplain appointed tomost of the county gaols; in consequence of the Actmade 13 of thispresentMajesty(GeorgeIIItheyear1773).WhenthisofficeisvacantitbehoovesMagistratesnottotake the first clergymanwho offers his service, without regarding his real character. They shouldchooseonewhoisinprincipleaChristian;whowillnotcontenthimselfwithofficiatinginpublic,butwillconversewiththeprisoners,admonishtheprofligate,exhortthethoughtless,comfortthesick,andmakeknowntothecondemnedthatMERCYwhichisrevealedintheGOSPEL.”Howard’sGrowingPurpose

TheconditionsthatHowardfoundinhisearlytoursofEnglishprisonshasbeenquitefullysetforthintheforegoingsections.HesethisheartonthereformationoftheprisonsystemofEngland.“Ifthis(1777)publicationshallhaveanyeffectinalleviatingthedistressofpoordebtorsandotherprisoners–inprocuringforthemcleanlyandwholesomeabodes;andtherebyexterminatingthegaolfever,whichhassooftenspreadabroaditsdreadfulcontagion–inabolishing,oratleastreducing,theoppressivefeesofclerksofassize,andofthepeace;andcheckingtheimpositionsofgaolers,andtheextortionsofbailiffs–inintroducingahabitofindustryinourBridewells;andrestrainingtheshockingdebaucheryandimmortalityinourgaolsandotherprisons–ifanyofthesebeneficialconsequencesshallaccrue,thewriterwillbereadytoindulgehimselfwiththepleasingthoughtofnothavinglivedwithoutdoingsomegood tohis fellowcreatures;andwill thinkhimselfabundantly repaid forall thepainshehastaken,thetimehehasspent,andthehazardshehasundergone.”GraduallyagrandplanwasbeingformedinhismindandhedecidedtotourtheprisonsofEuropetoobservewhatwasgoodinthembeforemakinghisrecommendationsforthereformofEnglishprisons.Holland

The prisons of Hollandwere the best Howard saw anywhere in his travels. “Prisons in the UnitedProvincesaresoquiet,andmostofthemsoclean,thatavisitorcanhardlybelieveheisinagaol.Theyarecommonly(excepttherasphouses)white-washedonceortwiceayear.”Theprisonerswerewellfedandhadgood,cleanclothingandbedding.Theywereemployed.Howardwasmuchimpressedwithamottohesawinoneofthem,“Makethemdiligentandtheywillbehonest.”Thewomenweremainlyoccupiedwithspinningandthemeninraspinglogwood(Isupposethiswasforthemakingofpaper).Thetediouslaboriousworkofthatdayisnowdonebypowermachinery.Theoverseerofaspinhousewascalledamotherandofarasphouse,afather.“Greatcareistakentogivethemmoralandreligiousinstruction,andreformtheirmanners,fortheirown and the public good. The chaplain (such there in every House of Correction) does not onlyperformpublicworship,butprivately instructs theprisoners,catechises themeveryweeketc.,and Iamwell informed thatmanycomeout soberandhonest. Somehaveevenchosen to continueandworkinthehouseaftertheirdischarge.”Howard describes a church service in one of the prisons and concludes with this sentence: “Thedecentbehaviorandattentionoftheaudience,evidentlyprovedthattheservice,thoughoftwohoursandahalf,wasnottediousordisagreeable.”

“Icannotforbearclosingthisaccount,withoutmentioningtheardentwishesitinspiredinme,thatourprisonsalso, insteadofechoingwithprofanenessandblasphemy,mighthereafter resoundwith theofficesofreligiousworship;andprove,likethesethehappymeansofawakeningmanytoasenseoftheirdutytoGodandman.”“I leavethiscountrywithregret,asitaffordsalargefieldforinformationontheimportantsubjectIhaveinview.Iknownotwhichtoadmiremost,theneatnessandcleanlinessappearingintheprisons,the industryandregularconductoftheprisoners,orthehumanityandattentionofthemagistratesandgovernors.”TheBastille

Rather than recount what Howard found in the prisons of France, I give in his own words hisexperienceattheBastille.Thisprobablyisthemostnotableprisoninallhistory.ItsfallonJuly14,1789,whichHowardlivedtosee,marksthebeginningoftheFrenchRevolution.Itisoneprisonthathedidnotinspect.“TheBastillemayoccurtosomeofmyreaders,asanobjectconcerningwhichsomeinformationwouldbeacceptable.AllthatIcangivethemisthatIknockedhardattheoutergate,andimmediatelywentforward through the guard to the draw bridge before the entrance of the castle. I was sometimeviewing this building,which is round, and surroundedby a largemoat. Noneof thewindows lookoutwards, but only towards a small area; and if the state prisoners are ever permitted to take thefresh air, it must be on the leads, which have high parapets. But while I was contemplating thisgloomymansion,anofficercameoutofthecastlemuchsurprised;andIwasforcedtoretreatthroughthemuteguard,andthusregainedthatfreedom,whichforonelockedupwithinthosewallsisnexttoimpossibletoobtain.”“Inmylasttour,Ihadthegoodfortunetoprocureanextremelyscarcepamphlet,publishedin1774,written by a personwhohadbeen long confined in theBastille. It is reckoned to contain the bestaccountevermadepublicof thiscelebratedstructure,andthesaleof it forbidden inFrance,ontheseverestpenalties. Ihavecopiedfromthemostmaterialcircumstancesofthedescription,andhaveaddedtheplategiveninthework.”This has a sequel. The French authorities were much provoked that Howard had published sodetaileda critical adescriptionof theBastille. Whenhe soughtpermission to traverseFranceandinspect the lazaretto at Marseilles, he was forbidden on pain of being confined at the Bastille,concerning which he had been so curious. But he did not turn back. Disguised as a doctor, hetravelledacrossFrance,havingaverynarrowescapeinParis,andaccomplishedhismission.OtherCountriesInthecourseofhiscrusadeforthereformofEnglishprisons,HowardvisitedeverycountryofEuropeexceptTurkey. ButthiscountryandtheLevantwerecentres forhisenquiries inasecondcrusade,begunlateinhislife,againsttheplague.Thepurposeoftheseforeigntravelswastodiscovergood

practicesandtreatmentthathecouldrecommendforuseinEngland.Letusreview,atnottoogreatlength,theconditions,goodandbad,thathefoundintheseothercountries.Flanders:(includingtheFrenchProvincesandtheAustrianNetherlands)

Morethanoncehecommentsonthegoodcaretakenofthesick.Anotherexemplarypracticeisthecarefulrecordofcharitablelegacies.Atoneprisonhewasveryfavorablyimpressedwiththeorderandregularityofthedailyroutine.“Iwas present during the whole time the men criminals were at dinner, and much admired theregularity,decency,andorder,withwhichthewholewasconducted.Everythingwasdoneatawordgivenby theDirector; no noise or confusion appeared, and this companyof near onehundredandninetystoutcriminalswasgovernedwithasmuchapparenteaseasthemostsoberandwell-disposedassemblyincivilsociety.Atnight,theyhaveanhourforsupper,etc.Thebellgivesnoticeofallthesesuccessivehours.”Nodoubtthebellthatrunginthisprisonwasmoremusicalthantheelectricbellsclanged in modern penitentiaries. Prisoners today heartily dislike the noise of bells and theregimentationthatHowardapprovedof.“Anothermotive inducedme to be very particular inmy accounts of foreign houses of correction,especially those of the freest states. It was to counteract a notion prevailing among us thatcompelling prisoners to work, especially in public, was inconsistent with the principles of Englishliberty; at the same time that taking away the lives of such numbers, either by executions, or thediseasesofourprisons,seemstomakelittleimpressionuponus.Ofsuchforceiscustomandprejudiceinsilencingthevoiceofgoodsenseandhumanity.”Germany:(includingAustria)

“TheGermans,wellawareof thenecessityof cleanliness inprisons,havevery judiciously chosen tobuild them in situationsmost conducive to it; that is,near rivers.” This, I suppose,was for sewagedisposal.“IsawnoundergrounddungeonsinanyofthenewprisonsofGermany.IdonotrememberanyprisoninGermany(norelsewhereabroad)inwhichfelonshavenot,fromthepublicallowance,orfrom charities, somethingmore to live on than bread andwater. I asked one and another of theHonnettes,whowereatworkontheroad,whethertheylikedtobethusemployed,orwouldratherchoosetobeconfinedinidleness.Theyanswered,‘Muchrathertobethusabroadatwork’.”“Among the various engines of torture, or the question, which I have seen in France and in otherplaces,themostexcruciatingiskeptandusedinadeepcellarofthisprison.Itoughttobeburiedthenthousandfathomsdeeper.”Howardneverdescribedthewaytheseinstrumentsoftorturewereusedfortherewasnothingedifyinginhispurposeinsodoing.Intheabolishmentoftorture,Englandwasin advance of other countries. “There is no torture room in any of the prisons in the Prussiandominions,forthepresentKinghassettheexampleinGermanyofabolishingthecruelpractice.”“Debtorsarenotpermitted inanyGerman cities that I have seen, tohave theirwivesand childrenlivingwiththeminprison.”

Concerning one very evil prison, Howard added in a foot note the following: “Here, as usual, Ienquiredwhethertheyhadanyputridfever,andwasansweredinthenegative.Butinoneofthedarkdungeonsdowntwentyfoursteps,IthoughtIsawapersonwiththegaolfever.Hewasloadedwithheavyironsandchainedtothewall;anguishandmiseryappearedwithclottedtearsonhisface.Hewasnotcapableofspeakingtome;butonexamininghisbreastandfeetforspots,andfindinghehada strong intermitting pulse, Iwas convinced that hewas not ill of that disorder. A prisoner in theoppositecelltoldmethatthepoorcreaturehaddesiredhimtocallforassistance,andhehaddoneit,andwasnotheard.Thisisoneofthebadeffectsofthedungeons.”This further footnote is very revealing concerningHoward’spurposeand faith: “I have frequentlybeenaskedwhatprecautionsIusetopreservemyselffrominfectionintheprisonsandhospitalsthatIvisit. Ihereansweronceandforall, thatnexttothefreegoodnessandmercyoftheAuthorofmybeing,temperanceandcleanlinessaremypreservatives.TrustinginDevineProvidenceandbelievingmyselfinthewayofmyduty,Ivisitthemostnoxiouscells,andwhilethusemployed,‘Ifearnoevil’.Ineverenterahospitalorprisonbeforebreakfast,andinanoffensiveroomIseldomdrawmybreathdeeply.”“Inseveralof theGermangaolstherearedungeonsforthosethatareguiltyofwitchcraft,buttheyseemtohavebeenlongdisused,andIhopeincreasinglightandgoodsensewillsoonentirelybanishthefearsofwitches,andconsequentlythewitchesthemselves.”“ThecriminalssentofftoHungaryarebroughtfirsttothisprison.Theyareclothedinauniform,andchainedincompanies,fiveandfivetogether,withironsaroundtheirnecksandontheirfeet,besidesachainabouttenincheslongbetweenthefeetofeachofthem,andanotherchainaboutsixfeetlongforfasteningeachofthemtothepersonnexttohim.Iwastoldthatthehardworkinwhichtheyareemployed,ofdrawingboatsuptheDanube,withtheircoarsefare,wearsthemoutsofastthefewofthemliveinthisstateabovefouryears.”“ItookthelibertyofmentioningseveraloftheseremarksontheprisonsandhospitalatVienna,totheEmperorwhenhedidmethehonorofgivingmeaprivateaudience,andhehasrelievedthemiseriesofmanyunhappysufferers.”Switzerland:

“InthosecantonstowhichIwent,felonshaveeacharoomtothemselves,‘thattheymaynot’saidthekeepers,‘tutoroneanother’…nonewereinirons.”“OnconversingwithDr.Tissot,heexpressedhissurpriseatourgaoldistemper,said,‘Ishouldnotfindit inSwitzerland’,andaddedthat‘hehadnotheardofitsbeinganywherebutinEngland’. Insomecantons therewere no prisoners. The principal reason of it is the great care that is taken to givechildren,eventhepoorest,amoralandreligiouseducation.”Italy:

“AtVenice,thegreatprisonisneartheDoge’sPalace,anditisoneofthestrongestIeversaw.Therebetweenthreeandfourhundredprisonersmanyofthemconfinedtoloathsomeanddarkcellsforlife;

executionsherebeingrare.Therewasnofever,orprevailingdisorderinthiscloseprison.Noneoftheprisonershadirons.Onweighingthebreadallowance,Ifounditfourteenounces.Iaskedsomewhohadbeenconfinedmanyyearsindarkcells,whethertheyshouldpreferthegalleys.Theyallansweredin the affirmative; so great a blessing is light and air! The chapel is only for the condemned,whocontinuethereanightandadaybeforeexecution.”InItaly,Howardfoundmanygalleyslaves–theywerestoutandhealthy.Thetermgalleyslavewasapplied to prisoners who did any heavy manual work, as well as those who manned the oars ofgalleys.Howard commented on the great number of stabbings in Italy. “I have heard criminals in prisonexpresswith seeming satisfaction ofmind ‘that though they stabbed, they did not rob’… there aremoremurderscommitted inayear in thecityofNaplesorRome, than inGreatBritainand Ireland.Does this not prove that the English are not naturally cruel? Andmight not arguments bederivedfromhence,fortherevisionandrepealofsomeofoursanguinarylaws?TheMarquisBeccariajustlyremarks, in his essay on crimes and punishments, chapter 28 ‘That the punishment of death ispernicioustosociety,fromtheexampleofbarbarityitaffords’.”In a prison for boys or youngmen,Howardnoted andwrotedown in Latin and English these twoinscriptions.HereistheEnglish:

PopeClementXIFortheCorrectionandInstruction

ofprofligateYouthThatthey,whowhenidlewereinjurious

Wheninstructed,mightbeusefultotheState

1704Andthis:“Inwhichthegrandpurposeofallcivilpolicyrelativetocriminalsisexpressed:

ItisoflittleadvantageTorestrainthebadBypunishment,

UnlessyourenderthemgoodBydiscipline.”

HowarddidnotgainaccessinPortugal,Spain,orItalytotheprisonsoftheInquisition.Happilyinhistimethisformofpersuasionwasfallingintodisuse.“IcangivebutlittleinformationrespectingtheprisonoftheInquisition. It issituatednearthegreatchurchofSt.Peter’s. Ononesideofthecourtroundwhichitisbuilt,istheinquisitorgeneral’spalace.Overthegateisaninscriptionimporting‘thatitwaserectedbyPopePiusVintheyear1569.’Thewindowsoftheprisonhavewoodenblindsandata small distance is a highwall.” And in a foot note, “The chambers of this silent andmelancholyabodewerequiteinaccessibletome;andyetIspentneartwohoursaboutthecourtandthepriest’sapartments,tillmycontinuancetherebegantoraisesuspicion.”

Malta:

Tome,Howard’snotesonMaltawereparticularlyinteresting.Therulersofthisland,theKnightsofSt. John, had in his time, declined far from an illustrious past. Their religious intolerance wasespeciallyintolerabletohim.“The slaves have many rooms, and each sect their chapels or mosques, and sick rooms apart. Awoodenmanufactoryiscarriedonbysomeofthem;butthemajorityareblacksandunhappyobjects.Forthereligion(theknightssocalled)beingsworntomakeperpetualwarwiththeTurks,carryoffbypiracymanyofthepeasants,fishermen,orsailorsfromtheBarbarycoasts.Howdreadful!Thatthosewho glory in bearing the sign of the Prince of Peace, should harbour such malignant dispositionagainsttheirfellowcreates,andbytheirownexampleencouragepiracyinthestatesofBarbary.DonottheseknightsbysuchconductmakethemselvestheworstenemiestotheCrossofChrist,underthepretenceoffriendship.”ContrastingthehospitalsandstablesofMalta,Howardwrote:“ThenumberofpatientsinthishospitalduringthetimeIwasatMalta(March29toApril29,1786)wasfromfivehundredandtwo,tofivehundredandthirtytwo.Theywereservedbythemostdirty,ragged,unfeelingandinhumanpersonsIeversaw.Ioncefoundeightornineofthemhighlyentertainedwithadelirious,dyingpatient.Thegovernor told me there had only twenty two servants, and that many of them were debtors orcriminals,whohad fled thither for refuge. At the same time I observed thatnear fortyattendantswere kept to take care of about twenty six horses and the same number of mules, in the GrandMaster’sstables;andthatthere,allwasclean.Icannothelpaddingthatinthecenterofeachofthesestables,therewasafountainoutofwhichwaterwasconstantlyrunninginastonebasis,butthatinthehospital,thoughtherewasindeedaplaceforafountain,therewasnowater.”TheIncessancyofhisTravels

Howardwascontinuallyontheroad.Ononejourney,memorableforitsspeed,hecoveredbystagecoach500milesinfivedays.Evenwhenrecoveringfromaboutoffeverandsosickhecouldhardlyholduphishead,hestilltravelled.Inhisearliertourshewasonlyconcernedwithprisons,butlaterhecamealsotovisithospitals,schoolsandworkhouses.Hismissionofmercytookhim,aspreviouslynoted,toeverycountryofEuropeandtoeverycountyofEngland,Wales,Scotland,andIreland.Hewasnotcontenttovisitoncebutwentbackagainandagaintoseewhatimprovementstheremightbeasaresultofhisrecommendations.Asanexampleofthis,InotethatinTheStateofPrisonsandfollowing works, Howard records eight visits to county gaol in Chester Castle. He made amemorandumofmilestravelledinfiveforeignjourneysandvarioustoursoftheBritishIslesandthetotalcameto42,033miles.Thisdoesnotincludethelastthreeorfouryearsofhislife.FromtimetotimehereturnedtohishomeatCardington.Herehedidwhathecouldforhisson,caughtupwiththeaffairsofhisestateandrenewedoldfriendships.Butrestandleisurewereforeigntohisnatureandsoonhewasoffagainonanothertourtoinspectmoregaolsandhospitals.HisPublications

DuringHoward’stravelshecollectedagreatmassofvaluablenotes.Itwasnecessarytosettheseinorderand tomake themavailable to thepublic…hencehispublications. In1777heproduced the

firsteditionofTheStateofthePrisons,in1780andappendixwasadded,in1784therewasanotherappendix,ofwhichIdonothaveacopy,andin1789,theyearbeforehisdeath,hisfinalwork,whichdealt largelywithmeasurestocontrol theplague,appeared. Hisbooksareembellishedwithmanyengravings and plans of institutions which he particularly admired. They include tables of fees,regulations,andstatisticsaboutprisonersparticularlyconcerningthenumberexecuted.Sometimeshisnotesweretoovoluminoustobeincludedinhisworksandthenhewouldwritetotheeffect–“IhavefurtherrelevantpaperswhichIwillgladlyshowtoanygentlemanwhowishestoexaminethem.”Forhisprinter,hechoseWilliamEyresofWarrington.Ithadbeensuggestedthathechoseaprinterin a provincial centre rather than in London because he felt that he could better supervise theprogressofthework.AtWarrington,itwashishabittoriseattwoorthreeinthemorningandputinfourorfivehoursathispapersbeforehebeganinday’swork. Withthehelpof literaryfriends,heproofreadhissheetsastheycameoffthepress.Hegaveawaymanycopiestopersonshethoughtwould be interested in prison reform and the price charged for the balance barely paid for theprinting.HisworksweretranslatedintoFrench,German,andItalian.Everyman’slibraryhaveasnumber835intheirseries,anabridgededitionofTheStateofPrisonsbyJohnHowardandthisisstillinprint.Hisworksbearthestampofauthenticityandauthority.TheirgreatvaluelieslargelyinthefactthatHowardwroteconcerningthedistressingthingshehadseeninasunemotionallanguageaspossible.HewastheconscienceoftheEnglishpeopleconcerningevilconditionsintheirgaols,ofwhichtheyhad little knowledge or concern. He can be called the father ofmodern penal reform and penalreformershavenotdepartedfromtheprincipleswhichhefirstenunciated.From the editor’s introduction the everyman’s edition of The State of Prisons, I copy: “Howard’sproposalsforreformweresosweepingandsosanethattheyarelikelytoremainasthestandardsbywhichprisonsarejudgedaslongasprisonsexist.Moreover,themethodsinwhichheconductedhisenquiryandpresented its resultshasbeenamodel for similar investigationsever since. AnyRoyalCommissionorParliamentaryCommitteeappointed today toproducea report toactasabasis forcontemplatedreformsproceedsexactlyontheplanfirstoutlinedbyHoward–minuteinvestigation,acareful weighing of the evidence, a consideration of current methods in other countries, and asummaryofrecommendations.ThatHoward’sshouldbesoinfinitelymoreimpressingandinspiringadocumentthananyofitssuccessorsislesssurprisingwhenwerememberthattherewasnoneedwithhim for compromisesinceheheldhis commissionaloneandheld it,hedevoutly, sincerelybelieved,fromGod.”HisRecommendation

Manyofhisrecommendationshavebeenmentionedintheforegoingnarrative–thegaolernottobedependentonfeesbuttohaveanadequatesalary–theprisoners inclean,airyquarters,allaboveground, scraped and white-washed at least once a year, with access to water – the completeeradication of gaol fever – prisoners to have regular and adequate provision of food – no privateprisonsandprisonsmaderatherthanheavy ironsfortheprisoners–garnish,thetapandgambling

abolished–usefulindustryratherthanidleness–thepropersegregationofprisoners–thevalueofmoralandreligiousinstruction.Section III of The State of Prisons deals with Proposed Improvements in the Structure andManagementofPrisons,andthisincludesaplanforamodelcountygaol.Howard could feel as in his own body, I think the modern word for it is ‘empathy’, the miseriessufferedbytheprisoners.Hewasmuchdistressedbytheinhumanitywithwhichonehumantreatedanother.Thisishisrecommendationaboutagaoler:“Thefirstcaremustbetofindagoodmanforagaoler;onewhothatishonest,active,andhumane.SuchwasAbelDagge,whowasformerlykeeperof Bristol Newgate. I regretted his death, and revere hismemory.” Howard often noted that thegaoler lived distant fromhis gaol and thus not sowell supervise it. “A keeper should be firmandsteady,yetmild;andheshouldvisiteveryday thewardsofhisprison. Suchamanwillhavemoreinfluence and authority than the violent and passionate gaoler, who is profane and inhuman, andoftenbeatingandkickinghisprisoners.” Howard,himself,oncequelledariotof200prisonerswhohadgottenoutofrestraint,byhismerepresence;theytrustedinhisintegrityandhishumanityandbelieved thatanyassuranceshegave themwouldbehonored. “Finally, thecareofaprison is tooimportanttobeleftwhollytoagaoler…Toeveryprisonthereshouldbeaninspectorappointed,eitherbyhiscolleaguesinthemagistracy,orbyParliament.”SometimesHowardfoundnewprisonsbeingbuiltinapoorlocationoronabadplanandthisgrievedhimdeeplyforitmeantthattheprisonerswouldsufferneedlesslyformanyyearstocome.RegardingPunishment

Duetotheunsettledtimestherewas,inHoward’sday,agreatincreaseincrimesandaconsequentincreaseintheseverityofthelaws.HowardcontraststhegreatnumberofexecutionsinEnglandwiththefewinHollandandcommentsfavorablyontheawe-inspiringsolemnitywithwhichtheexecutionsinHollandwereperformed.ButtheEnglishhawswerenotquitesosanguinary,infactasintheory;Howardgivestwotables,onefortheNorfolkCircuitfortheyears175-1772,andatotalof434werecondemned todeathand117executed–and in theMidlandCircuit for the sameyears, 518werecondemned to death and 116were executed. Howard’s views on capital punishmentwere quitedifferentfromthoseofJudgeHeath–officialdoomsmanofhisday. “Ifyouimprisonathome,thecriminalissoonthrownbackonyou,hardenedinguilt.Ifyoutransport,youcorruptinfantsocieties,andsowtheseedsofatrociouscrimesoverthehabitableworld. Thereisnoregeneratingafeloninthislife.And,forhisownsake,aswellasforthesakeofsociety,Ithinkitbettertohang.”HereareHoward’sviews:“Iwishthatnopersonmightsuffercapitallybutformurder–forsettinghousesonfire,andforhousebreaking, intendedwithactsofcruelty.Ourpresent lawsaretoosanguinary,andaretherefore illexecuted;which lastcircumstance,byencouragingoffenderstohopethattheymayescapepunishment,evenafterconviction,greatlytendstoincreasethenumberofcrimes.Yet,manyare brought to a premature end, who might have been made useful to the state.” A barbarouspunishmentofthatday,burntinthehand,haslongbeendiscontinued.

Howard’sHonors

HetriedtoliveaccordingtotheBibleandwithhimwasanimportantprinciple,“Whenthoudostthinealms,letnotthylefthandknowwhattherighthanddoeth.”Thehonorsthatcametohimwerenotofhisownseeking. Beforehehadanythoughtofbeingareformer,hereceivedthehighhonorofbeingelectedaFellowoftheRoyalSocietyforcertainmeteorologicalobservationshehadmade.Ithasbeenmentionedhowever,early inhis careerasaprison reformer,hewascalled to thebarofParliamentandthankedforhisdevotedandpainstakinglaborsonbehalfofprisoners. Inthisstory,nothing has yet been written of his journeys to Scotland and Ireland; at Glasgow themagistratespresentedhimwiththefreedomofthecity(thiswasalsodoneatother,lessercities)–theUniversityofDublingrantedhimanhonoraryDoctorateofCivilLaw.While he yet lived, the orator, Edmund Burke, paid him this glowing tribute: “I cannot name thisgentlemanwithoutremakingthathislaborsandwritingshavedonemuchtoopentheeyesandheartsof all mankind. He has visited all Europe – not to survey the sumptuousness of palaces, or hestatelinessoftemples;nottomakeaccuratemeasurementsoftheremainsofancientgrandeur,nottoformascaleofthecuriosityofmodernart;nottocollectmedalsorcompletemanuscripts–buttodiveinto the depths of dungeons and plunge into the infection of hospitals; to survey themansions ofsorrowandpain;totakethegaugeandmeasureofmisery,depressionandcontempt;toremembertheforgotten,toattendtotheneglected,tovisittheforsaken,andcompareandcollatethemiseriesofmeninallcountries.Hisplanisoriginal;anditisasfullofgeniusasitisofhumanity.”Howard gradually became accepted as an authority on prisons and his opinions were sought bypersonsinhighplaces.TheEmperorJosephIIofAustriaaskedforaninterviewandHowarddidnotatall spare his feelings in detailing to him the deplorable conditions he saw in his dominions. Theinterviewlastedabouttwohoursduringwhichbothpartiesremainedstanding.Noonewasallowedtobeseated intheEmperor’spresenceandtoputhisvisitormoreateasetheEmperorstoodwithhim. TheEmperorJosephwaspleasedwithHoward’sfrankness– itwasnotoftenthatpeopletoldhimwhattheythought–anddidcorrectsomeoftheabusesHowardrevealedtohim.Earlier when Howard was summoned to appear before Catherine the Great of Russia, he refusedstatingthathehaddevotedhimselftothetaskofvisingthedungeonofthecaptiveandtheabodeofthewretched,notthepalacesandcourtsofkingsandempresses–andthatthelimitedtimethathehadtostayinthecapitalwouldnotallowforhiscallingonherImperialMajesty.AttherequestofthereigningPopePiusVI,HowardwaiteduponhimattheVatican.“Itwasanoblething to see these tow illustriousmen – alike remarkable for their public virtues and their privatesorrows–castingasidethetraditionalandreligiousantipathywhicheachconscientiouslyfelttowardsthe creed of the other, andmeeting together asmen and as Christians on the common ground ofhumancharity.Atparting,thepiouspontifflaidhishandupontheheadofthedistinguishedheretic,sayinggood-humoredly,‘IknowyouEnglishmencarenothingforthesethings,buttheblessingofanoldmancandoyounoharm’.”In Italy,a fellowEnglish traveller, seeing thegreathonor inwhichHowardwasheld,conceivedtheideaof raisinga fund toerect apermanentmemorial tohim. ThisHoward foundvery repugnant.

Over 1,500 pounds had been collected and in answer to his strong protest, one third of this wasreturned to the donors. But others refused to take back what they had given and fifty five poordebtorswerereleasedfromgaolandwiththeremainderwaserected inSaintPaul’sCathedral, thenoblestatueinhonorofJohnHoward.FurtherInvestigationsinEngland

The passages quoted earlier in this biography, concerning gaol conditions in England with oneexceptionweretakenfromTheStateofthePrisonspublished in1777,describingwhathefound inthefirstthreeorfouryearsofhiscrusade.InjusticetoHoward,thereshouldbesomereferencetowhathefoundinhisfurtherinvestigations.Ononepagehementions21impressedmeninoneprisonand10inanother,soItakeitthatatthistime the press gangswere atwork pressingmen into service, somethingwhichwe now regard asaltogetherviolatingthelawsoflibertyandjustice.“InmentioningthegaolfeverIshouldhaveadded,Iwaswellinformedthataprisonerbroughtoutasdead, fromoneof thedungeons,onbeingwashedunder thepump, showed signsof life, and soonafterrecovered. Thegaolwasmuchcleaner;andcompanywasnotdrinkingthere,asatmyformervisits.”“The prisoners had each a heavy chain, and the two impressed men had chains and logs. Eachprisonerpaysapennyadayforstraw.Nojusticeshavevisitedthisprisonforfifteenyears.”“Five boys between thirteen and fifteen years of age were confined with the most profligate andabandoned.”“Ifoundthatthreemenandfourwomenwerelodgedinoneoftheserooms.”“Thetower(ofLondon)istheonlyprisoninEnglandforstatedelinquentsofrank.TherehasbeennoprisonersinceMr.LaurenswentoutDecember31st,1781.”(i.e.aboutsevenoreightyearsprevious).Often in Howard’s later publications is the comment ‘no alteration’. This he explains: “Itmay bepropertoinformthosereaderswhoarenotacquaintedwithmyformerpublications,thatwhenIsay‘noalterations’IspeakwithreferencetothesituationwhichsuchprisonwasinwhenIlastvisitedit;theparticularsofwhichmaybefoundinmyformereditionsofTheStateofPrisons,etc.”Herethetermmaster’ssideisexplained:“Ofthese167,tenonlyweremaster’ssideprisoners,thatis,prisonerswhocanpayforabed,threeshillingsandsixpenceaweek.”“The prison very dirty; not white-washed these two years. Some of the prisoners almost naked;withoutshirts,shoesorstockings.Severalprisonersdiedlastspring,andprobablymanymorewilldiethespringensuingifgreaterattentionbenotpaidtothem.”

“Atnight,somemencometoaroominthewomen’scourt,andsomewomengotoaroomonthemen’s side,which is called the chapel, from theusemadeof it by the lateworthy keeper. Severalprisonersweredrinkinginaroomusedbytheturnkeyforhisshop.”“Onemorning, onmentioning to theMarshall’s substitute that several prisonerswere drinking, hereplied, ‘Thechiefviceamongprisoners isdrunkenness,and thatbrings themhere;andwhile theycandrinkandriotinprison,theydisregardtheconfinement’.”Howard’s attitude on drinking was quite tolerant at the beginning but it gradually became moresevere.Heobjectedagainstgaolershavingthetap,andevenmoretospiritsbeingpassedintogaolsthroughwindows facing the streets. Towards the closeofhis laborshewroteout adraftof abillforbiddinganydrinkinaprisonotherthanwaterormilk.Tohim,tobaccoinanyformwasadirtyandnastyhabitandhedidnotlikethemonthlyallowanceinoneprisonforthepurchaseoftobaccoandsnuff.“Thelatekeeperandhiswifewhosucceededhim,bothdiedofthegaolfever.Lastyear,sevenofthefelonsdied in theirdungeonof thegaol fever,andthe freeward,orcountychamber,beingdirectlyoverit,nineoutofthirteenofthepoordebtorsdied.”“Ifoundmostwomenfelonswereinheavyironsbuttheyweretakenoffthenextday.Thisindecent,wanton,andcruelcustomofputtingironsontheweakersexinprisonsisnotpracticedinanyofthemostuncivilizedcountriesIhavevisited.”“Noalteration. Prisonnotsecure. Theconvicts,andprisonersfortrial,wereseverely ironed,bytheneckandhands,waist,feetandchainedtothefloor;andatnighttotheirbedsinahorriddungeon.HerewasthefirstirongloveIhaveseeninEngland,whichthoughnotyetused,showstheseverityofthegaoler’sdisposition.”“Thegaolwasclean,Iobservedthattheironsonthefelonswereverylight,whichinducesthemtouseexercise;and I ampersuaded thatagoodgaoler canmoreeasilymanagehisprisonersbyhumaneattentionthanbyseverityandheavyirons.”“Heretheacquittedprisonersthatarepoorarekeptinironstillthejudgeleavesthetown,butothersareimmediatelydischarged.”“Aprisoner,ThomasPlat, latelydiedinoneofthesolitarycells,andtheverdictofthecoroner’sjurywas,diedbyhungerandcold.Sincethis,theallowancewasaugmented.”“The late gaoler, a man of remarkably vigorous constitution, destroyed himself by drinking in theprimeoflife.”“Inmyvarious journeys inEnglandandWales, Ihaveseenmanyhousesdefacedonaccountof theodious tax on windows, and I cannot help repeating my concern for its pernicious effects. I ampersuadedithasaverybadinfluenceonthehealthofthelowerclassesofpeople;andthismaybeonereasonoftheirnothavingnowsuchahealthy,ruddycomplexionastheyhadformerly.Thefarmers’servant havingbeen crowded into unventilated roomsor holes, andour laboring poor havingbeen

habituated to close habitations, they dislike, when they come into work houses, or hospitals, theadmissionoffreshair.”“Inallmyvisitstothegaolsandprisons,inthis,andotherkingdomsIneverreceivedanyinsultseitherfromkeepersorprisoners,norhaveIlostanythinginanyofthem,except,thatinoneofourprisons,Ionce losta largenewhandkerchiefoutofmypocket,which Ididnotmiss for some time,butonasubsequent visit, about tenmonths after, itwas immediately presented tomeby a prisoner, as hesaid,hebelievedthatIhaddroppeditwhenIwasherelast.”WithallmyWorldlyGoodsITheeEndow

ThefollowinglongcuriousfootnoteisallthemoreinterestingtomebecauseIreaditfirstintheK.P.Telescope,thepublicationoftheprisonersinKingstonPenitentiary:“Herewasaprisoner,latelythewidowofanoldgentleman,wholeftheranestateof£300perannumandabout£7,000inmortgages.She was afterwards married in Scotland to aMr. Milbourne of this city (Carlisle) who soon spent£4,000,butuponsomedisagreementsherefusedtogiveupthemortgagesoftheother£3,000.ByanattachmentfromtheCourtofChancery,herhusbandsenthertothecommongaol,whichconfinementprevented her compliancewith an order for appearance at that court in fifteen days of St.Hilary’stermnextensuing.Atfirst,shewasonthemaster’sside;butthelategaoler,aftercruellyseizingherclothes,etc.,forchamberrent,turnedhertothecommonside.She,nothavingthecountyallowance,supportsherselfbyspinningandknitting,andtheoccasionalkindnessofherlatehusband’srelations,whileherpresenthusbandislivingandriotingonherestate.”“Byaletterdatedthe14thofOctober,1788,fromarespectablegentlemanatCarlisle,IaminformedthatMrs.Milbourneisstillinthegaol,andthatforabovetwoyears,Mr.Milbournedidnotgiveheronefarthing,hersustenancebeingwhollyonoccasionalcharities,andthesmallearningsofspinningat which employment she could not get more than 4d. but now by practice and extremely closeapplication(whenhealthpermits)–canearn10d.aweek.InMarchlastherhusbandsenthertwentyshillings, and inOctober 1788 (twenty sevenweeks after) the same sum. The justices last quartersessionscommiseratingherhardships,haveallowedthecountybounty,thefirstshillingofwhich,thismodest poorwoman received the 11th ofOctober, 1788.” My legal friends tellme that under ourMarriedWoman’sPropertyAct,thiskindofthingcouldnothappenamongus.Hospitals

Howardextendedhisintereststoincludetheinspectionofhospitals.Iwassurprisedtofindsomanypatients in theday inhospitals, forexample428 inSt.Bartholomew’sHospital,Smithfield,London.Theaccommodationinmostofthemwouldnotcomparefavorablywiththatofathirdrateboardinghouse.AmputationsthenwereoftenrestoredtoandHowardhasthiscomment:“Isearchedinvaintofind(whatIoftenwishedwereastandingorderinallhospitals)thatnoamputationshouldevertakeplaceuntil after a consultation of threemedical gentlemen,who shall be of unanimous opinion that it isabsolutelynecessary,andthatthereisnoprobabilityofeffectingacurewithouttheuseofknifeand

saw.” Itshouldberememberedthatthatwasbeforethetimeofanaestheticsandthatbesidestheperhapsunnecessarylossofalimb,therewastheexcruciatingpainoftheoperation.Howardfoundahospitalforvenerealdiseaseonly,andbecauseitgivesthereligiousmotivationforhisministry ofmercy I quotewhat hewrote in defense of such an institution: “The diseasewhichentitlestheobjectsofthishospitaltorelief,isinitselfextremelyloathsome,anddirefulinitseffects;and the unhappy sufferers, if poverty be their companion, are doubtless involved in the mostdeplorablewretchedness.Thereforetheirhavingbroughtonthemselvesthediseasebytheirownsinandfollyisnoreasonwhytheyshouldbelefttoperish.Alifelosttothepublic,fromwhatevercause,isstillaloss. IfwespeakonthematterinaChristianview,howdareany,whoprofesstoknowthegraceofourLordJesusChrist,makethisanobjection?SupposetheRedeemerhadurgedsuchapleaagainst becoming poor for our sakes; suppose he had said of us – ‘Leave those sinners to theconsequenceoftheirsinandfolly,theyaremiserable,guilty, lostandundone,but itwastheirownfault–letthemperisheternally–letthelawtakeitsvengeanceonthem–I’llnotbecomepoorfortheirsakes,tosavethemfromitscurse,fortheydonotdeservewhatIshould’–hadthisbeenthelanguageofourLord,wherehadwenowbeen?–weshouldnotnowbe takingofhismercies,butfeeling his righteous vengeance – not invited to an opportunity of showingpity and compassion toothers,butourselvesintorment,cryinginvainforadropofwatertocoolourtongues.”Doctorshavetoldmethatmodernmedicalsciencehastakenthisstingoutofsinandthatsyphilisisnotthemenacethatitusedtobe.ScotlandandIreland

InScotland,personscouldnotbekept inprisonformorethanamonth. TherewerefewprisonersandHowardattributesthislargelytothe“carewhichparentsandministerstaketoinstructtherisinggeneration.”Hehadgreatpraiseforthesystemofschoolsineveryparishunderthesuperintendenceofthepresbytery.InthesouthernpartsofScotlanditwas“veryrarethatyoumeetwithanypersonsthatcannotbothreadandwrite.ItisscandalousforanypersonnottobepossessedofaBible,whichisalwaysreadintheparochialschools.”ButallwasnotgoodinScotland.“Severalofthetransportswereremovedtoanewprisonadjoiningtoapoor-house. Eachhadaseparate room(aboutsix feetandahalfbysix). Theroomsherenotbeingverystrong,theprisonershadchainsontheirfeetandnecks.Thepassageonlytwofeeteightincheswide,mostoftheroomswereveryoffensive,andsomeverydamp.Noendeavorsareusedtoreclaim these unhappy objects; whose long confinement together with the great severity of theirchains,andtheirscantyfood(beingonlytwopennyworthofbreadinaday)mustreducethemtotheextremityofmiseryanddesperation.”“Thehouseofcorrectionisundertheinfirmaryforthesoldiers.Besidesthekeeper’sapartment,thereisonlyoneroom,whichneitherceilednorwhite-washed. Thewomenareentitledtowhatevertheycanearnbytheirlabor,andtherewereelvenofthemspinning.ButonSundays,havingnoallowanceorreligiousservice,asthekeeperinformedme,theylieinbed.”

IncontrasttowhathefoundinScotland,HowardfoundinIrelandmanyprisonersandlittleprovisionfortheeducationofthecommonpeople.Also,therewasmuchdrunkennessandbrawling.InIrelandthatactagainstdetainingacquittedprisonersforgaoler’sfeeswasnotoperative.“Evenboysalmostnaked, and under the age of twelve, are sometimes confined two years for these fees, thoughamounting tonomore than about forty shillings. But as thoseboys has been associatedwith themostprofligate andabandoned felons formanymonths, I didnot in the leastwonder to find thatsomeofthemreturnedtotheirformerhabitationinafewdays.”“Manyof thewomen layon flag-stones,witha very little strawworn todust. On themen’s side,severalboys,fromninetotwelveyearsofage,wereconfinedwiththemostdaringoffenders.Therearemany instances of persons dying by intoxication and fighting; one lay deadwhen Iwas in theinfirmary,andanotherwaskilledafewdaysafter.Ihavegoodauthoritytoassert,thatinthisprisonapuncheonofwhiskeyhasbeendrunk inaweek. Garnish isnotabolished;andprisonerswill selltheirbreadatanypricetoprocurespirituousliquors.”In sharp contrast – “I found the House of Industry, as formerly , very clean and orderly, and thegovernors,with unabated assiduity and zeal, attending to this useful and humane institution. Thebreadandotherprovisionswereverygood. ThegovernorshavewiselyadoptedtheDutchmodeofdevotingthewholeofSaturdaytocleanliness,suchaswashingalltherooms,tables,forms,children,etc. This is notonly conducive to thehealthof the residents, but itwill promote in themhabitsofcleanliness.ThenumberinthishouseMay31,1787was1375,andMarch24,1788,was1627.”In Ireland there were 38 Charter Schools which were boarding schools for poor Roman Catholicchildren, 2 similar schools called Ranelagh Schools for Protestant children.Howard describes themone by one and his account mostly reads like pages out of Dickens. Clothes made of the worstmaterials,andinfamouslytackedtogether–dirty,muchscaldhead–drunkenmastersandmistresses–mainemploymentspinning,littleattentiontolearning.Butsomeofthemweremuchbetterthantheothers.HowardonEducation

EarlyinthisstoryitwasrelatedhowJohnHowardbuiltandmaintainedschoolsforthechildrenofthetenantsofhisestateatCardington.HehighlyapprovedoftheparishschoolsystemofScotland.“InScotland,almosteveryvillagehasitssettledschool-master;thebeneficialeffectsofwhichareevident;foritisprincipallyowingtothis,thatthenumerousemigrantsforthatcountry,dispersedoveralmostallEurope,appearwithcredit,andadvancethemselvesintheirseveralstations.TheSundayschoolslatelyestablishedbythebenevolenceofthepublicinsomanypartsofEngland,willdoubtlessinsomedegree produce similar good effects; if the benefactors abate not of their zeal and attention.” ThefunctionsofSundayschools thenweremuchmoregeneral thantheyarenow. ASundayschoolatLondonderryopenedDecember5,1785,wasattendedregularlybyaboutsixtyboys,twohoursinthemorning,andtwointheevening.ThefollowingextractfromtheconsiderationsontheChesterSchoolcontainssentimentswhichIthinkvery just. “A strange and pernicious prejudice has too generally prevailed, against educating thechildren of the poor, so as to check the beneficence of the charitable and humane. Some have

absurdlymaintainedthatthemostignorantarethemostvirtuous,happyandusefulpartofmankind.It isastonishingwhatinjuriousinfluencethisdoctrinehashad,thoughsocontrarytocommonsenseandcommonobservation.Letanyonerecollectthecharacterofbricklayers,joiners,shoemakers,andothermechanics,aswellasofdomesticservants,andhewillcertainlydiscoverthatthemosthonest,sober, industrious and useful both to their own families and the public are those who have beenaccustomed to attend divine service, and who were instructed, when young, in moral principles,reading,writingandaccompts.”Howardwas very favorably impressedwith aQuaker’s school at Ackworth in York and copied thegeneralrulesofwhichthisisone:“Thatintheeveningtheycollectthemselvestogetherandtaketheirseats in thedining roomandafter answering to their nameswhen calledover, andattending suchpartsoftheHolyScripturesandotherreligiousbooks,whichmaybereadtothem,theyretiretotheirbed chambers, and undresswith asmuch stillness as possible, folding up their clothes neatly, andputtingthemintheirproperplaces,andtheyaretenderlyadvisedtoclose,aswellasbegintheday,withtheremembranceofthegraciousCreator,whosemerciesareoverallHisworks.”“Icannotbetterconcludethissubjectthaninthewordsofmylearned,muchrespectedandhonoredfriend,Dr.Price, ‘Seminariesof learningarethespringsofsociety,which,astheyflowfoulofpure,diffuse through successive generations depravity and misery, or on the contrary, virtue andhappiness.Onthebentgiventoourmindsastheyopenandexpand,dependstheirsubsequentfate;andonthegeneralmanagementofeducationdependthehonoranddignityofourspecies’.”OtherCountries

JohnHowardwasaninveteratetravelerandhewantedtofindoutallaboutprisonsalloverEurope.Hisearlierforeignvisitswereallinthecentralpartofthecontinent,butlaterhevisitedtheoutlyingcountries.Portugal:

ItwillberememberedthathefirststartedforPortugal in1755theyearofthegreatearthquake inLisbon,buthedidnotvisitthatcountryuntil1783,almostthirtyyearsafterwards.Imprisonmentfordebtwas prohibited. Criminalswere often kept in confinement for years before being brought totrial.AtLisbonhesawsomeconvictsgoingfromprisontoembarkforsettlementintheBrazils.Spain:

InSpaincertainchurchesweresanctuariesforcriminalsandwithinthesanctuarytheycouldnotbetaken or punished. Howard thought the effect of this was to encourage crime. In this countrythrough thegoodofficesof an influential friendheentered the tribunalwhere the inquisitionwasheld.Buthewasnotpermittedtoentertheprisoner’squarterseventhoughheofferedtospendamonththeretosatisfyhiscuriosity.

Denmark:

“AttheentranceofmanytownsinDenmark,awhippingpoststandsconspicuous…gibbetsandwheelsarealsoplacedoneminences,onwhichthebodiesofmalefactorsaresometimesleftafterexecutiontodeterothersfromtheircrimes.”WhatwascalledtheSpanishMantlewasmuchdreaded.Itwasakindofheavyvest,somethinglikeatub,securedaroundtheneckwithirons,andthosesubjectedtoitwereparadedthroughthecity.Itwasaseverepunishmentandanindelibledisgrace.Sweden:

HerethehouseswereverycleanandHowardhopedthattheprisonsmightalsobecleanbuthefoundthemverydirty,eventhoughmanyofthemwerenearthewater.Thewindowsbeingkeptshut,theairwascloseandfoul,andHoward,inuredashewastosuchsightsandsmells,wasmadesickforaconsiderabletime.Russia:

“InRussia(1781)thepeasantsandservantsarebondmenorslaves,andtheirlordsmayinflictonthemanycorporalpunishment,orbanishthemtoSiberia,ongivingnoticeoftheoffencetothepolice.Butthey are not permitted to put them to death. Should they, however, die by the severity of theirpunishment, thepenaltyof the law is easily evaded.” UnderCatherine theGreat,Russiahadbeenmakinggreatprogressbutno somuchas somewritersportrayed it. Thecriminaldisciplineof thecountrywasmuchcomplicatedbytheuniversalsystemofserfdom.Debtorswereconsideredasserfsandcouldworkofftheirdebtattherateoftwelverouble(aboutfortyeightshillingsinEnglishmoney)ayear.Allgaolswerecontrolledbythemilitaryandhadnoregulargovernors.In Russia capital punishment had been abolished except for treason. But the knoutwas a fearfulinstrument of torture and could be made fatal on the instruction of the person directing thepunishment. Howardwitnessed twobrutalbeatings,awomanreceiving twenty fivestrokes,andamansixtystrokes. Thewomanhesawa fewdaysafter inaveryweakenedconditionbut themancouldnotbefound.Hesoughtouttheexecutionerandlearnedfromhimthathehadbeenorderedsotowieldtheknoutsothatthemanwoulddie.PrisonersofWar

Howardlivedinatimeofmanywarsandconsequentlythereweremanyprisonersofwar.Hefoundmany of his countrymen prisoners of war at Dunkirk and Calais. “Somewere almost destitute ofclothes,beingthecrewsofvesselsshipwreckedinthegreatstormofDecember31,1778.”Theywerecrowded and sleeping accommodationwas not adequate. Thosewho could pay for it had betteraccommodation.Visiting English prisoners of war in France, Howard received great complaints of the treatment ofFrench prisoners of war in England. These French prisoners of war were certainly much bettertreatedthanweredebtorsandcriminalsbutnotsowellastheAmericanprisonersofwar.However,his observations convinced him: “That humanity and good policy require that an inspector of the

prisoners of war should be appointed, who should be obliged to report quarterly their state as tohealth,provisions,etc.Thecommonmen,besidestheirallowance,receivedapennyadaybyorderoftheFrenchcourtwhichwasregularlypaideverymonthmuchtothehonorofFrance. TheAmericanprisonersthenhadanallowancefromtheState,paidbyorderofDr.Franklin.”ThiswastheillustriousDr.BenjaminFranklin.AtthetimeofFortonwerereceivedoveraperiodofyears: American 1,200 Died 69 French 11,720 “ 166 Spanish 3,028 “ 167 Dutch 934 “ 17TransportsandtheHulks

Foragreatnumberofconvictedprisoners,thepenaltyimposedwasbanishmentfromtherealmandthis involved someplace towhich theywere to be transported. For fifty seven years (1718-1775)theseconvictsweretakentotheAmericanseaboardbutthisoutletwasclosedjustpriortotheWarofAmericanIndependence.NodoubttheAmericanpeople,asdidtheAustralianslater,strenuouslyobjectedtothedumpingoftheoff-scouringsofBritishgaolsintheirmidst.Whentherewasnoplacetosendthem,andtheprisonswerebeingfilledupwiththeseconvictsawaitingtransportation,asatemporaryexpedientonly,therewerelodgedinidlemenofwarandotherships,whichcametobecalled the hulks. At first conditions were very bad, of which themortality rate gives an accurateindication.“FromAugust1776,whentheconvictswerefirstputonboardthevessels,toMarch26,1778,outofsixhundredandthirtytwoprisonerswhichhadbeenreceivedonehundredandseventysixhaddied.”Public concernwas aroused, and a parliamentary committeewas appointed beforewhichHowardappeared. Improvementssoonfollowed. The loathsomeandfatalstenchwhichhehadnoticedonhisfirstvisitsdisappeared;bettercarewasgiventothesickandtheir ironsweretakenoff,andtheprisoners’provisions,beddingandclothingweremoreadequate.Howardobjectedtotheprofanitywhichtheguardsusedontheprisoners.“Threemiserableobjects,forattemptingtobreakout,wereletdownintoadreadfuldarkanddeepholeatthebottomoftheship,wheretheylay,almostnaked,upona little straw,but,havingbeen thusconfined for someweeks,upon theirearnestentreaties, Iobtainedtheirrelease.”Howard’sinterestedhumanityonbehalfofprisonersbroughtmoreimmediateanddirectresultsforthoseonthehulksthananywhereelseandhecouldwrite,“Thesituationoftheseunhappypeopleisgreatlyalteredforthebetter.”BotanyBay,socalledfromitsgreatvarietyofnewplant,nowasuburbofSydney,wasdiscoveredbyCaptainCookin1770.Beginningin1788andcontinuingforfiftysevenyearsuntil1845convictsweretransportedfromBritaintoBotanyBayandotherpenalsettlementsinAustralia.

Penitentiaries

WhenthetransportationsystembrokedownbecausetherewasnoplacetotakethetransportswasanopportunetimetointroduceabettersystembutHowardmissedthisgoldenopportunitybecausehecouldnotcompromiseand itwasnotuntil seventyyearsafterwards that thePenitentiariesAct,whichhadbeenpassedin1779,wasfinallyputintooperation.ThisActwasdrawnbytwoofthewisestmen inEngland,SirWilliamBlackstone,themosteminentfigure inEnglish jurisprudence,andaMr.Eden,whowouldbethesamefamilyastherecentPrimeMinister of England. “The Legislature fully expressed their wise and humane sentiments in thefollowing terms: ‘that if many offenders convicted of crimes for which transportation had beenusually inflicted,wereordered to solitary imprisonment, accompaniedbywell-regulated labor, andreligiousinstruction,itmightbethemeans,underProvidence,notonlyofdeterringothersfromthecommissionof the like crimes, but alsoof reforming the individuals, and inuring them tohabits ofindustry’.” The solitary imprisonment mentioned above does not mean what we call solitaryconfinementbutthateachmanshouldhaveacelltohimself.It was then a novel idea that some convicts might be reformed, that they were not all invinciblyvicious,andtobetreatedlikewildbeasts.Howardhimselfdidnotatfirstholdthisnewidea.“Fromgreaterexperience,andlongerobservation,IammorefirmedinaremarkwhichIformerlymadeonthenotion,thatconvictsareungovernable,whichiscertainlyerroneous.Thereisamodeofmanagingsomeofthemostdesperate,witheasetoyourself,andadvantagetothem. Manysuchareshrewdand sensible. Let thembemanagedwith calmness, yetwith steadiness; shew them that you havehumanity,andthatyouaimtomakethemusefulmembersofsociety;andletthemseeandheartherulesoftheprison,thattheybeconvincedthattheyarenotdefraudedintheirprovisionsofclothes,bycontractorsorgaolers. Whentheyaresick, let thembetreatedwithtenderness. Suchconductwillpreventmutinies inprisons,andattempts toescape;which Iamfullypersuadedareoftenowingtoprisonersbeingmadedesperatebytheprofaneness,inhumanityandillusageoftheirkeepers.”“Manyhavebeenreclaimedandmadeusefulmembersofsociety,inforeignhouseofcorrection,andhavethankedGodfortheirconfinementinthem;thesehousesarecalledinHollandVerberterHuizen,thatis,betteringhouses;and,thesettledobjectsinallsuchhousesshouldbe,tomakemenbetter,atleastmoreusefulsubjects.”TheEnglishtermPenitentiaryisderivedfromthewordpenitent.“ThetermPenitentiaryclearlyshowsthatparliamenthadchieflyinviewthereformationandamendmentofthosetobecommittedtosuchplacesofconfinement.”“WhatIhavebeendoingincollectingtheregulationsofsomeofthebestdirectedhousesofcorrectioninEurope,andsuchasexperiencehasprovenpractical,butendeavoringtofacilitatetheexecutionofthis useful design? (i.e. reforming criminals). The decency, regularity and order that I observed inhousesofcorrectioninHolland,Hamburg,Bern,Ghent,Florence,etc.,Iamfullypersuaded,proceededinagreatdegree from the constantattention that is paid to impress theprisonerswitha senseofRELIGION,byplain,seriousdiscourse,catechisingandfamiliarinstructionfromthechaplains,togetherwithagoodexample,bothinthemandthekeepers.Thesecircumstancesmakeagreaterimpression

onthemindsofcriminalswheninprison,thantheywouldhavedonebeforetheycamehere.Wehavetoomuchadopted thegothicmodeof correction, viz,by rigorous severity,whichoftenhardens theheart; while many foreigners pursue the more rational plan of softening the mind in order to itsamendment.”“TheActofParliamentforPenitentiaryhouseswasoriginallyfoundedontheprincipleregulationsoftheDutchrasphousesandspinhouses;buthasreceivedmanyalterationsandimprovements.”Therewas certainly collaboration between Howard and the framer of this Act. Howard had a greatadmirationforBlackstone.“TheobjectIamsensibleisgreat,butitisuseful.IfIshouldnotbeabletoaccomplish this goodwork, I would still endeavor to bringmaterials, and lay the foundation; thatothers,ofmoreskillmayafterwardsundertake thebenevolent task,andcarry toperfectionaplan,worthyofthegreatSirWilliamBlackstone,withwhomIhavehadmuchconversationonthissubject;amanofsuchvastextentofcapacityastohavecomprehendedinoneenlargedview,thewholefabricofour laws;whowasable to reduce themtoa regularsystem;andwho furtherpossessed,what israrelyunited togreatabilities, constancy toexecutehis immortalwork.” SirWilliam’sdeathwasagreatblowtoHoward’scause.TheActprovidedforthebuildingoftwopenitentiaryhouses,thesecondforwomen,inthevicinityofLondon. Blackstone had persuaded Howard (who accepted this office with reluctance) to be thechairman of the three commissioners who had the authority to implement the Act. Howard wasallowedtochooseoneofhisassociates,andhechosehisfriend,Dr.Fothergill;thethirdmemberwasMr.Whatley,treasureroftheFoundlingHospital,appointedbytheminister.Thefirsttaskwastosettleonasiteandherethewholegrandplanfelltotheground.HowardandFothergill, after careful scrutiny, chose a place in Islington but Whatley thought it should be inLimehouse. NeithersidewouldgivewayandafterFothergilldied,Howardresignedandthewholeprojectwasdropped.Probablytherewasnottoomuchenthusiasmforitanyway.Howardgives,atlength,tenreasonswhythesiteatIslingtonwasthebestpossible.HehadandDr.Fothergillbeenabletocompromise,realizingthatpenitentiaryatLimehouse,thoughthesitewasnotnearly as good as at Islington, was much better than no penitentiary at all, probably thetransportationofprisonerstoAustraliawouldneverhavebeenbegun.HowardthoughttheActrePenitentiaryHouseswaswronginadmittingtothemprisonersforoneortwoyearsforthereformationhehopedmightbewroughtinthemcouldnotbeachievedinsoshortatime. Hewouldhave thembuilt largely by the laborof theprisoners themselves, andmany sincehave followedthispracticalandeconomical suggestion. For thePenitentiaryHouses thatmightbebuilt, he gives aplanandproposed regulationsunder theheadings; security, health,diet, clothing,lodging, firing, religious instruction and morals, employment, rewards, punishments, treatment ofsick,proceedingsondeathofprisoners,governmentofprison,andregulationsmadeknown.Howard’sReligiousMotivation

“Thosegentlemenwho,whentheyaretoldofthemiseryourprisonerssuffer,contentthemselveswithsayingletthemkeepoutprefacedperhapswithanangryprayer,seemnotdulysensibleofthefavorof

Providencewhichdistinguishesthemfromthesufferers;theydonotrememberthatwearerequiredtoimitateourgraciousHeavenlyParent,whoiskindtotheunthankfulandtotheevil;theyalsoforgetthevicissitudeofhumanaffairs;theunexpectedchangestowhichallmenareliable;andthatthosewhose circumstances are affluent, may in time be reduced to ignorance and become debtors andprisoners. Andas to criminality, it is possible that amanwhohas often shudderedat hearing theaccount of a murder may, on strong temptation, commit that very crime; let him that thinks hestandethtakeheedlesthefall;andcommiseratethosethatarefallen.”“Toreformprisoners…shouldalwaysbetheleadingviewineveryhouseofcorrection…asrationalandimmortal beings we owe this to them; nor can any criminality of theirs justify our neglect in thisparticular.”TheCrusadeAgainstthePlague

ManypeopleknowthatJohnHowardwasconcernedforprisonreformbut fewrealizethathewasalsoapioneer inthefieldofpublichealth.Hehadfoughtagainstthegaol feverandhehadvisitedmanyhospitalsandtowardsthecloseofhislifehebegananewcrusadedirectedagainsttheplague.Thisisthemostdreadfulandthemostfearedofallthediseasesthathaseverafflictedmankind.Itwasbredinfilthandwaschronicallyepidemic intheLevant. Fromhere itspreadoutfromtimetotimeinepidemicwavestwoofwhichreachedtheshoresofEngland.Abouttheyear1300andagainin 1665 it invaded England and a great part of the population died from it. The fear and panic itcausedwasnottheleastofitsevileffects.Theyear1665wasnotverylongbeforeHowardlivedandthefearoftheplaguewasstronginpeople’sminds.Toavoidliketheplagueisanexpressioneasytounderstand;butHowardresolvedforthesakeofhumanitythathewould,as itwere,walk intothelion’smouth.The great sea ports of theMediterranean for protection against the plague had built lazarettos inwhich persons and cargoeswere detained in quarantine. Howard thought that there should be asimilarinstitutionfortheportofLondon.TheprincipalimportthenfromEgyptwascotton,acargoinwhichthegermsoftheplaguecouldeasilyliehidden.ThistradewasmostlyunderthecontroloftheDutch, very largely because they were not so strict about observing quarantine regulations. Inadditiontothegreatreasonforthis lazaretto,theprotectionofthepeopleofEngland,therewasasecondarybusinessreason,thehelpthat itwouldgivetoBritishshipping. InthelasteditionoftheStateofthePrisonsHowardexpressedawish,“ThatsomefuturetravellerwouldgiveusplansofthelazarettosatLeghorn,Anconaandotherplaces.”Nosuchpersoncameforwardandso,“AtlengthIdeterminedtoprocuretheseplans,andacquireallthenecessaryinformationrespectingthem,myself;and towards the end of the year 1785, I went abroad with the purpose of visiting the principlelazarettos in France and Italy. To the physicians employed in them, I proposed a set of queriesrespecting the nature and prevention of the plague; but their answers not affording satisfactoryinstruction,IproceededtoSmyrnaandConstantinople.”Tomakehisfindingsmoreconstructive,HowardaskedhismedicalfriendsDr.AikenandDr.Jebbforquestions, thesetofqueriesmentionedabove, thathecouldput tomedical in theMediterranean.The first of these questions was, “Is the infection of the plague frequently communicated by thetouch?” And the eleventh and lastwas, “What are themeans to prevent the plague, and stop its

contagion, and to purify infected places?” The answerswere various, and confusing, and not toohelpful.Therewerethennomedicaljournals,nogeneralconsensusofopinionamongmedicalmen,andeachphysicianwasquiteindependentinhisopinions.Buttherewasagreementthattheplaguewascontagious,andthattocutoffcommunicationwiththesourcesofinfectionwasthebestwaytoprevent its spread. Howardwas thus confirmed inhisopinion that the lazarettoheproposedwasnecessaryfortheprotectionofEngland.HowardvisitedthelazarettosatMarseilles,Genoa,Leghorn,Naples,Valetta,Zante,CorfuandVenice.Thesehedescribedinhislastpublication–“AnaccountofthePrincipalLazarettosinEurope”andtheplans of many of these were included. At Venice was the mother of all lazarettos and here theregulationswereexcellent, ifbetterenforced. Inthis lazarettoHowardspentfortydaysquarantinewhich time he used to his best advantage. Thewalls of his roomwere saturatedwith disease, illsmelling and sickening. He found that is favorite remedy, lime white-wash applied scalding hotafforded great relief. As in his prison enquiries, Howard wanted inside information. The mostamazingthingthismaneverdidwastoseekpassageinashipwithafoulbillof lading. Hedidnotcontracttheplagueonthisvoyageattheendofwhichheservedthequarantinementionedabove.Howardseemedtobeimmunetotheplagueforhedidnottakeitthoughhewasinthepresenceofthosewhodiedfromit.In Constantinople at the timeofHoward’s visit, the plaguewas ragingwith some virulence yet hevisited the hospitals and fearlessly entered the dwellings of the stricken, the dying and the dead.Howard had never studied to be a doctor, but through his enquiries he had acquired a body ofmedical knowledgewhich he sometimes called upon to use. The favorite daughter of a powerfulMussulmanwasseizedwithastrangediseasewhichbaffledthemedicalcelebritiesandHowardwascalledin.Fortunately,histreatmentprovedefficaciousandthegratefulfatherwantedtopressuponHowardalargemonetaryreward.ThisHowardrefusedbutchoseratherabunchofgrapesfromhissumptuousgarden.NothingmuchneedbesaidaboutHoward’svisit toSmyrna,exceptthatherhewasat last inwhatmightbecalledtheplaguecapitaloftheworld.AnEncounterwithaPirateShip

Ourherodidnotseekadventure,thoughperhapssecretlyherelishedit,butwithallhistravellingitwouldhavebeenstrangeifhedidnotmeetwithsomestirringadventures.“AfewdaysafterleavingModon,wehadasmartskirmishwithaTunisianprivateer.Ithisskirmish,oneofourcannonchargedwith spike-nails, etc., having accidentally done great execution, the privateer, immediately, to ourgreat joy, hoisted its sails andmadeoff. This interpositionofProvidence savedus fromadreadfulfate; for I understand afterwards, that our captain, expecting that either immediate death, orperpetual slaveryat Tunis be the consequenceof being taken, haddetermined toblowup the shiprather than surrender.” Howarddoesnotmention it in theaccountabovebuthisbiographer saysthatitwasHowardhimselfwhoaimedandfiredtheshotthatdiscomfortedanddroveofftheenemy.

FarewellandFinalJourney

On the return from this voyage to theMediterranean crusading against theplague,HowardmightwellhaveretiredtoCardingtonandtherespenttherestofhislifeineaseandcomfort.Buthenevercouldhavecontentedhimselfwithslippersandaneasychair.HedeterminedonajourneytoRussia,Turkey,and the farEast. Justhowfareasthemeant togowillneverbeknown forhedied in themidstofhisjourney.Thisishisvaledictorytohiscountrymen:“TomycountryIcommittheresultofmylabors.ItismyintentionagaintoquititforthepurposeofvisitingRussia,Turkeyandsomeothercountries,andextendingmy tour in theeast. I amnot insensibleof thedangers thatmustattendsuch a journey. Travelling however, in the protection of that kind Providencewhich hitherto haspreservedme, Icalmlyandcheerfullycommitmyself tothedisposalofunerringwisdom. Should itplease God to cut offmy life in the prosecution of this design, let notmy conduct be uncandidlyimputedtorashnessorenthusiasm,buttoaseriousdeliberateconvictionthatIampursuingthepathof duty; and to a sincere desire of beingmade an instrument ofmore extensive usefulness tomyfellowcreaturesthancouldbeexpectedinthenarrowercircleofaretiredlife.”With these forebodings, his farewells to his friends and tenants before this last journey, wereparticularly solemn. On July5,1789,he left theshoresofEngland for the last time. He landedatAmsterdam and travelled through Germany to Russia. He became involved in the distresses of aRussiansoldier.“Intheseforcedmarchesofrecruitsoverhorridroads,beingill-clothedandworsefed,hefoundthatthousandsfellsickbytheway,droppedattheroadsideandwereeitherlefttheretodieofstarvation,ortransferredtomiserablehospitals,wherefeversoonfinishedwhatfatiguehadbegun.Thiswasteoflifewasquitesystematic.”Howard’swarfareagainstman’sinhumanitytomanbegunatBedfordGaol in southern England,was to end in Cherson in southern Russia at themouth of theDnieperRiverandontheshoresoftheBlackSea,RussiawasthenatwarwithTurkey,andatChersonwasoneofthemilitaryhospitalsthatHowardsodeplored.“Theprimaryobjectsinallhospitalsseemhereneglected–namely, cleanliness, air, diet, separationandattention. Theseare such essentialsthathumanityandgoodpolicyequallydemand thatnoexpenseshouldbe spared toprocure them.CareinthisrespectIampersuaded,wouldsavemanymorelivesthantheparadeofmedicinesintheadjoiningapothecary’sshop.”AtCherson,Howardwascalledupontotendayoungsocietyladywhohadcontractedvirulentfever.Hecontractedthissamefeverand,afterashortsickness,diedofit.TwoTributes

When the news of his death finally reached England, the group that had been interested in amemorial to himbecameactive. Thoughhewas aDissenter, hiswas the first statueplaced in St.Paul’sCathedral,rebuiltbySirChristopherWrenafterthegreatfireofLondonin1666.

Uponitspedestalistheinscription:

THISEXTRAORDINARYMANHADTHEFORTUNETOBEHONOUREDWHILSTLIVING

INTHEMANNERWHICHHISVIRTUESDESERVEDHERECEIVEDTHETHANKS

OFBOTHHOUSESOFTHEBRITISHANDIRISHPARLIAMENTSFORHISEMINENTSERVICESRENDEREDTOHISCOUNTRYANDTOMANKIND

OURNATIONALPRISONSANDHOSPITALSIMPROVEDUPONTHESUGGESTIONOFHISWISDOM

BEARTESTIMONYTOTHESOLIDITYOFHISJUDGEMENTANDTHEESTIMATIONINWHICHHEWASHELD

INEVERYPARTOFTHECIVILIZEDWORLDWHICHHETRAVERSEDTOREDUCETHESUMOFHUMANMISERY

FROMTHETHRONETOTHEDUNGEONHISNAMEWASMENTIONEDWITHRESPECT,GRATITUDEANDADMIRATION

HISMODESTYALONEDEFEATEDVARIOUSEFFORTSTHATWEREMADEDURINGHISLIFE

TOERECTTHISSTATUEWHICHTHEPUBLICHASNOWCONSECRATEDINHISMEMORYHEWASBORNATHACKNEY,INTHECOUNTYOFMIDDLESEX

SEPT.IIndMLCCXXVITHEEARLYPARTOFHISLIFEHESPENTINRETIREMENTRESIDINGPRINCIPALLYUPONHISPATERNALESTATE

ATCARDINGTON,INBEDFORDSHIREFORWHICHCOUNTYHESERVEDINTHEOFFICEOFSHERIFFINTHE

YEARMDCCLXXIIIHEEXPIREDATCHERSON,INRUSSIANTARTARY,ONTHE

XXthOFJUNE,MDCCXCAVICTIMTOTHEPERILOUSANDBENEVOLENTATTEMPTTOASCERTAIN

THECAUSEOF,ANDFINDANEFFECACIOUSREMEDYFORTHEPLAGUE

HETRODANOPENBUTUNFREQUENTEDPATHTOIMMORTALITYINTHEARDENTBUTUNINTERMITTEDEXERCISEOF

CHRISTIANCHARITYMAYTHISTRIBUTETOHISFAME

EXCITEANEMULATIONOFHISTRULYGLORIOUSACHIEVEMENTS

Muchshorterandsimpler,perhapsevenhigherinitpraise,istheinscriptionoverhistombatCherson:

JOHNHOWARD

WHOEVERTHOUART,THOUSTANDESTATTHETOMBOFTHYFRIEND

1790