JIPh - John Cort - Svetambara Curriculum

JOHN E. CORT

THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK:A SVETAMBARA MONASTIC CURRICULUM

INTRODUCTION

Monks have been the primary bearers of the intellectual traditionwithin the Svetambara Jain tradition. While there is a long and vener-able tradition of lay pan. d. itas among the Digambaras, going back atleast as far as Pan.d. ita Asadhara in the thirteenth century, the tradi-tion of Svetambara lay pan. d. itas is of much more recent invention.Among the numerically dominant Murtipujaka community, the titlepan. d. ita was given only to monks (as equivalent to the title now knownas pannyasa)1 up until the late nineteenth century, when the institu-tion of the lay pan. d. ita was created by influential lay and mendicantreformers.

But most men (and in this essay I discuss only male mendicants, notfemale) who become professional Jain renouncers do not do so out ofa love of learning. The domesticated monks known as yatis were forthe most part either dedicated to the monastic life as young children,or else bought from impoverished non-Jain families.2 While a yati wasexpected to be functionally literate, since part of his job was to copymanuscripts, recite liturgies, and in some parts of India to maintaingenealogies, any intellectual propensity on the part of a yati was largelyfortuitous. The institution of the yati has been replaced by that of thesam. vegı sadhu in the last hundred years; but as the very word sam. vegı(“impelled [to seek liberation]”) indicates, the motivation to becomea sadhu is assumed to be the pursuit of liberation, not the pursuit ofknowledge.

Not all Jain mendicants have been learned (or even fully literate), andthe maintenance of a suitable level of scriptural knowledge among themonks has been a matter of periodic concern for the Jain community.This is by no means limited to the Svetambara Murtipujaka community.Michael Carrithers (1989: 224) has written of how many Digambaramonks of the past century have largely been illiterate or semi-literatepeasants. Only recently have some monks and nuns in the recreatedDigambara mendicant tradition taken to learning and scholarship. In

Journal of Indian Philosophy 29: 327–349, 2001.c© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

328 JOHN E. CORT

his biography of the charismatic Murtipujaka Tapa Gaccha3 reformerAtmaramajı (1837–1896), Acarya Vallabhasuri (1957) writes that in thenineteenth century Sthanakavası monks were strongly discouraged fromlearning Sanskrit, a sine qua non for advanced intellectual pursuits inIndia. When Atmaramajı started to study Sanskrit grammar in 1859, theSthanakavası laity in Jaipur publically criticized him, saying that thestudy of grammar would make him dimwitted. In the twentieth century,however, the Sthanakavası attitude on studies other than memorizationof the root scriptures has undergone a seachange, with the result thatthere are now many highly educated monks and nuns in the Sthanakavasıcommunity.

Within the Murtipujaka community, concern that monks acquire atleast the rudiments of an adequate intellectual foundation has beenexpressed in a variety of settings throughout the last century-and-a-halfof reform activities. In 1912 a conference of fifty Tapa Gaccha monkswho were spiritual descendants of Atmaramajı was held in Baroda.The eleventh of the twenty-four resolutions passed at the conferencecalled for new sadhus to memorize five texts before they started tostudy grammar and related subjects (Jaina Yuvaka Sangha, 1912: 8and Sarma, 1912: 36). These five comprise the daily mendicant liturgy,the basic rules of mendicant conduct, and the fundamentals of Jainbiology, metaphysics, and cosmography.4 A larger gathering of TapaGaccha monks held in Ahmedabad in 1934 passed two resolutionson this matter (Nagaraset.ha, 1934: 20; Jain, 1934: 140). Resolution6.1 said that it is necessary for mendicant leaders, and other learnedmendicants, to teach the scriptures (agama) to other monks. Resolution6.4 expressed a need for an institution to teach monks grammar, logic,literature, and related subjects, and called upon monks to preach to thelaity about this need. The ongoing need for such education – and byimplication, the failure of either Murtipujaka lay and mendicant societyto provide for it – is seen in a large conference of Tapa Gaccha monksheld again in Ahmedabad in 1988. In his speech on the opening day,Acarya Om. karasuri said,

What must monks and nuns be taught? It is necessary for them to be given knowledge ina graduated manner. This way they can learn the scriptures, and become knowledgeable.To accomplish this we must think about devising a curriculum. It is also necessaryto establish an institution for study so that they can learn in the proper manner. It isimpossible for a soul desirous of liberation to maintain conduct without knowledgeof Jain metaphysics (Set.ha, 1988: 35).

To accomplish these goals, resolution 2 appointed a committee ofmonks to devise a mendicant curriculum, and resolution 3 expressedthe need for schools for both prospective and new monks and nuns to

THE INTELLECTUAL FORMATION OF A JAIN MONK 329

be established in various locations. A detailed curriculum was publishedalong with the proceedings of the conference, and will be the subject ofthe remainder of this essay. To date there has been no more movementtoward establishing a school for novice mendicants than there was inresponse to the 1934 conference. Among the four Jain congregations,only the Terapantha has been successful in establishing such a school.The Paramarthi Siks.an.a Sanstha was founded in Ladnun in 1948.While it is open to both prospective monks and nuns, in actual practicethe students are almost entirely girls, as boys spend their time withmonks and are quickly initiated into full monkhood.5 While concernfor proper mendicant education has been expressed largely withinmendicant circles, it is by no means restricted to them. The manySvetambara Jain Conferences, held by the leaders of the Murtipujakalaity throughout the first half of the twentieth century, were concernedwith helping to ensure proper mendicant conduct, and also on occasionexpressed concern for mendicant education. Among the thirty-oneresolutions passed at the fourteenth Conference in Bombay in 1934,for example, was one calling for proper training of monks (anon.,1934: 87).

But what is a Murtipujaka monk expected to learn? This is a questionof great significance for the academic study of Jainism. Most studiesof Jain history start with the earliest Jain texts, the scriptural canon.In the Svetambara case, this is the canon of forty-five texts that hasbeen central to academic understandings of Jainism since the nineteenthcentury.6

The assumption here is that the proper place to start the study ofa religious tradition is with the “original” texts. As Kendall Folkert(1993: 35–94) and Gregory Schopen (1991) have pointed out, thisassumption betrays an unexamined Protestant bias.7 Martin Luther andthe other Protestant theologians taught that the Bible is the only properplace to go for proper religious understanding. Under this Protestantinfluence (even if oftentimes only an implicit influence), the studyof Christianity has emphasized the study of the Bible as the properbeginning (and oftentimes end) of the study of Christianity. In turn,based on this Protestant model, the study of non-Christian religions alsofrequently starts with the study of the “original scriptures.”8 But thestudy of such original scriptures tells us more about those scriptures andtheir immediate socio-cultural setting than it does about the subsequenthistory of a cumulative religious tradition.9

Both the short curriculum put forward at the 1912 conference ofmonks and the long curriculum put forward at the 1988 conference are

330 JOHN E. CORT

noteworthy for the almost complete absence of texts of the Svetambara“canon.” This tells that in fact the canon of early texts is not where Jainsthemselves go to learn the intellectual and ritual fundamentals of theirown tradition. They go to another set of texts, those found in the twocurricula. These form what I have elsewhere termed a “Canon-near,”as opposed to the “Canon-far” of the early texts. To quote (Cort, 1992:175):

In a Canon-near text, primacy and authority are defined by praxis and the resultantcontextualized understanding, whereas in a Canon-far text primacy and authority arelocated in some intrinsic ontological value of the texts themselves. . . . A Canon-nearchanges with time and place, and authority flows from the accumulated tradition intothe texts; a Canon-far is (more or less) fixed and closed, and authority is conveyed,or vectored, via the texts.

Let us now turn to the Canon-near of the Jain monastic curriculum putforward by the 1988 conference, to see what texts we should study (andmemorize) if we as scholars want better to understand the intellectualworld of a contemporary Tapa Gaccha Murtipujaka monk. This is adistinctively Tapa Gaccha intellectual world. While there are texts herethat transcend intra-Svetambara divisions, and several that are also readby Digambaras, many of the texts were composed by leading luminariesof Tapa Gaccha intellectual history. A Kharatara Gaccha curriculumwould look similar in terms of the subjects covered, but would havethe student reading different authors. The language of the texts alsobetrays the largely Gujarati locus of the Tapa Gaccha. Vernacular textsare Gujarati, as are the vernacular commentaries (artha, t.aba). Hereagain a Kharatara Gaccha curriculum would look different, for it wouldhave a Hindi vernacular cast to it.

The curriculum is devised to extend over seven years or standards(tabakko). I doubt that any monk has followed it exactly. I wouldbe surprised if the early years of the intellectual career of the vastmajority of Tapa Gaccha monks does any more than roughly approx-imate this curriculum. Most of the texts on the list are known toalmost all Tapa Gaccha mendicants,10 but there are some that areless well-known, and indicate that the compilers of the list werewidely-read intellectuals. But it does provide us with a statement by acommittee of learned monks as to what such a curriculum should looklike.


THE CURRICULUM

First Standard

In the first standard, the new monk is to memorize the followingtexts:

− the five Pratikraman. a Sutras and the Navasmaran. as;− the Sadhukriya Sutra;− the “devadhideva kan.d.a” of the Abhidhana Cintaman. i;− selected devotional texts from the Jinagun. apadyavalı;− the root text of the first five chapters of the Dasavaikalika Sutra.

In addition, the student is to practice to ensure that his pronunciationand handwriting are good.

The Pratikraman. a Sutras (Aphorisms of Confession) are the fivebasic liturgies of the Jain mendicant, and it is through their performancethat the ancient Avasyaka Sutras (Obligatory Aphorisms) are vectoredinto the praxis of the contemporary mendicant. Part of the liturgyinvolves the disavowal of intention behind karmically binding actionscommitted since the previous performance. The liturgy varies slightlyaccording to the time-frame of the actions covered: it is performeddaily in the morning and evening, fortnightly,11 every four months,and annually. In addition to memorizing the liturgy itself (largely inPrakrit, with portions in Sanskrit and vernacular), the student shouldalso study its meaning (artha) through a vernacular commentary. Thecommentary recommended in the curriculum was authored by PannyasaBhadrankaravijayagan. i (1903–1980), one of the leading Tapa Gacchaintellectuals of the twentieth century, with the assistance of another monkand a lay pan. d. ita.12 There are three levels of vernacular commentaryfor each verse of liturgy: a word-by-word trot (sabdartha), giving theGujarati meaning of the Prakrit original; a vernacular translation of theentire verse (artha-sankalana); and on occasion a further discussion ofthe spiritual significance of the verse (bhavartha, sutra-paricaya).13

The text of the Pratikraman. a Sutra also includes the Navasmaran. a(Nine Remembrances). These are nine Prakrit and Sanskrit hymns thatare central to both Tapa Gaccha practice and devotion. The first of theseis the Namukkaro or Namaskara Mantra, the nine-line universal Jainmantra in which the person pays homage to the Jain spiritual hierarchy.Among the other eight texts are ancient hymns common to all branchesof Jainism such as the Bhaktamara Stotra and Kalyan. amandira Stotra;ancient Tantric hymns such as the Br.hacchanti Stotra, Uvasaggaharam.Stotra, Namiun. a Stotra, and Tijayapahutta Stotra; and the Santikaram.

332 JOHN E. CORT

Stotra composed by the Tapa Gaccha Acarya Somasundarasuri (1380–1447).14 These hymns are recited publically by monks as mangalikaor “auspicious verses,” and are also recited by many mendicants andlaity as part of their daily devotional practice.

Pratikraman. a is performed regularly by mendicants, and also onoccasion by laity. A person considering becoming a mendicant is likely tostudy and memorize the liturgy, and so already be familiar with it at thetime of initiation. But there are additional liturgies specific to mendicantsthat now must be learnt. These are found in the Sadhukriya Sutra(Aphorisms of Mendicant Ritual). These include the regular recitationsfor aticara (“confession”), the specific form of Pratikraman. a to berecited by mendicants,15 the rite for the several times daily inspectionof the mendicant’s clothes for small living creatures, the rite for restartingthe performance of Pratikraman. a after an inauspicious sneeze, and thetext to be recited before sleep in case one dies before waking. Theseverses are also to be studied with the aid of the Gujarati artha.

The “devadhideva kan.d.a” (“God Chapter”) is the first chapter ofHemacandra’s (1089–1172) Abhidhana Cintaman. i (Wishing-StoneDictionary), a collection of synonyms. These eighty-six verses givebrief information about the pantheons of all the indigenous Indianreligious traditions, which is then expanded upon in the commentaryby Acarya Kasturasuri (1901–1976).16 This provides an introductionto a comparative Indian theology.

These theological and devotional concerns are amplified by theGujarati texts to be memorized from the collection known as theJinagun. apadyavalı (Anthology of Verses on the Virtues of the Jinas).The student is to memorize stavanas (hymns) to each of the twenty-fourJinas; fifteen texts known as sajjhayas (Sanskrit svadhyaya, “study”),poetic works on a wide variety of edifying subjects such as idealJains from Jain universal history, the problems resulting from negativeforces such as anger, pride, delusion, and greed, and the virtues ofpositive forces such as detachment from the world; the texts for ritesof veneration (caitya-vandana) to each of the the twenty-four Jinas;17

and ten other vernacular hymns (thoya) on religious topics.18

The Dasavaikalika Sutra (Ten Chapters of Aphorisms for EveningStudy) attributed to Arya Sayyambhava (c. 4th c. BCE) is the foundationaltext of Svetambara mendicancy.19 The first five chapters treat of theneed to be unattached to the world, a definition of proper and improperconduct, the ontological distinction between soul and non-soul, the sixcategories of living beings, the five great vows, and the details of themendicant’s food-gathering round.


Second Standard

The second standard consists of further memorization, and the study offoundational texts by means of vernacular commentaries. The studentis to memorize the first chapter of the Pancasutra, the sixth throughtenth chapters of the Dasavaikalika Sutra, the Vairagya Sataka, andthe Tattvartha Sutra. He is to study the following texts along withtheir Gujarati commentaries: the Jıvavicara and the other of the fourPrakaran. as, the three Bhas. yas, and the first fifteen chapters of theDasavaikalika.20

The Pancasutra (Five Chapters of Aphorisms) is an ancient,anonymous text on the Jain spiritual path. The first chapter treats ofthe causes of accruing bad (papa) karma, and the means of destroyingthese karmas: taking refuge (saran. a) in the Jain mendicant hierarchyand dharma, censuring of one’s own bad deeds, and praise of the gooddeeds of others.

The Vairagya Sataka (Century of Verses on Renunciation), also knownas the Bhava-vairagya Sataka (Century of Verses on Renunciation of[Re-]birth), is a popular anonymous medieval Prakrit collection of 104verses.21 As the title indicates, these verses inculcate in the readerthe desire to renounce worldly life and seek spiritual liberation. Inthe words of one author, the predominant sentiment in these versesis that of spiritual peace (santa) (Vinayavijaya, 1914: 142). There are48 copies of this text found in the Patan Jain library, most of themaccompanied by Gujarati commentaries.22 Handwritten manuscripts ofthis collection are usually found in the same manuscript with two otheranonymous Prakrit collections, the Indriyaparajaya Sataka (Centuryof Verses on Conquest of the Senses) and the AdinathadesanoddharaSataka (Century of Verses on the Restoration of Adinatha’s Teaching).While the former of these is also included in the curriculum, the latterhas been omitted and appears to have fallen out of favor with modernstudents.

The Tattvartha Sutra (Aphorisms on the Meaning of the Verities) isthe well-known ancient text by Umasvati. It is the first systematizedpresentation of Jain metaphysics in the pan-Indian intellectual languageof Sanskrit, and so provides a synopsis for the student. The root textconsists of 344 short phrases that can easily be memorized. Since thephrases are so brief as to be almost meaningless on their own, thestudent accompanies his memorization by study of the detailed Gujaraticommentary.

In addition to this ongoing work of memorization, the student turns toseveral important medieval textbooks on Jain doctrine. The Jıvavicara

334 JOHN E. CORT

(Examination of Souls) is a 51-verse Prakrit text attributed to the eleventhcentury Vadivetala Santisuri.23 It details the various bodies inhabitedby unenlightened souls, from those with a single sense through thosewith five senses, and the four realms of possible rebirth, as humans,hellish beings, heavenly beings, and plants and animals. Its popularityas a textbook is seen in that Muni Mahabodhivijaya (1989: 12) listsfifteen Sanskrit and vernacular commentaries on it from the sixteenththrough eighteenth centuries. The 30-verse Prakrit Navatattva Prakaran. a(Textbook on the Nine Verities) is an anonymous medieval work that givesa basic description of the nine verities (tattva) of Jain metaphysics. Thishas been the subject of even more commentaries: Mahabodhivijaya (ibid.:13–14) lists twenty-six commentaries with known authors, and addsthat there are many more anonymous ones.24 The Dan. d. aka Prakaran. a(Textbook on Life Forms) is also known as the Vicarachattısiyasutta(or Vicaras.at. trim. sika; Thirty-Six Verse Examination) and the LaghuSangrahan. ı (Short Collection). It is a 44-verse Prakrit text writtenby the sixteenth century Gajasara Muni (Mehta and Kapad. iya, 1968:173–174).25 It partly overlaps in subject material with the Jıvavicara. Itgives details of the physical and mental qualities and abilities of livingbeings in the twenty-four possible life forms (dan. d. aka). Mahabodhivijaya(ibid.: 20) lists eleven commentaries on this text, dating from the earlysixteenth through the mid-eighteenth centuries. The fourth textbookis the Jambudvıpa Sangrahan. ı (Collection about Rose-apple Island),also known as the Laghu Sangrahan. ı (Short Collection). It is a 29-verse Prakrit text, attributed to Haribhadrasuri.26 In it the student isintroduced to Jain geography, as it gives the features and dimensions ofthe various lands, mountains, rivers, and other features in the middle,human-inhabited section universe. Each of these four texts is studiedby means of a Gujarati commentary.27

The three Bhas.yas (Commentaries) are Prakrit commentariescomposed by Devendrasuri (d. 1271), who is responsible for the intel-lectual foundation of the Tapa Gaccha, on three of the avasyakas, therituals that must be performed daily by each mendicant. In the 63-verseCaityavandanabhas.ya (Commentary on Image Veneration), he explainsthe rite of veneration of the Jinas; in the 41-verse Guruvandanabhas.ya(Commentary on Teacher Veneration), he explains the rite of venera-tion of the mendicant gurus; and in the 48-verse Pratyakhyanabhas. ya(Commentary on Renunciation), he explains the rite of stating one’sintention to perform austerities, as well as many of the details of Jainascetic and dietary practice.


Finally, the student studies the entirety of the Dasavaikalika by meansof the Gujarati commentary written by Acarya Bhadrankarasuri.28

Third Standard

All of the studies in the first two standards have consisted of memorizingPrakrit, Sanskrit, and Gujarati texts, and studying liturgies and textbooksby means of Gujarati commentaries. Unless the student has had prior,pre-initiation education in Sanskrit or Prakrit, he is still unable to readtexts in either of these languages on his own. Ensuring that these keytexts firmly “reside in the throat” (kan. t.hastha) of the student is moreimportant than that he worry over the mechanics of classical grammar.We saw that this was also the intention of the resolution passed atthe Baroda conference in 1912. This was also central to Brahman. icaleducation in the Vedas: the student was expected to memorize vastportions of text in order to be able to use them in various ritual contexts,but only more diligent students went on to study Sanskrit grammar(Mookerji, 1960). In the Murtipujaka case, it is only at the third standardthat the student begins the study of Sanskrit.

Brahman.as traditionally learned Sanskrit through a system basedon Pan. ini’s As. t. adhyayı (Eight Chapters) and Patanjali’s Mahabhas.ya(Great Commentary), and expanded upon by generations of pan. d. itas,especially the Siddhanta Kaumudı (Elucidation of the Doctrine) of theearly seventeenth century Bhat.t.ojı Dıks.ita. Svetambaras, on the otherhand, have traditionally learned Sanskrit through a system developed byHemacandra. His Siddhahaimacandra Vyakaran. a (Grammar) is basedon the earlier Sakat. ayana Vyakaran. a (Scharf, 169). Sakatayana was thepen-name of the ninth century Digambara Palyakırti. As Scharf notes,Jains also studied the Brahman. ical system, and the Patan library containsmany manuscripts of the works of Pan. ini, Patanjali and Bhat.t.ojı.

In particular, at this standard the student studies the first two-plus chapters of the Hema Sam. skr. ta Pravesika (Introduction toHema[candra]’s Sanskrit), a modern edition of Hemacandra’s grammarcompiled by a lay Jain pan. d. ita. He also memorizes several othergrammatical textbooks. The Samasa Subodhika (Proper Knowledge ofCompounds) is a modern textbook on Sanskrit compounds based onthe Siddhanta Kaumudı and Hemacandra’s Siddhahemasabdanusasana(Instruction on Words). The Sabdarupavalı (Noun Declension) andDhaturupavalı (Verb Declension) are both Brahman. ical textbooks. TheDhananjaya Namamala (Dhananjaya’s Garland of Words) is a Digam-bara text treating the multiple meanings of words, studied in an editionand Gujarati translation by a Tapa Gaccha monk.29

336 JOHN E. CORT

The student also memorizes the Indriyaparajaya Sataka, a collectionof Prakrit verses on the need to subdue the senses on the spiritualpath.30

Finally, in this standard the student studies one of two collections ofedifying tales. The Pancatantra (Five Threads) is a Hindu text, but longread by Jains, and one of the oldest extant recensions of the text wascompiled by the Svetambara monk Purn.abhadra in 1199 (Caudharı, 1973:389). The Bharatesvara Bahubali Vr. tti (Commentary on Bharatesvaraand Bahubali), also known as the Kathakosa (Collection of Stories)was composed by the Tapa Gaccha monk Subhasılagan. i in 1453. Theroot text consists of only thirteen verses, which are just the names of53 men and 47 women from the Jain universal history. The bulk ofthe text provides edifying tales of the conduct of each of these 100people.31

Fourth Standard

The student finishes his study of the Dasavaikalika Sutra with itsGujarati commentary. He also studies the first four of the KarmaGranthas (Karma Books) together with their Gujarati commentaries.These Prakrit texts are the work of Devendrasuri. While Devendrasurihimself wrote Sanskrit commentaries on the Prakrit root texts, they arenow studied instead with a Sanskrit and Gujarati explanation (stabuka,t.aba) composed by Muni Jıvavijaya in 1747, and a modern explanationby a contemporary lay pan. d. ita. These texts provide a thorough treatmentof Jain karma theory.32 In other words, the student continues his studyof basic doctrine, in this standard focusing on the more difficult karmatheory, whereas earlier he had studied the easier cosmography. Healso finishes his study of Sanskrit grammar by completing the HemaSam. skr. ta Pravesika.

The student is also to learn to read Sanskrit epic poetry (mahakavya).The syllabus recommends one of two texts. The Somasaubhagya (GoodFortune of Soma) is a biography of Somadevasuri (1374–1443), animportant head of the Tapa Gaccha and prolific author. This biographywas composed by Pratis.t.hasoma in 1468. It is a surprise to find it on thesyllabus, for while it is very informative about the medieval Tapa Gaccha,copies of it are very rare, and one would expect to find a better-knowntext such as Devavimalagan. i’s early seventeenth century Hırasaubhagya(Good Fortune of Hıra), a biography of Hıravijayasuri (1527–1596),arguably the most important medieval leader of the Tapa Gaccha.33

Instead of this text, the student can also read the first two chapters ofthe Raghuvam. sa by Kalidasa. This Jain appreciation of Kalidasa’s text


is not a recent phenomenon; the Patan library has forty-five copies ofall or part of it.

In addition, the student continues his reading of edifying storiesfrom Jain universal history by reading the Upadesamala (Garland ofTeachings) composed by Dharmadasagan. i around 750. In 542 Prakritverses he tells 310 stories as examples of Jain virtues such as equanimity,asceticism, and renunciation. This has also been a very popular text;there are over 200 copies of it in the Patan library, and it was cited asscripture (agama) by medieval Tapa Gaccha authors.34 Between the tenthand eighteenth century more than twenty Sanskrit commentaries werecomposed on it (Caudharı, 1973: 233, Velankar, 1944: 49–51). Sincethe student has yet to study Prakrit, the syllabus calls for him to readthe text through the Gujarati translation by Acarya Bhuvanabhanusuri.35

Fifth Standard

At this level the student starts to study Prakrit, using a grammar (Prakr. taVijnana Pat.hamala) and reader (Paıya Vinnan. a Kaha) written by AcaryaKasturasuri. In other words, the Murtipujaka monk learns the “canonical”language of Prakrit upon the earlier foundation of Sanskrit, in the samemanner as Prakrit is taught at universities.

He studies two texts. One is either the Sirisirivalakaha (Storyof Blessed Srıpala) or the Vijayacandrakevalıcariya (Legend of theEnlightened Vijayacandra). In either case, he is studying stories aboutthe meritorious efficacy of Jain ritual, the worship of the siddha-cakra in the first case, and the eightfold worship of the Jina in thesecond case. The Sirisirivalakaha is a Prakrit text of 1,342 verses(with a few Apabhramsa verses also). It was composed in 1428 byRatnasekharasuri.36 The Vijayacandrakevalıcariya, of which there aretwo recensions of 1086 and 1329 Prakrit verses, was composed in 1071by Candraprabha Mahattara, disciple of the famous Abhayadevasuri(Caudharı, 1973: 177; Velankar, 1944: 354). It gives examples of whythe use of material offerings in the ritual of worshiping the Jinas –the eponymously defining ritual of the Murtipujakas – is efficacious.The other text to be studied is the Yatidinacarya (Daily Conduct ofa Monk), a Prakrit text of 154 verses composed by Bhavadevasuri in1356. It is accompanied by a lengthy Sanskrit commentary authored byMatisagarasuri. It provides details of proper monastic conduct beyondthat provided in canonical texts such as the Uttaradhyayana Sutra andOghaniryukti (Mehta and Kapad. iya, 1968: 287).37

Finally, the student is to memorize two verse texts. The Jnanasara(Essence of Knowledge) is by the Tapa Gaccha intellectual giant

338 JOHN E. CORT

Mahopadhyaya Yasovijayagan. i (1624–1688). In thirty-two chaptersof eight verses each, Yasovijaya gives a brief outline of the spiritualgoal and the means to attain it. In the words of Paul Dundas (1991:449), in this text authored late in his life, Yasovijaya shows the influenceof Jain mysticism and “dwells on the inner, soul-oriented aspects ofthe religion.”

The Sinduraprakara (Multitude of Sindura Trees) has long beena favorite hymn of Svetambara mendicants.38 In the introductionto his edition, Pannyasa Pradyumnavijayagan. i (now Acarya VijayaPradyumnasuri) says, “Many monks and nuns have memorized hesesayings and have used them in their preaching” (p. 4). It was composedin 1177 by Somaprabhacarya, a monk in the medieval Br.had Gacchawho was also author of the well-known Kumarapalapratibodha (TheConversion of King Kumarapala) among other texts. It is also knownas the Suktamuktavalı (Pearl Garland of Sayings). In 100 verses theauthor treats twenty subjects, including devotion of the Tırthankara,guru, Jain teachings, and congregation; overcoming five faults throughthe five great vows; victory over the four failings of anger, pride, delu-sion, and greed; and six spiritual virtues. It was the subject of at leasteight medieval commentaries; of these, it is usually studied with thatby Hars.akırtisuri of the Nagapurıya Tapa Gaccha in 1599.39

Sixth Standard

At this level the student progresses to the study of more advanced levelsof Svetambara doctrine. He studies the remaining two of Devendrasuri’sKarma Granthas, the Tattvartha Sutra, the Br.hatsangrahan. ı (LongCollection), and Ks. etrasamasa (Succinct Geography), all throughGujarati commentaries. The last two are more advanced texts on Jaincosmography, the former a text of 318 Prakrit verses composed byCandrasuri in the twelfth century, the latter a text of 637 or 655 Prakritverses composed by Jinabhadragan. i Ks.amasraman.a in the sixth century.

He is also to study the Oghaniryukti (General Explanation), attributedto Bhadrabahu. While this is one of the few texts from the Svetambara“canon” on the syllabus, it is also one that was largely ignored byWestern scholarship until the work of Adelheid Mette (1974) andWillem Bollee (1991–1994). It provides details of various aspects ofthe mendicant life, such as food gathering and inspection of objects forminute living beings, together with illustrative stories.

Finally, the student studies the tenth chapter of Hemacandra’sTris.as. t.isalakapurus.acaritra (Biographies of the Sixty-three GreatHeroes). This chapter gives a detailed biography of Mahavıra.


There are two texts which he is expected to memorize in this standard.The Prasamarati (Textbook on Joys of [Spiritual] Peace) of Umasvaticonsists of 313 Sanskrit verses that treat basic Jain doctrine, includingmetaphysics, bondage, meditation, and the path to liberation. In theVıtaragastotra (Hymn to the Dispassionate Lord) Hemacandra in twentychapters of eight verses each gives a detailed description of the Jaindefinition of god as dispassionate and liberated.

Seventh Standard

In this last level of the curriculum the monk undertakes the study oflogic and argument. He studies six texts, four by Jain authors and twoby Brahman.as. While Jains have long been prolific authors of logictexts, at the same time they have read widely in non-Jain materials,just as they have in the study of grammar.

The Tarkasam. graha (Compendium on Dialectics) is by theseventeenth-century south Indian Annam. bhat.t.a. In the words of BimalKrishna Matilal (1977: 107), “This text is very popular with the studentswho are beginners in navya-nyaya,” the “new” style of logic that becamedominant in the past half-millenium.40

The Praman. anayatattvalokalam. kara (Ornament for Seeing the Truthof Valid and Partial Knowledge) is, in the words of its English trans-lator, “a standard work on the Jaina mediaeval logic, psychology andepistemology. The book and particularly the commentary contain anddevelop at first the views of the opponent schools and then set themaside and finally establish the theories of the Jaina Svetambara school”(Bhattacharya, 1967: vi). Its author, Vadi Devasuri (born 1087) becamewell-known for defeating a wide array of opponents in public debates,most famously the Digambara Kumudacandra in a debate judged bythe Caulukya Emperor Jayasim. ha Siddharaja in Anahillavada Pattanain 1125. In eight chapters he presents a theory of proper knowledgeand logic from a Jain perspective. It is studied with the aid of threemedieval commentaries, by Devasuri’s disciple Ratnaprabhasuri (earlytwelfth century), Pannyasa Jnanacandra of the Purn. ima (or Maladharı)Gaccha, and Rajasekhara of the Maladharı Gaccha.

The Nyayasiddhanta Muktavalı (Pearl Garland of the Doctrineof Logic) is by the Brahman.a Visvanatha Bhat.t.a, who flourished inthe mid-seventeenth century. This text is an autocommentary on theauthor’s Karikavali (Anthology of Technical Verses), also known asthe Bhas. apariccheda (Discrimination Concerning Language). Matilal(1977: 116) says of the root text that it was a favorite textbook for

340 JOHN E. CORT

learning the Navadvıpa school of Navya Nyaya and that its 166 verseswere memorized by thousands of pan. d. itas.

The Dravyagun. aparyayano Rasa (Drama on Substance, Qualityand Mode) is a Gujarati text authored by Yasovijaya that provides thestudent with a clear description of these three key concepts within Jainphilosophy. Yasovijaya’s text includes a critique of the contemporary(and then new) Digambara Adhyatma (Spiritualist) movement, whichadvanced a radically non-dualist vision of the Jain path that was attackedby Yasovijaya in a number of texts.41

Finally, the student is to study two related texts by Hemacandra. TheAnyayogavyavacchedika (Discrimination Concerning Other Systems) andAyogavyavacchedika (Discrimination Concerning Wrong Systems) areboth texts of thirty-two verses. The former disproves the claims of othersystems, while the latter demonstrates the truth of Jainism by disprovingthe arguments of other systems against it. The Anyayogavyavacchedikais by far the better known of the two, as it is widely read as the basisfor Mallis.en.a’s well-known Syadvadamanjari (Flower Spray of theDoctrine of Maybe), composed in 1158. There are many medievalmanuscripts of this text, whereas there are very few of the far lesswell-known Ayogavyavacchedika.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The majority of the texts discussed above are probably unknown to thecasual student of Jainism, and while the more specialized student hasprobably heard of them, s/he has most likely not read them or otherwiseutilized them in the study of the Jains. How our understanding of Jainideology would differ if we utilized these texts in our study instead ofthe more commonly used (and translated) texts from the Svetambaracanon is a question worthy of future research. But here let me concludeby clarifying the structure that underlies this seven-stage curriculum.

In the first standard the new monk is engaged in the memorization ofkey liturgical texts that he will recite regularly for the rest of his life. Inthe second standard he moves on to memorize key texts that give detailsof Jain practice and metaphysics, and that confirm him in an attitudeof renunciation of his former social self. In addition, he now studies,through vernacular commentaries, texts that discuss mendicant practiceand Jain biology. All of the study in the first two standards is throughthe vernacular, although he has by now memorized a large amount ofmaterial in Prakrit and Sanskrit. Only at the third standard does hestart to learn Sanskrit, and also begin to read narrative texts that will


prove useful when he gives sermons and other teaching to the laity.42

At the fourth standard he begins to study karma theory and to readSanskrit epic poetry. The study of Prakrit grammar does not begin untilthe fifth standard, at which level he continues his reading of narrativesand memorization of edifying verses. The sixth standard involves moreadvanced studies in Jain doctrine, and finally at the seventh standardhe undertakes the formal study of logic and argument.

At this point the monk has sufficient education that he can proceedwith advanced studies under senior, more learned monks. Many monks,however, do not choose to pursue further studies, and instead lead livesfocused on austerities, recitation of devotional texts, involvement withlay activities, or monastic organizational details. In every generation,however, there are a handful of monks with a deep thirst for learningwho maintain the Tapa Gaccha intellectual tradition – a tradition whoseintellectual foundations are in the texts discussed in this essay.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Paul Dundas for helpful comments on an earlier version ofthis essay. For bibliographic ease, I transliterate all Hindi and Gujaratiwords and names into Sanskrit form, so that the silent “a” is spelled inEnglish. The one exception is “Jain,” since this is the standard spellingamong both academics and English-writing Jains themselves.

NOTES

1 See Cort, 1991: 663–665 on the titles and internal hierarchy among Murtipujakamendicancy.2 See Cort, 1991: 657–661 and 2000: chapter 2 on yatis.3 See Cort, 1991: 655–657 and 2000: chapter 2 on the gacchas or mendicant lineagesin the contemporary Murtipujaka community. The Tapa Gaccha is by far the dominantgaccha. My discussion in this essay is exclusively within a Tapa Gaccha context.4 These texts are: the five Pratikraman. a Sutras, the first four chapters of theDasavaikalika Sutra, as well as Jıvavicara, Navatattva Prakaran. a, and Dan. d. aka. Iwill discuss these texts in greater detail below.5 See Vallely, 1999 for detailed discussion of this institution.6 On the many problems with this understanding of the Jain scriptural canon, seeFolkert, 1993: 41–76.7 I have also discussed this issue at Cort, 1990.8 This tendency is not restricted to Euro-American Orientalist scholarship, but iscommon also in academically located Indian studies of Jainism as well.9 This point is also made by Smith, 1971.10 Many of them are also found in textbooks published for Tapa Gaccha mendicants.I have included several of these in the bibliography: the Prakaran. a Ratnakara(Treasury of Textbooks), a massive late-nineteenth century compilation; the Prakaran. a

342 JOHN E. CORT

Sukhasindhu (Pleasurable Indus of Textbooks), compiled in 1920; the Jaina DharmaPrakaran. a Ratnakara (Treasury of Textbooks on Jainism), compiled in the late 1970sby Acarya Ramasuri (D. ehalavala), the leader of one of the Tapa Gaccha samudayasand also a leader of the 1988 conference; and the Prakaran. atrayı (Textbook Triad), anedition of the Jıvavicara, Navatattva, and Dan. d. aka together with Sanskrit commentaries(by the late eighteenth century Ks.amakalyan.agan. i on the first text, and the seventeenthcentury Upadhyaya Samayasundaragan. i on the other two), published by an organizationthat specializes in keeping key texts in print for study by monks.11 It is performed on the fourteenth of the fortnight in the Tapa Gaccha; someother gacchas perform it on the full and new moon. This was an ongoing source ofsectarian controversy in the medieval Svetambara community.12 See Ratnasenavijaya, 1982 and Devaluka, 1992: I: 407–408 for biographies ofBhadrankaravijaya.13 I have discussed these levels of translation and commentary at Cort, 1994.14 The inclusion of the Navasmaran. a in the curriculum is specifically Tapa Gaccha;in a Kharatara Gaccha curriculum one would instead find the Saptasmaran. a (SevenRemembrances) compiled by Upadhyaya Samayasundaragan. i in 1638. See Cort(forthcoming-b) for details of the texts on the Tapa Gaccha list. The titles of thehymns usually comprise the first several words.15 The litrugy varies slightly for mendicants and laity.16 See Devaluka, 1992: II: 70–73 for a brief biography of this prolific editor andauthor.17 See Cort, 1995b on caitya-vandana.18 There are more of these texts in Jinagun. apadyavalı than indicated in the curriculum;it is not clear exactly which vernacular texts the student is to memorize.19 The meaning of the title is debated within the Jain tradition. See Dhaky, 1993 forthe most recent, albeit very contentious, scholarship on this text. The 1912 Barodaconference had the new monk memorizing only the first four chapters of the text; Icannot account for this discrepancy.20 The standard edition of this text consists of ten chapters (adhyayana) and twoappendices (culika); I assume that “fifteen” here is a misprint, and that in any eventthe student is to study the entirety of the text.21 This text is not to be confused with the Sanskrit Vairagya Sataka of the Brahman. icalauthor Bhartr.hari. There are also Svetambara recensions of this latter text, completewith commentaries.22 Information on the Patan libraries is found in Pun.yavijaya, 1972 and Jambuvijaya,1991; any study of this extensive collection of texts must use both catalogues.23 There is scholarly disagreement about the authorship of this text; see Mehta andKapad. iya, 1968: 166.

The utility of using this as a textbook is seen in that a Hindi edited version ofthis text was used by Babb (1996: 200n.21) as the basis for his account of Jaincosmography and biology. He says the book “was placed in my hand by an educatedJain friend specifically to answer my queries.” An edition of this text was published inEurope by A. Guerinot, 1902, but the Jıvavicara has been ignored by all subsequentscholarship excepting Babb.24 This was among the very first Jain texts to be translated into a European language,by the Rev. J. Stevenson in 1847. Despite its long availability to Euro-Americanscholars, it has been almost totally ignored, as was the Jıvavicara. These textsrepresent, to borrow a phrase from Charles Hallisey (1995), a “road not taken” inthe study of Jainism.25 In the final verse, the author describes himself as a disciple of Dhavalacandra, andliving during the time of Acarya Jinaham. sasuri of the Kharatara Gaccha. Jinaham. sa(1478–1526), who died in Patan (Klatt, 1882: 249), lived at a time when the Kharatara


Gaccha still had a significant presence in Gujarat. This may account in part for thecontinuing influence of this text within the largely Gujarati Tapa Gaccha.26 Mehta and Kapad. iya (1968: 170–171) are of the opinion that the author is a laterHaribhadra than the famous Svetambara philosopher.27 This and other cosmographical texts were widely disseminated in the form ofillustrated manuscripts that were used for study and preaching. See Caillat and Kumar,1981.28 Acarya Bhadrankarasuri (b. 1902) is not to be confused with PannyasaBhadrankaravijayagan. i who was mentioned above. The former was head of theSiddhisuri (Bapajı) Samudaya, one of the eighteen samudayas or lineages of theTapa Gaccha, founded by Acarya Siddhisuri (1855–1959), also known affectionatelyas “Bapajı” or “Honored Father.” Bhadrankarasuri wrote Gujarati commentaries ona number of important texts. For brief biographies of Bapajı and Bhadrankarasuri,see Devaluka, II: 174–182 and II: 189–191. Bhadrankarasuri was one of the primeorganizers of the 1988 conference.29 The date of this text is unknown, but a commentary on it was authored in thefourteenth century by the Digambara Amarakırti (Saha, 1969: 80–81). It has longbeen studied by Svetambaras; there are nine copies of it in the Patan library.30 Manuscripts of this text in the Patan library range between 98 and 102 verses.Muni Pun.yavijaya (1972: 64) says that this is a Brahman. ical (nigama) text.31 On this text see Caudharı, 1973: 244–245 and Upadhye, 1983: 33–34.32 Unlike many of the textbooks discussed above, these have been used by Europeanscholarship, as Helmuth von Glasenapp’s dense but still valuable 1915 Die Lehrevom Karman in der Philosophie der Jainas was based to a significant extent onDevendrasuri’s texts.33 I thank Paul Dundas for information about the Somasaubhagya.34 This information also is from Paul Dundas.35 On this monk, who was born in 1911, studied banking in England before becominga monk, and at the time of the 1988 conference was leader of an important samudaya,see Devaluka, 1992: II: 387–395.36 This monk is different from the Ratnasekharasuri (1396–1461) who was headof the Tapa Gaccha and author of several important works on mendicant and layconduct. The author of the Sirisirivalakaha was a disciple of Hematilaka of theNagapurıya branch of the Tapa Gaccha (in reality, a separate gaccha). He was bornin 1316 and, according to Jain sources, preached to Sultan Firozshah Tuglaq in 1351(Caudhari 293–294). On the story of Srıpala see Cort forthcoming-a.37 Given the paucity of editions, the inclusion of the Yatidinacarya in the syllabusis somewhat surprising.38 As with most Jain hymns, the title in fact comprises the first two words of thefirst verse.39 See Velankar, 1944: 441–442 for a list of commentaries.40 The best introduction to Navya Nyaya remains Ingalls, 1951.41 The best English treatment of these Jain concepts is Soni, 1991. His presentation,however, is based largely on the writings of the Digambara Kundakunda, who providedthe basis for the Adhyatma position attacked by Yasovijaya. See also Bhatt, 1974:284n.25.42 It is interesting to note that nowhere in this curriculum is the monk called uponto study the Kalpa Sutra (Aphorisms on the Ordinances). The public recitation ofthis text, along with its seventeenth century Sanskrit commentary by Vinayavijaya,is performed by most monks during Paryus.an.a (see Cort, 2000: ch. 6). Presumablysince the monk will hear the recitation by his own teacher for several years beforehe does it himself, there is no need to specify its study in the curriculum.

344 JOHN E. CORT

REFERENCES

SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT TEXTS

Whenever possible, I have given the editions of the texts mentioned in the 1988list, rather than more scholarly critical editions, since the former are what monksare likely to read. Many dates reflect the copies in my personal collection; most ofthese texts are regularly reprinted.

Abhidhanacintaman. i of Hemacandra (1957). With Gujarati Candrodayabhidha T. ıka.Edited and Gujarati t. ıka by Acarya Vijaya Kasturasuri. Ahmedabad: JasavantalalaGıradharalala Saha.

Anyayogavyavacchedika Dvatrim. sika of Hemacandra. In Kavyamala 7, 102–104.Anyayogavyavacchedika Dvatrim. sika of Hemacandra (1912). With Syadvadamanjarı

of Mallis.en.a. Edited by Haragovinda Dasa and Becara Dasa. Banaras: YasovijayaJaina Granthamala. Yasovijaya Jaina Granthamala 30.

Anyayogavyavacchedika Dvatrim. sika of Hemacandra (1933). With Syadvadamanjarıof Mallis.en.a. Edited by A. B. Dhruva. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental ResearchInstitute. Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series 83.

Ayogavyavacchedika Dvatrim. sika of Hemacandra. In Kavyamala 7, 104–107.Bharatesvara Bahubali Vr. tti of Subhasılagan. i (1932–1937). Two volumes. Bombay:

Devacandra Lalabhaı Jaina Pustakoddhara Sam. stha. Devacandra Lalabhaı JainaPustakoddhara Series 77 and 87.

Bharatesvara Bahubali Vr. tti of Subhasılagan. i (1987). Edited by PannyasaPradyumnavijayagan. i. Two volumes. Ahmedabad: Srı Srutajnana Prasaraka Sabha.

Bhas.yatraya of Devendrasuri (1977). Mehsana: Srımad Yasovijayajı Jaina Sam. skr.taPat.hasal.a ane Srı Jaina Sreyaskara Man.d.al.a (fourth printing).

Bhavavairagyasataka. In Prakaran. a Ratnakara, Volume 3, 813–834.Br.hatsangrahan. i of Maladharı Candrasuri (n.d.). With Gujarati translation by Pan.d. ita

Amr.talala Purus.ottamadasa. Ahmedabad: Srı Jaina Prakasana Mandira.Br.hatsangrahan. i of Jinabhadragan. i Ksamasraman.a (1917). With T. ıka of Malayagiri.

Edited by Pannyasa Danavijayagan. i. Bhavnagar: Jaina Atmananda Sabha. JainaAtmananda Sabha Series 47.

Br.hatsangrahan. i of Jinabhadragan. i Ksamasraman.a (1921). With T. ıka of Malayagiri.Bhavnagar: Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Sabha.

Dan. d. aka Prakaran. a of Gajasara Muni (1981). Mehsana: Srımad Yasovijayajı JainaSam. skr.ta Pat.hasal.a ane Srı Jaina Sreyaskara Man.d.al.a (5th printing).

Dasavaikalika Sutra of Arya Sayyambhava (1955). Edited, with Gujarati artha andvivecana by Muni Bhadrankaravijaya (later Acarya Bhadrankarasuri). Ahmedabad:Baı Samartha Jaina Svetambara Murtipujaka Jnanoddhara Fan.d.a.

Dhananjaya Namamala of Dhananjaya (1969). Edited and Gujarati translation byMuni Hitavijaya. Lakhabaval-Shantipuri: Srı Hars.apus.pamr.ta Granthamala.

Dhaturupavali (1908). Bombay: Rama Sarma.Dravyagun. aparyayano Rasa of Mahopadhyaya Yasovijaya (1938). With Svopajna

Stabaka Vivaran. a. Mehsana: Srı Jaina Sreyaskara Man.d.al.a (first printing).Dravyagun. aparyayano Rasa of Mahopadhyaya Yasovijaya. With Balavabodha. In

Prakaran. a Ratnakara, Volume 1, 315–388.Haimadhatumala (1927). Edited by Muni Gun.avijaya. Ahmedabad: Jaina Grantha

Prakasaka Sabha.Hema Sam. skr. ta Pravesika (1987, 1992). Three volumes. Sivalala Nemacanda Saha.

Patan: Hemacandracarya Jaina Jnana Mandira Pat.hasal.a (fifth printing).Indriyaparajaya Sataka. With Balavabodha. In Prakaran. a Ratnakara, Volume 4,

1–21.


Jaina Dharma Prakaran. a Ratnakara (1978). Edited by Acarya Vijayaramasuri(D. ehalavala). Ahmedabad: Acarya Srı Surendrasurijı Jaina Tattvajnanasal.a.

Jinagun. apadyavalı (1991). Edited by Pan.d. ita Prabhudasa Becaradasa Parekha. Mehsana:Srımad Yasovijayajı Jaina Sam. skr.ta Pat.hasal.a ane Srı Jaina Sreyaskara Man.d.al.a(ninth printing).

Jıvavicara attributed to Vadivetala Santisuri (1902). Edited by A. Guerinot. JournalAsiatique (9th Series) 19: 231–288.

Jıvavicara attributed to Vadivetala Santisuri (1985). Mehsana: Srımad YasovijayajıJaina Sam. skr.ta Pat.hasal.a ane Srı Jaina Sreyaskara Man.d.al.a (tenth printing).

Jnanasara of Mahopadhyaya Yasovijaya (1913). With T. ıka of Muni Gambhıravijaya.Bhavnagar: Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Sabha.

Jnanasara of Mahopadhyaya Yasovijaya (1918). With T. ıka of Devacandra. Bhavnagar:Jaina Atmananda Sabha. Jaina Atmananda Sabha Series 38.

Karmagrantha of Devendrasuri (1977). With Stubakartha of Muni Jıvavijaya. Threevolumes. Mehsana: Srımad Yasovijayajı Jaina Sam. skr.ta Pat.hasal.a ane Srı JainaSreyaskara Man.d.al.a (fourth printing).

Kavyamala 7 (1890). Edited by Pan.d. it Durgaprasad and Kasınath Pan.d.urang Parab.Bombay: Nirn.aya Sagara Press.

Ks.etrasamasa of Jinabhadragan. i Ks.amasraman.a (1978–1979). Edited byNityanandavijayagan. i. Two volumes. Cambay: Sanghvı Ambalala RatnacandaJaina Dharmika T. rast.a.

Laghusangrahan. ı Prakaran. a (Jambudvıpa Sangrahan. ı) attributed to Haribhadrasuri(1915). With T. ıka of Prabhananda. Bhavnagar: Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Sabha.

Navatattva Prakaran. a (1993). Mehsana: Srımad Yasovijayajı Jaina Sam. skr.ta Pat.hasal.aane Srı Jaina Sreyaskara Man.d.al.a (seventh printing).

Nyayasiddhanta Muktavalı of Visvanatha Tarkapancanana Bhat.t.a (1931). WithAryabhas. at. ıka of Svamı Govindasim. hasadhu. Bombay: Venkatesvara Stıma Presa.

Nyayasiddhanta Muktavalı of Visvanatha Tarkapancanana Bhat.t.a. Edited by HariramaSukla. Varanasi: Caukhamba Sanskrit Series Office. Kası Sam. skr.t Series 6.

Oghaniryukti attributed to Bhadrabahu (1919). With Bhas.ya of Purvacarya, andSutravr. tti of Dron. acarya. Edited by Venicandra Suracandra Saha. Bombay:Agamodaya Samiti. Agamodaya Samiti Series 17.

Paıya Vinnan. a Kaha of Acarya Kasturasuri.Pancasutraka of Cirantanacarya (1986). Edited by Muni Jambuvijaya. Delhi: Bhogilal

Leherchand Institute of Indology.Pancatantra of Vis.n.usarma (1868–1881). Five volumes. Bombay: Government Central

Book Depot. Bombay Sanskrit Series 1, 3, 4.Pancatantra of Vis.n.usarma (1950). Bombay: Nirn.aya Sagara Mudralaya.Prakaran. a Ratnakara (1876–1881). Four volumes. Bombay: Sa Bhımasim. ha Man.eka.Prakaran. a Sukhasindhu. Edited by Pannyasa Ajitasagaragan. i (1920). Ahmedabad:

Vit.ht.halabhaı Jıvabhaı Pat.ela.Prakaran. atrayı. Edited by Muni Mahabodhivijaya (1989). Bombay: Jina Sasana

Aradhana T. rast.a.Prakr. ta Vijnana Pat.hamala of Acarya Kasturasuri.Praman. anayatattvalokalam. kara of Vadi Devasuri (1905–1911). With

Ratnakaravatarika of Ratnaprabhasuri, Ratnakaravatarikat. ippan. ı of Jnanacandra,and Ratnakaravatarikapanjika of Rajasekhara. Two volumes. Edited by HaragovindaDasa and Becara Dasa. Banaras: Yasovijaya Jaina Granthamala. Yasovijaya JainaGranthamala 1, 5.

Praman. anayatattvalokalam. kara of Vadi Devasuri (1965–1969). WithRatnakaravatarika of Ratnaprabhasuri, Ratnakaravatarikat. ippan. ı of Jnanacandra, andRatnakaravatarikapanjika of Rajasekhara. Three volumes. Edited by DalsukhbhaiMalvaniya. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology. L. D. Series 6, 16, 24.

346 JOHN E. CORT

Praman. anayatattvalokalam. kara of Vadi Devasuri (1967). English translation by HariSatya Bhattacharya. Bombay: Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal.

Prasamarati Prakaran. a of Umasvati (1932). With Gujarati translation by MuniKarpuravijaya. Bombay: Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Sabha.

Prasamarati Prakaran. a of Umasvati (1975). With Gujarati translation by MuniRajasekharavijaya. Patan: Laherucanda Bhogılala Smaraka (second printing). Laheru-canda Bhogılala Smaraka Granthamala.

Prasamarati Prakaran. a of Umasvati (1910). With Vr. tti of Haribhadra and anonymousAvacurn. i. Surat: Devacandra Lalabhaı Jaina Pustakoddhara Sam. stha.

Pratikraman. a Sutra (1950). Pratikraman. a Sutra Prabodha T. ıka. Three volumes.Author Dhırajalala T. okarası Saha, promoter Amr.talala Kalidasa Dosı, correctorsPannyasa Bhadrankaravijayagan. i, Pannyasa Dhurandharavijayagan. i, and Pan.d. itaLalacanda Bha. Gandhı. Bombay: Jaina Sahitya Vikasa Man.d.ala (first printing).

Pratikraman. a Sutra (1977). Sraddha Pratikraman. a Sutra (Prabodha T. ıka).Three volumes. Promoter Amr.talala Kalıdasa Dosı, correctors PannyasaBhadrankaravijayagan. i and Muni Kalyan.aprabhavijaya. Bombay: Jaina SahityaVikasa Man.d.al.a (second edition).

Pratikraman. a Sutra (1997). Pancapratikraman. a Sutra va Navasmaran. aPrabodhikanusarı. Edited by Pannyasa Bhadrankaravijayagan. i, PannyasaDhurandharavijayagan. i, and Pan.d. ita Lalacanda Bhagavanadasa Gandhı. Hardwar:Srı Cintaman. i Parsvanatha Jaina Svetambara Mandira (reprint based on 1979 thirdprinting).

Raghuvam. sa of Kalidasa (1912). With Sanjıvanı T. ıka of Mallis.en.asuri. Bombay: SrıVenkatesvara Stıma Mudranayantralaya.

Sabdarupavali (1912). Ahmedabad: Ham. savijay Jaina Layabrerı.Samasa Subodhika (1961). Edited by Pukharaja Amıcanda Kot.harı. Mehsana:

Yasovijayajı Jaina Sam. skr.ta Pat.hasal.a and Jaina Sreyaskara Man.d.al.a, 1987 (thirdprinting). First printing.

Siddhahemasaram. sa-Sam. skr. tavyakaran. a Anuvada-Prakriya athava Haima-Sam. skr. ta-Pravesika Prathama-Madhyama-Uttamanı Niyamavali Sutra Sahita (1984). InitiatorAcarya Vijaya Labdhisuri, editor and author Pan.d. ita Sivalala Nemacanda Saha.Patan: Hemacandra Jaina Jnana Mandira and Je. Jha. Sam. . Pat.hasal.a.

Sinduraprakara of Somaprabhasuri. In Kavyamala 7, 35–51.Sinduraprakara of Somaprabhasuri (1984). With Vr. tti of Hars.akırtisuri. Edited and

Gujarati translation by Pannyasa Pradyumnavijayagan. i. Ahmedabad: Srı SrutajnanaPrasaraka Sabha.

Sirisirivalakaha of Ratnasekharasuri (1923). Bombay: Devacandra Lalabhaı JainaPustakoddhara Sam. stha. Devacandra Lalabhaı Jaina Pustakoddhar Series 63.

Sirisirivalakaha of Ratnasekharasuri (1949). Edited by Pannyasa Candrasagaragan. i.Bombay: Tamrapatrarud.ha Srısiddhacakradi Sahitya Samiti.

Somasaubhagya of Pratis.t.hasoma (1905). Gujarati translation by Muni Dharmavijaya.Bombay: Jaina Jnanaprasaraka.

Sraman. kriyana Sutro Sartha (1982). Ahmedabad: Srı Srutajnana Prasaraka Sabha.Tarkasangraha of Annam. bhat.t.a (1897–1930). With author’s Dıpika, and Nyayabodhinı

of Govardhana. Edited by Y. V. Athalye. Bombay: Government Central Book Depot.Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series 55.

Tarkasangraha of Annam. bhat.t.a (1969). With Nyayabodhinı of Govardhana, Vakyavr. ttiof Meru Sastrı, Nirukti of Jagannatha Sastrı, and T. ippan. a of Rama Sastrı. Editedby Satkari Mookerjee. Varanasi: Caukhamba Sanskrit Series Office. Kası Sam. skr.tGranthmala 187.

Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati (1976). Edited by Pan.d. ita Pukharaja Amıcand Kot.harı.Mehsana: Srımad Yasovijayajı Jaina Sam. skr.ta Pat.hasal.a ane Srı Jaina SreyaskaraMan.d.al.a.


Tris.as. t.isalakapurus.acaritra (1905–1913). Six volumes. Bhavnagar: Jaina DharmaPrasaraka Sabha.

Upadesamala of Dharmadasagan. i (1910). With T. ıka of Ramavijayagan. i, and Gujaratitranslation by Pannyasa Gambhıravijaya. Bhavnagar: Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Sabha.

Upadesamala of Dharmadasagan. i (1973). With Gujarati translation by AcaryaBhuvanabhanusuri. Edited by Muni Padmasenavijaya. Ahmedabad: DivyadarsanaT. rast.a.

Upadesamala of Dharmadasagan. i (1991). With Kathanaka of Acarya Vardhamanasuri,and T. ıka of Siddhars.igan. i. Edited by Muni Municandravijaya. Bombay: JinasasanaAradhana T. rast.a.

Vairagya Sataka (1906). See Bhavavairagya Sataka.Vijayacandrakevalicaritra of Candraprabha Mahattara. Bhavnagar: Jaina Dharma

Prasaraka Sabha. Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Series 16.Vıtaragastotra of Hemacandra (1911). With Avacurn. i of Somodayagan. i and Vivaran. a

of Prabhanandasuri. Edited and Gujarati translation by Muni Candraprabhasagara.Bombay: Devacandra Lalabhaı Jaina Pustakoddhar Sam. stha (first printing).Devacandra Lalabhaı Jaina Pustakoddhar Series 1. Surat: Devacandra LalabhaıJaina Pustakoddhar Sam. stha, 1949 (second printing). Devacandra Lalabhaı JainaPustakoddhar Series 95.

Yatidinacarya of Bhavadevasuri, with Vyakhya of Matisagarasuri (1936). Ratlam:R. s.abhadevajı Kesarımalajı Svetambara Sanstha.

MODERN WORKS

anon. (1934). ‘The Jain Swetamber Conference’, The Jaina Gazette 31: 87.Babb, Lawrence A. (1996). Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture.

Berkeley: University of California Press.Bhatt, Bansidhar (1974). ‘Vyavahara-Naya and Niscaya-Naya in Kundakunda’s Works’,

in Wolfgang Voigt (ed.), XVIII. Deutscher Orientalistentag, Vortrage, pp. 279–291.Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft,Supplement II.

Bollee, Willem B. (1991–1994). Materials for an Edition and Study of the Pin. d. a- andOha-nijjuttis of the Svetambara Jain Tradition. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. Beitragezur Sudasienforschung Sudasien-Institut Universitat Heidelberg, Band 142, 162.

Caillat, Collette and Ravi Kumar (1981). The Jain Cosmology. Translated by R.Norman. Basel: Ravi Kumar Publishers.

Carrithers, Michael (1989). ‘Naked Ascetics in Southern Digambar Jainism’, Man(N.S.) 24: 219–235.

Caudharı, Gulaba Candra (1973). Jaina Sahitya ka Br.had Itihasa. Volume 6, Kavya-Sahitya. Varanasi: Parsvanatha Vidyasrama Sodha Sansthana.

Cort, John E. (1990). ‘Models of and for the Study of the Jains’, Method & Theoryin the Study of Religion 2(1): 42–71.

Cort, John E. (1991). ‘The Svetambar Murtipujak Jain Mendicant’, Man (N.S.) 26:549–569.

Cort, John E. (1992). ‘Svetambar Murtipujak Jain Scripture in a Performative Context’,in Jeffrey R. Timm (ed.), Texts in Context: Traditional Hermeneutics in South Asia,pp. 171–194. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Cort, John E. (1994). Translation, Indeterminacy, Meaning, Socks, and Moral Peril.Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies.

Cort, John E. (1995a). Defining Jainism: Reform in the Jain Tradition. University ofToronto, Centre for South Asian Studies.

348 JOHN E. CORT

Cort, John E. (1995b). ‘The Rite of Veneration of the Jina Images’, in Donald S.Lopez, Jr. (ed.), Religions of India in Practice, pp. 326–332. Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press.

Cort, John E. (2000). Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India.New York and Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Cort, John E. (forthcoming-a). ‘Doing for Others: Merit Transfer and Karma Mobilityin Jainism’, in Olle Qvarnstrom (ed.), Festschrift for Professor Padmanabh S. Jaini.Lund: Almqvist and Wiskell. Lund Studies of African and Asian Religions.

Cort, John E. (forthcoming-b). ‘How Jains Know What They Know: A Lay JainCurriculum’, Nirgrantha: Festschrift for Muni Jambuvijayajı.

Devaluka, Nandalala (ed.) (1992). Sasanaprabhavaka Sraman. abhagavanto. Twovolumes. Second printing. Bhavnagar: Srı Arihanta Prakasana.

Dhaky, M. A. (1993). ‘The Earliest Portions of the Dasavaikalika-Sutra’, in RamKaran Sharma (ed.), Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy: Essays inHonour of Professor Alex Wayman, pp. 179–193. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Dundas, Paul (1991). ‘Yasovijaya’, in John R. Hinnells (ed.), Who’s Who in WorldReligions, pp. 448–449. London: Macmillan.

Folkert, Kendall W. (1993). Scripture and Community: Collected Essays on the Jains.Edited by John E. Cort. Atlanta: Scholars Press.

Glasenapp, Helmuth von (1915). Die Lehre vom Karman in der Philosophie derJainas. Leipzig: G. Kreysing.

Glasenapp, Helmuth von (1942). The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy.Translated by G. Barry Gifford. Bombay: Bai Vijibai Jivanlal Panalal Charity Fund.

Hallisey, Charles (1995). ‘Roads Taken and Not Taken in the Study of TheravadaBuddhism’, in Donald S. Lopez, Jr. (ed.), Curators of the Buddha: The Studyof Buddhism under Colonialism, pp. 31–61. Chicago: The University of ChicagoPress.

Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (1951). Materials for the Study of Navya-Nyaya Logic. Cambridge:Harvard University Press. Harvard Oriental Series 40.

Jain, Babu Ram (1934). ‘The Muni Sammelan at Ahmedabad’, The Jaina Gazette31: 137–141.

Jaina Yuvaka Sangha (1912). Vad. odaram ˜a Srımad Vijayanandsurısvarjı (Atmaramajı)Maharajana Sanghad. ana Munısam. melane Karela T. haravo. Baroda: Srı Jaina YuvakaSangha.

Jambuvijaya, Muni (ed.) (1991). Catalogue of the Manuscripts of Pat.an. a JainBhan. d. ara. Muni Pun.yavijaya, compiler. Three volumes. Ahmedabad: SharadabenChimanbhai Educational Research Centre.

Klatt, Johannes (1882). ‘Extracts from the Historical Records of the Jainas’, IndianAntiquary 11: 245–256.

Matilal, Bimal Krishna (1977). Nyaya-Vaises. ika. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.History of Indian Literature VI.2.

Mehta, Mohanalala, and Hıralala Ra. Kapad. iya (1968). Jaina Sahitya ka Br.hadItihasa. Volume 4, Karma-Sahitya va Agamika Prakaran. a. Varanasi: ParsvanathaVidyasrama Sodha Sansthana.

Mette, Adelheid (1974). Pin. d. ’es.an. a: das Kapitel der Oha-nijjutti uber den Bettelgang:Ubersetzt und Kommentiert. Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur.Abhandlungen des Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Jahrgang 1973,Nr. 11.

Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1960). Ancient Indian Education. Third edition. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass.

Nagaraset.ha, Kasturabhaı Man. ibhaı (ed.) (1934). Akhila Bharatavars. ıya Srı JainaSvetambara Muni Sam. melane Pat.t.akarupe Sarvanumate Karela Nirn. ayo. Ahmedabad:Srı Sangha Rajnagara.


Potter, Karl H. (1995). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Volume I. Bibliography.Third revised edition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Pun.yavijaya, Muni (1972). Catalogue of Manuscripts in Shri Hemachandracharya JainJnanamandira, Patan, Part 1, Paper Manuscripts. Patan: Shri HemachandracharyaJain Jnanamandira.

Ratnasenavijaya, Muni (1982). Vatsalya ke Mahasagara: Pu. Pan. SrıBhadrankaravijayajı-Gan. ivaryasrı ka Sanks. ipta Jıvana. Bali: Dadavad. ı Srı JainaSangha.

Saha, Pt. Ambalala Pre. (1969). Jaina Sahitya ka Br.had Itihasa, Volume 5, Laks.an. ikaSahitya. Varanasi: Parsvanatha Vidyasrama Sodha Sansthana.

Sarma, Pan.d. ita Hıralala (1912). Munisammelana. Ajmer: Set.ha Hıracandajı Sacetı;and Amritsar: Lala Cunılala Duggad.a.

Scharfe, Helmut (1977). Grammatical Literature. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.History of Indian Literature V.2.

Schopen, Gregory (1991). ‘Archaeology and Protestant Presuppositions in the Studyof Indian Buddhism’, History of Religions 31: 1–23. Reprinted in Bones, Stones,and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Textsof Monastic Buddhism in India, pp. 1–22. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press,1997.

Set.ha, Mahendra Gulabacanda (ed.) (1988). ‘Sraman. a Sam. melana Vises. anka’, Jaina85: 16–17 (13 April).

Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1971). ‘The Study of Religion and the Study of the Bible’,Journal of the American Academy of Religion 39: 131–140. Reprinted in W. G.Oxtoby (ed.), Religious Diversity: Essays by Wilfred Cantwell Smith, pp. 41–56.New York: Harper & Row.

Soni, Jayandra (1991). ‘Dravya, Gun. a and Paryaya in Jaina Thought’, Journal ofIndian Philosophy 19: 75–88.

Upadhye, A. N. (1983). ‘Br.hat-kathakosa’, in Papers, pp. 1–108. Mysore: University ofMysore. Originally Introduction to Br.hatkathakosa of Haris.en.a. Bombay: BharatıyaVidya Bhavan, 1943. Singhi Jain Series 17.

Vallabhasuri, Acarya Vijaya (1957). Navayuga Nirmata. Edited by Pt. HansarajaSastrı. Ambala: Srı Atmananda Jaina Mahasabha Panajaba.

Vallely, Anne (1999). Women and the Ascetic Ideal in Jainism. Ph.D. dissertation,University of Toronto.

Velankar, Hari Damodar (1944). Jinaratnakosa: An Alphabetical Register of JainWorks and Authors, Vol. 1. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.

Vinayavijaya, Muni (1914). Srı Svetambarıya Jaina Grantha Margadarsaka (JainaGrantha-Gaid. a). Bhavnagar: Jaina Atmananda Sabha.

Department of ReligionDenison UniversityGranville, Ohio, USA

Documents

JIPh - John Cort - Svetambara Curriculum