JESUS AND THE “EGYPTIAN PROPHET” - Lena Einhornlenaeinhorn.se/.../2012/11/Jesus-and-the-Egyptian-Prophet-12.11.25.pdf · on sixty-two occasions in De bello Judaico, twenty-one

JESUS AND THE ldquoEGYPTIAN PROPHETrdquoLena Einhorn PhD

(Presented at the Society of Biblical Literature Annual Meeting Chicago Nov17-20 2012)

ABSTRACT

Unlike the Synoptic Gospels John 183 and 1812 state that Jesus on the Mount of Olives wasconfronted by a speira ndash a Roman cohort of 500 to 1000 soldiers This suggestion of a battlepreceding Jesusrsquo arrest is reminiscent of an event described by Josephus in the 50s (AJ20169-172 BJ 2261-263) involving the so called lsquoEgyptian Prophetrsquo (or simply lsquotheEgyptianrsquo) This messianic leader ndash who had previously spent time ldquoin the wildernessrdquo ndash hadldquoadvised the multitude hellip to go along with him to the Mount of Olivesrdquo where he ldquowouldshow them from hence how at his command the walls of Jerusalem would fall downrdquoProcurator Felix however sent a cohort of soldiers to the Mount of Olives where theydefeated lsquothe Egyptianrsquo

Although the twenty-year time difference would seem to make all comparisonsfutile there are other coinciding aspects The preceding messianic leader named by JosephusTheudas (AJ 2097-99) shares distinct characteristics with John the Baptist Like JohnTheudas gathered his followers by the river Jordan and like John he was arrested by theauthorities and they ldquocut off his head and carried it to Jerusalemrdquo Curiously although thenames of dignitaries may differ comparing the New Testament accounts with Josephusrsquoaccounts of the mid-40s to early 50s in several respects appears to be more productive than acomparison with his accounts of the 30s It is in this later period not the 30s that Josephusdescribes the activity and crucifixion of robbers (absent between 6 and 44 CE) a conflictbetween Samaritans and Jews two co-reigning high priests a procurator killing Galileans anattack on someone named Stephanos outside Jerusalem and at least ten more seeminglyparallel events Importantly these are parallels that judging by Josephus appear to be absentin the 30s The significance of this will be discussed

Einhorn Jesus and the Egyptian 2

INTRODUCTION

One of the limitations facing historical Jesus studies has been that the New Testament is theonly source of first century texts in which Jesus unequivocally is described This is in spite ofthe fact that the period in other respects is fairly well documented Flavius Josephus wrote Debello Judaico and Antiquitates Judaicae in the 70s and the 90s CE respectively Both worksdescribe personalities mentioned in the Gospels Pilate Annas Caiaphas Quirinius etcJosephus also describes several Jewish messianic leaders of the first century SimonAthronges Judas the Galilean Theudas lsquoThe Egyptianrsquo Menahem etc But exceptingTestimonium Flavianum (AJ 1863-64) ndash by most scholars considered at least a partial laterChristian interpolation ndash Jesus from Nazareth is not visible in the works of Josephus Nor washe according to Photius described in the now lost works of another first century localhistorian Justus of Tiberias1 Only from the second century do we begin to see moreunequivocal extra-biblical references to Jesus2

The fact that the Gospels describe Jesus as someone with a large following andone whose trial involved two high priests the tetrarch of Galilee and the prefect of Iudaeaheightens the discrepancy between sources

This discrepancy has led to the common view that although Jesus from Nazarethmost likely existed he was probably less significant in his own time than the gospel accountssuggest3 A minority view holds that Jesus was an entirely mythological character4

However in the course of comparing the NT narratives with other historicalsources primarily the works of Josephus this author came upon a number of hithertoneglected parallels that in Josephusrsquo writings occur with a consistent delay of fifteen totwenty years ie in the mid-40s to early 50s

It will be discussed whether these delayed parallels really are depictions of thesame events and if so if the delay is the result of errors or if the parallels could besuggestions of a deliberate time shift in the New Testament narratives

THE TIMING OF EVENTS DEPICTED IN THE GOSPELS

We base our timing of the events in the life of Jesus entirely on the presence of certaindignitaries in the NT narratives Since we know from other sources that Pilate was prefect ofIudaea between 26 and 36 (or 37) CE and that Caiaphas was high priest between 18 and 36(or 37) CE we may conclude that the crucifixion of Jesus could not have taken place before26 or after 37 CE5 The information that John the Baptist began his ministry ldquoin the fifteenthyear of the reign of Emperor Tiberiusrdquo narrows this gap further (Luke 31 NRSV)

All the same some of the accounts presented in the New Testament do not fitwithin that timeframe at least not when compared with the information we can gather fromJosephus Although the reliability of Josephus has been questioned the consistency of thesediscrepancies makes it unlikely that they can be ascribed to a consistent error on his part6 Inaddition there are a number of known internal chronological inconsistencies in the NTnarrative

These chronological discrepancies form the basis for the hypothesis presented here

THE DEATH OF THEUDAS

Acts 526-40 depicts how the Apostles are brought to the Sanhedrin At one point rabbiGamaliel says ldquoFellow-Israelites consider carefully what you propose to do to these men For


some time ago Theudas rose up claiming to be somebody and a number of men about fourhundred joined him but he was killed and all who followed him were dispersed anddisappearedrdquo

If we assume that Acts is written somewhat chronologically this interrogation atthe Sanhedrin would have happened soon after the crucifixion of Jesus and in any event inthe 30s CE since it precedes Saulrsquos arrival in Damascus7 Judging by Josephus however(AJ 2097-99) Theudas was a messianic leader active and killed under Fadus (44 to 46 CE)So if this is correct Theudas could not already be dead in the 30s This is an inconsistencybetween the NT narrative and that of Josephus which is generally noted8

The most common assumption has been that the author of Luke-Acts confused theorder of the messianic leaders especially since Acts 537 subsequently relates Gamalielrsquosstatement that Judas the Galilean came after Theudas9 According to Josephus Judas theGalilean was active several decades before Theudas (BJ 256118433 AJ 181-1023)

An alternative suggestion has been that there were two different men namedTheudas10 It has also been proposed that Luke refers to Judas the Galilean by mistake whenin fact he means the sons of Judas who according to AJ 20100-104 were killed soon afterTheudas11 Although a definite point of disagreement some scholars having compared theirwritings have concluded that Luke had probably read Antiquitates Judaicae12 Thus it issuggested that he may have misread Josephus in this instance

In conclusion Josephus places the death of Theudas in the mid-40s at least fifteenyears later than Acts This is most often attributed to a mistake by the author of Luke-Acts

There are however other chronological inconsistencies in the NT narrative mostof them rarely addressed

rdquoROBBERSrdquo

The word rdquorobbersrdquo (λῃσταί sing λῃστής) is prevalent in the Gospels Jesus was crucifiedwith two λῃσταί Barabbas is in John 1840 described as a λῃστής and when he is arrestedJesus says ὡς ἐπὶ λῃστὴν ἐξήλθατε μετὰ μαχαιρῶν καὶ ξύλων συλλαβεῖν με13

λῃσταί are mentioned frequently also by Josephus And in his writings the termusually refers to Jewish rebels (ldquoZealotsrdquo in the wider meaning of the term)14 That this is theintended meaning also in the Gospels is suggested by Mark 157 ldquoNow a man calledBarabbas was in prison with the rebels who had committed murder during the insurrectionrdquo

When Josephus writes about λῃσταί however he does so during two distinctperiods from 63 BCE when Roman occupation begins until the census revolt under Judasthe Galilean was crushed ca 6 CE And then again with great frequency after 48 CE whenldquoall Judea was overrun with robberiesrdquo15 This second eruption would eventually lead to theJewish War

Importantly however Josephus never once records the presence of rdquorobbersrdquoduring the time Jesus was active In fact there are no mentions of their activity between 6 CEand 44 CE (see Figure 1) In contrast after 44 CE we find some form of the word λῃστήςon sixty-two occasions in De bello Judaico twenty-one times in Antiquitates Judaicae andten times in Vita16 The only hint about activity during Jesusrsquo time is that BJ 2253 statesthat ldquoEleazar the arch-robberrdquo active in the 50s had ldquoravaged the country for twenty yearstogetherrdquo AJ 20121 however only states that Eleazar ldquohad many years made his abode inthe mountainsrdquo

Figure 1Mention of ldquorobbersrdquo or ldquorobberyrdquo in the works of Josephus (until arrival of Vespasian)

(lēstēs archilēstēs lēstērion lēsteia lēstrikos lēsteuō)No ofreferences

25

323-160 BCEAJBook 12BJ131-47

160-63 BCEAJ131-1453BJ148-140

63-37 BCEAJ1454-491BJ1141-363

37-4 BCEAJ151-17192BJ1364-673

4 BCE-6 CEAJ17193-1825BJ21-166

6-26 CEAJ1826-35BJ2167-168

26-37 CEAJ1836-89BJ2169-180

37-44 CEAJ1890-19353BJ2181-219

59-66 CEAJ20182-258BJ2271-654

44-48 CEAJ201-104BJ2220-222

48-59 CEAJ20105-181BJ2223-270

15

20

5

10

Connected to actual activity

Mention of word without activity


To underline that the failure of Josephus to mention the activity of ldquorobbersrdquo between 6 and44 CE is no coincidence Tacitus in Hist 59-10 writes ldquoUnder Tiberius all was quietrdquoJosephus does describe two occasions of Jewish mass protests under Pilate But judging fromhis narratives (and supported by Philo) these protests were entirely non-violent On thesecond occasion the protests against the use of funds from the Temple treasury to build anaqueduct it ended in Jews being trampled and beaten to death But as Josephus states ldquothepeople were unarmedrdquo (AJ 1855-5960-62 Philo Legat 299-305) There are no signs ofarmed rebellion

Under Caligula (37-41 CE) the tension and protests increased when the emperorwanted to erect a statue of himself in the Temple The danger was averted however by thedeath of Caligula (AJ 18257-309 BJ 2184-203)

Prolonged tension was probably what ultimately led to armed insurrection But thetime of the re-emergence of the rdquorobbersrdquo is not therefore random The fact that they reappearin the chronicles of Josephus in 44 CE may be connected to the sudden death of HerodAgrippa I who with considerable success and appreciation from his people had ruled all ofPalestine from 41 to 44 CE When after this the areas returned to provincial status thedisappointment among the Jews was immense To quote Menahem Stern (1976 258) ldquoThetwenty-two years from [Agripparsquos death] until the outbreak of the Great Revolt may besummed up as a period that marked the decline of that rule and the progressive deteriorationof the relations between the Roman authorities and the general Jewish populationrdquo Finally itis noteworthy that the presence of λῃσταί in Josephusrsquo narrative appears to coincide with theappearance and disappearance of the family of Judas the Galilean The first band of ldquorobbersrdquois lead by Judasrsquo father Hezekiah (BJ 1204 AJ 14159) The discontinued mentioning ofλῃσταί after 6 CE coincides with the crushing of the census revolt led by Judas (BJ 2117-118 AJ 187) The reappearance of references to λῃσταί during Fadus is followed by theslaying of Judasrsquo sons (AJ 20102) In the intervening almost forty years we have not heardabout this family (or of rdquorobbersrdquo) Also the messianic rebel leader Menahem is referred to asldquoson of Judas that was called the Galileanrdquo and his appearance coincides with the beginningof the Jewish War (BJ 2433)

In conclusion not only is there a reintroduction of λῃσταί in Josephusrsquo narrativesafter 44 CE and then a dramatic increase from 48 CE This pattern fits with the actual stateof relations between the Jews and the Romans in the decades leading up to the Jewish War

It is therefore difficult to explain how Jesus could be crucified with λῃσταί ldquorebels who had committed murder during the insurrectionrdquo if this took place in the 30s Thename of the disciple Simon the Zealot also would seem more appropriate in a different era Aswould the pronouncement in Matthew 1112 ldquoFrom the days of John the Baptist until nowthe kingdom of heaven has suffered violence and the violent take it by forcerdquo17

CRUCIFIXIONS

In addition to this Josephus makes no note of crucifixions of Jews between 4 BCE and 46CE except in Testimonium Flavianum He mentions them however under Varus (4 BCE)Tiberius Alexander (46 to 48 CE) Cumanus (48 to 52 CE) Felix (52 to ca 59 CE) andFlorus (64 to 66 CE) as well as during the Jewish War (66 to 73 CE)18


THE CONFLICT BETWEEN JEWS AND SAMARITANS

According to the chronicles of Josephus there are in 48 CE three distinct events signallingthe drastic increase in the activity of the ldquorobbersrdquo One of these events is the Galilean-Samaritan war starting in 48 CE under Cumanus and ending in 52 CE when Felix comesto power (AJ 20118-136 BJ 2232-246) It is a war with a distinct beginning and end to asignificant extent involving Jewish λῃσταί According to AJ 20118-121 the war begins inthe following seemingly banal way

It was the custom of the Galileans when they came to the holy city at the festivalsto take their journeys through the country of the Samaritans and at this time therelay in the road they took a village that was called Ginea which was situated in thelimits of Samaria and the great plain where certain persons thereto belonging foughtwith the Galileans and killed a great many of them

This leads to Jewish λῃσταί in turn attacking the Samaritans and they ldquoset the villages onfirerdquo (BJ 2232-235)

Although the question of how the relationship between Samaritans and Jewsevolved at different times is a matter of debate this war is the only period of outright conflictbetween them described by Josephus in the first century19 Consequently Josephus makes nomention of any hostilities between Jews and Samaritans during Pilatersquos times ndash despite thefact that he discusses their respective reactions against Roman rule20

Also the New Testament provides evidence of hostilities between Jews andSamaritans but in this case in the times of Pilate21 This in itself would perhaps not besignificant if it were not for the fact that later in Acts such evidence is not only absent butSamaria and Samaritans are mentioned on several occasions without any suggestions ofhostility22 A pattern of abating conflict between Jews and Samaritans can thus possibly bediscerned also in the New Testament but in a different period than that described by Josephus(see Figure 2)

The pattern seen in Figure 2 may or may not be significant There is however oneadditional element in Josephusrsquo narrative of the Galilean-Samaritan war which warrantsattention The triggering event bears some similarities to an episode involving Samaritans inthe New Testament

AJ 20118-121ldquoIt was the custom of the Galileans when theycame to the holy city at the festivals to taketheir journeys through the country of theSamaritans and at this time there lay in theroad they took a village that was called Gineawhich was situated in the limits of Samaria andthe great plain where certain persons theretobelonging fought with the Galileans and killeda great many of themrdquo

BJ 2232-235[In response Jewish λῃσταί ] ldquoset the villageson firerdquo

Luke 951-56ldquoWhen the days drew near for him to be takenup he set his face to go to Jerusalem And hesent messengers ahead of him On their way theyentered a village of the Samaritans to makeready for him but they did not receive himbecause his face was set towards JerusalemWhen his disciples James and John saw it theysaid lsquoLord do you want us to command fire tocome down from heaven and consume themrsquoBut he turned and rebuked them Then they wenton to another villagerdquo

A village ldquoalong the borders of Samaria and Galileerdquo is mentioned also in Luke 1711-12The similarities between AJ 20118-121 BJ 2232-235 and Luke 951-56 ndash down

to the mentioning of ldquofirerdquo ndash have previously been noted23 but the accounts have not beenviewed as depictions of the same event presumably due to the fact that the event described byJosephus occurs in 48 CE about fifteen years later than that described by Luke

This very delay however seems to fit the pattern seen in Figure 2

Figure 2Mention of the words Samaria or Samaritans in the works of Josephus and in the New Testament

Related to conflict with Jews

Unrelated to conflict with Jews

4 BCEndash1 CE 1ndash6 CE 6ndash12 12-18 18-24 24-30 30-36 36-42 42-48 48-54 54-60 60-67 CE


No ofmentions

0

5

10

10

New Testament

Josephus (BJ and AJ)20

30


STEPHANOS

As mentioned it is in the year 48 that the mentioning of λῃσταί in the works of Josephusincreases dramatically because of three rebellion-triggering events Immediately precedingthe Galilean-Samaritan war Josephus mentions another of these events It starts with anattack on a man by the name of Stephanos or Stephen (AJ 20113-114 BJ 2228-229) Thisname is unusual at least in Judea and Galilee as Josephus only mentions one singleStephanos in his entire works It is therefore noteworthy that a Stephanos is described also inActs 65ndash82 Thus there is a single Stephanos in each source although they appear ten totwenty years apart

Additionally the two Stephanos narratives display some conspicuous similaritiesBoth accounts center around Stephanos being attacked by a mob and in both cases the attackoccurs on a road outside Jerusalem According to one interpretation of Josephusrsquo textStephanos is identical to the man subsequently tearing the Torah to pieces (ldquoand this was donewith reproachful languagerdquo) something for which he is killed24 There however thesimilarities end for the Stephanos described by Josephus is a Roman And those who attackhim outside Jerusalem are λῃσταί ndash something which leads to retaliation by the Romanauthorities and the resulting threat of a Jewish rebellion Thus both of these attacks on a mannamed Stephanos on a road outside Jerusalem constitute significant starting points InJosephusrsquo narrative it is the starting point for the violent activity of the Jewish rebels in 48CE In Acts it is the starting point for Saulrsquos violent persecution of the early Christianmovement

This might seem like a clear distinction if it were not for the fact that Josephusnowhere in his works describes a Christian movement It is not only Jesus who with theexception of Testimonium Flavianum is absent in his narratives Equally absent are theApostles their conflicts with the Sanhedrin the stoning of Stephanos and Paul And yetJosephus wrote as late as the 90s CE

The question then is if that which the New Testament describes as the earlyChristian movement originally and in other sources was depicted as something else ndash a rebelmovement Ever since Reimarus began his quest for the Historical Jesus one recurringinterpretation of the gospel narratives of the complex multifaceted trial of Jesus has been thatJesus in fact may have been a spiritual revolutionary leader not only against the Jewishestablishment but also against Rome25 Other proponents of variations of this idea have beenRobert Eisler Joel Carmichael Samuel GF Brandon and Hyam Maccoby26 Theirsuggestions range from Jesus and the disciples themselves being political rebels to themmerely expressing sympathy with the ideals and aims of the anti-Roman resistancemovement And the authors base their conclusion not least on the many suggestions in theNew Testament narrative itself The more confrontational pronouncements made by Jesus ndashsuch as Matt 1034 or Mark 137-8 ndash although usually interpreted in an eschatological lightcould often as easily be understood as insurrectionary in a political sense Jesus was after alleventually sentenced by the worldly authorities the Romans He was executed by the meansthey used for rebels On the cross he was surrounded on each side by ldquorobbersrdquo One of hisdisciples was even called Simon the Zealot Noteworthy are also disciple names SimonBariona Boanerges and Judas Iscariot (Scarioth in Latin and possibly derived fromSicarios)27 And the titulus on the cross described Jesus as ldquoKing of the Jewsrdquo (see also egJohn 1147-50 Acts 16 Luke 2236 Luke 231-2 vs Mark 1217)

The view on Jesus as a possible rebel leader is nevertheless countered by his manypronouncements of an opposite pacifist nature And the prevailing sentiment is that Brandonand his colleagues overinterpreted the words implying that Jesus could have been a politicalrevolutionary28 We shall come back to this later


PEOPLE IN POSITIONS OF AUTHORITY

The chronological inconsistencies mentioned so far have all concerned major events in theperiod leading up to the Jewish war ndash usually involving Jewish rebels There are howeveralso inconsistencies involving the very elements which provide us with the tools to create aNew Testament chronology namely people in positions of authority The NT narrativepresents us with the names of various high priests tetrarchs prefectsprocurators etc ndashindividuals also described in the chronicles of Josephus As a rule however thesedescriptions do not match ie the names match but not their circumstances

TWO HIGH PRIESTS

One such example concerns high priests Annas and Caiaphas According to the Gospels thetwo high priests hold their positions in tandem29 Josephus however makes no record of thisJudging by AJ 1834-35 Annas ruled from 6 CE and was deposed in 15 CE Josephussubsequently mentions three high priests (Ishmael ben Fabus Eleazar ben Annas and Simonben Camithus) before Caiaphas assumes the position in 18 CE And Annas is nevermentioned again Thus judging from Josephusrsquo narrative Caiaphas ruled alone

Curiously however Josephus does name two other co-reigning high priests acouple of decades later The joint high priesthood of Jonathan son of Annas and Ananiasson of Nebedaios commences between 48 and 52 CE and Josephus refers to them asldquoJonathan and Ananias the high priestsrdquo (BJ 2243) When he is killed by the Sicarii underFelix Jonathan is still according to AJ 20162 and BJ 2256 ldquothe high priestrdquo and Ananiasremains in office Again at least on the surface a better fit appears to be seen whencomparing the NT narrative with events Josephus places in the late 40s or 50s (Figure 3)

Were one to surmise however that this is a true parallel and that the high priests of theGospels in reality were active in the 40s and 50s rather than the 30s the shift would be moredifficult to ascribe to a chronological mistake on the part of a gospel writer Because in thiscase it would entail a change of names The question then is if a pattern like this ndash onedignitary in the Gospels better fitting the characteristics and life circumstances of anotherdignitary in extra-biblical sources ndash repeats itself

Robbers active

Definite Crucifixion of Jews

Crucifixion of Jews

Two co-reigning high priests

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE


Attack onStephanos of NT

Robbers active

Robbers active

Galilean-SamaritanConflict

Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas

Attack onStephanos of BJAJ

Death of Theudas

New Testament

Josephus (BJ and AJ)

Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE

Changing the names of authority figures in the gospel texts in order to detect (or disguise)parallels in the historical sources would at the same time be a simple and a radicalintervention It would with one stroke of the pen move the narrative to a different era but itwould also likely bestow upon these authority figures characteristics and circumstances whichare not in reality theirs When comparing the gospel descriptions of various dignitaries withthose from Josephus not only does such a pattern indeed seem to emerge in addition there issome consistency with regard to which dignitaries would change names and when they areactive Procurator Felix (52-ca 59 CE) as he is depicted in Josephusrsquo texts in several waysappears to bear stronger similarities to the Pilate described in the Gospels than Pilate himselfAs noted above in Josephusrsquo accounts of Pilatersquos reign we find no descriptions of robbersnor of crucifixions of Jews or co-reigning high priests or open conflict between Galileansand Samaritans Under Felix and under Cumanus we do

There are other examples Luke 131 reads rdquoAt that very time there were somepresent who told him about the Galileans whose blood Pilate had mingled with theirsacrificesrdquo This statement fits poorly with Pilate To begin with Pilate was not the ruler ofGalilee Herod Antipas was Secondly the only registered violent encounter between Pilateand the Jews occurred in Jerusalem ndash thus in Judea ndash when non-violent protests against theaqueduct prompted Pilate to instruct his soldiers ldquowith their staves to beat those that made theclamourrdquo (BJ 2175-177)

This stands in stark contrast to what occurred under Felix in particular Felixunlike Pilate was the ruler not only of Judea but also of ldquoSamaria Galilee and Peraeardquo (BJ2247 the western part of Galilee after 54 CE) At this point ldquothe country was again filledwith robbers and impostorsrdquo a disproportionate amount of whom were Galileans30 and Felixwas exceptionally cruel in dealing with these insurgents As Josephus writes ldquoBut as to thenumber of the robbers whom he caused to be crucified and of those who were caught amongthem and whom he brought to punishment they were a multitude not to be enumeratedrdquo (BJ2253)

Tacitus in turn puts much of the blame for the emerging rebellion on Felix andCumanus (Ann 1254)

There are other more personal examples the Gospels attribute great influence to Pilatersquoswife (Matt 2719 ldquoWhile he was sitting on the judgement seat his wife sent word to himlsquoHave nothing to do with that innocent man rsquordquo) The Gospels also mention a feud betweenPilate and the Jewish king (Luke 2312 ldquoThat same day Herod and Pilate became friends witheach other before this they had been enemiesrdquo)

In contrast Josephus does not mention Pilatersquos wife and more significantly failsto mention any animosity between Pilate and Herod Antipas (Philo does mention one possibleoccasion of disagreement ndash when ldquothe four sons of the kingrdquo [Herod] are asked by the peopleto implore Pilate to remove the guilt shields or ensigns from Jerusalem)31

Josephus does however describe a significant ndash and very personal ndash disagreementbetween Felix and Herod Agrippa II The conflict concerns the procuratorrsquos wife Felix hadfallen in love with Agripparsquos sister princess Drusilla (AJ 20141-144) But Drusilla was notonly married Agrippa had forced her first husband king Azizus to convert to Judaism NowFelix ldquoendeavored to persuade her to forsake her present husband and marry himrdquo whichDrusilla did thus ldquotransgressing the laws of her forefathersrdquo (AJ 20137-144 cf Acts 2424)

Hence a prominent wife and a personal disagreement with a Jewish ruler areaspects of Felixrsquo life not as far as is known of Pilatersquos


Yet another example the text in Luke 236-7 does if it pertains to Pilate and Herod Antipascontain a curious tautology ldquoWhen Pilate heard this he asked whether the man was aGalilean And when he learned that he was under Herodrsquos jurisdiction he sent him off toHerod rdquo Since Pilate ruled Judea and Herod Antipas ruled Galilee the words ldquounderHerodrsquos jurisdictionrdquo seem superfluous A more logical sentence would have read ldquoWhenPilate heard this he asked whether the man was a Galilean And when he learned that he washe sent him off to Herod rdquo

With Felix and Herod Agrippa II however the sentence makes perfect sense From54 CE jurisdiction over Galilee was divided between them ndash with Felix ruling over westernGalilee and Herod Agrippa II ruling over the eastern parts Thus the information that Jesus isa Galilean would not automatically put him under Herodrsquos jurisdiction

In conclusion there are in the Gospels a number of characteristics and events ascribed toPilate or his times which judging by Josephus fit better with later procurators principallyFelix procurator in the 50s (Table 1)

Table 1Rulers associated with various events in the New Testament and in works of

Josephus

Event New Testament AJ and BJ (1-66 CE)

ldquoRobbersrdquo active Pilate Archelaus Fadus Alexander CumanusFelix Festus Albinus Florus

Definite crucifixions of Jews Pilate Alexander Cumanus Felix Florus

Two named co-reigning HighPriests

Pilate Cumanus Felix

PrefectProcuratorslaughtering Galileans

Pilate Cumanus Felix (Festus AlbinusFlorus)

Conflict betweenPrefectProcurator andJewish King

Pilate and HerodAntipas

Felix and Agrippa II (Pilate and HerodAntipas)

PrefectProcurator known tohave an influential wife

Pilate Felix Florus

Conflict between Galileansand Samaritans


Messianic Jewish leadersmentioned

Pilate(ArchelausFadus Felix)

Archelaus Fadus Felix Festus

Attack on a man namedStephanos outside Jerusalem

Pilate Marcellusor Marullus

Cumanus

Theudas killed Pilate or earlier Fadus

Census Quirinius Quirinius


THE RETURN FROM EGYPT

Perhaps the most widely noted chronological inconsistency in the New Testament concernsthe nativity stories Matt 213-20 states that Jesus was brought to Egypt as an infant andreturned ldquowhen Herod diedrdquo Luke 22 however puts Jesus birth at the time of the censusldquowhile Quirinius was governor of Syriardquo We know from Josephus (AJ 181) that Quiriniusbecame governor of Syria about 6 CE Thus Jesus could not have been born both when Herodthe Great was king (42-4 BCE) and when Quirinius was governor

This discrepancy is generally noted It is however not the only inconsistency inMatthewrsquos narrative Right after we are told of Jesus returning from Egypt (Matt 221-23)the narrative says ldquoIn those days John the Baptist appeared in the wilderness of Judeaproclaiming lsquoRepent for the kingdom of heaven has come nearrsquordquo (Matt 31-2) There is noindication of time passing between Matt 223 and 31 In fact the words ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἡμέραιςἐκείναις (ldquoin those daysrdquo) tie the two verses together and the sentence places the beginningof Johnrsquos ministry in the same period as Jesusrsquo return from Egypt This is difficult to reconcilewith Matthewrsquos statement that Jesus returned as a ldquochildrdquo since judging by Luke 136 Johnthe Baptist is only six months older than Jesus Furthermore Luke 31 places the beginning ofJohn the Baptistrsquos ministry ldquoin the fifteenth year of the reign of Emperor Tiberiusrdquo thus about33 years after the death of Herod the Great Even accounting for the fact that the return fromEgypt may not have occurred immediately after Herodrsquos death Matt 222 definitely places itin the reign of Archelaus ie in 6 CE at the latest Thus there seems to be a paradoxical gapof at least 23 years between Matt 223 and 31 a gap which is contradicted by the words ἐνδὲ ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις

One must ask if Jesus really returned from Egypt as a child

Interestingly there are two early non-Christian sources which state that Jesus spent years as ayoung adult in Egypt With regard to the later one the Talmud it has only been assumed thatthe person who ldquobrought magic spells out of Egyptrdquo ndash a man named ben Pantera or ben Stadandash was indeed Jesus32 The earlier source however Celsusrsquo Alethes logos (175-180 CE) citedby Origen in Contra Celsum clearly states that Jesus spent his youth in Egypt

Jesus an illegitimate child who having hired himself out as a servant in Egypt onaccount of his poverty and having there acquired some miraculous powers onwhich the Egyptians greatly pride themselves returned to his own country highlyelated on account of them and by means of these proclaimed himself a God

Celsus adds that Jesus was the son of a soldier named Pantera thus strengthening theassumption that also the Talmud excerpts on the man bringing magic from Egypt refer toJesus (Cels 12832)

It is a fact that also in the Gospels Jesus reappears when he is ldquoabout thirty yearsoldrdquo (Luke 323) Nothing is said about where he had been previously In addition thesynoptic Gospels all describe how he is at first not recognized in Nazareth and is thenremembered in relation to his parents and siblings thus presumably as a child or youth33 TheGospels do not address where he has been in the interim

Thus there are at least three pieces of information which indicate that Jesus spenttime in Egypt as an adult The Talmud excerpts mentioning ben Pantera as someone who had come as an adult

out of Egypt Celsusrsquo statement that Jesus returned from Egypt as an adult (and his identification of

ben Pantera as Jesus)


The absence of information about Jesusrsquo adulthood before age thirty and the gospeldescriptions of Jesusrsquo return to his hometown Nazareth apparently after a longabsence

In addition there is one piece of information from the Gospels indicating that this adult returnfrom Egypt is identical to that described in Matt 221-23 namely the simultaneousappearance of John the Baptist as a preacher (Matt 31)

Is there a way to reconcile an adult return from Egypt with the information from Matthew thatJesus returned ldquowhen Herod diedrdquo Possibly but it would require adjusting the name of theJewish king with a resulting shift in time of fifteen to twenty years

If the ruler whose death preceded the return of Jesus from Egypt was HerodAntipas (tetrarch of Galilee 4 BCEndash39 CE) or more likely Herod Agrippa I (39-44 CE)and not Herod the Great (42ndash4 BCE) there would be no inconsistency in the statements thatJesus returned both ldquowhen Herod diedrdquo and when ldquoJohn the Baptist appeared in thewilderness of Judeardquo (assuming that the fifteen to twenty year time shift applies also to Johnthe Baptist)34 In that case Jesus would not have been a child when he returned from Egyptbut an adult just like Celsus and the Talmud state

With regard to the nativity story in Luke which refers to the census one may notethat the only historically significant result of this census was that it was the starting shot forldquothe fourth sect of Jewish philosophyrdquo the anti-Roman resistance movement under Judas theGalilean (AJ 1823-25)

Whether and if so why a deliberate shift of events from one era to another could have beenimplemented will be discussed below But if at some point in the writing or editing of thegospel texts there was an impetus to create such a shift the easiest way to accomplish thiswould have been to change the names of authority figures If however a number of otheradjustments were not made this might create internal inconsistencies in the text In theexample above describing Herod the Great as the king whose death preceded Jesus returnfrom Egypt creates such a significant problem with chronology that the text fails to be fullylogical Thus if a change of names was performed this modification most likely would haveoccurred after the initial text was written and would have been fairly minimal

Alternatively the discrepancies could be interpreted as deliberate traces of anotherstory This in particular could be argued in the case of Luke (see below)

THE EGYPTIAN

In conclusion there seems to be a pattern where a number of episodes described in the NewTestament display significant similarities to events described by Josephus but with a fairlyconsistent delay of fifteen to twenty years This pattern is summarized in Figure 4 (see alsoTable 1)

Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans

Conflict betwprocuratorand Jewish king

Conflict betwprocurator and

Jewish king

Death of Theudas

Procurator slaughtering Galileans

Messianicleader bythe Jordan


Messianic leaderby the Jordan

Death of Theudas

Census underQuirinius

New Testament



Figure 4

Jesus arrested onMount of Olives

Procurator slaughteringGalileans

ldquoThe Egyptianrdquodefeated on Mountof Olives


Perhaps the most significant aspect of Felixrsquos procuratorship however is that if the 30s aredevoid of strong Jewish messianic leaders the 50s are not35 And the most important of themis one that Josephus describes at length in both his major works (AJ 20169-172 BJ 2261-263 cf Acts 2138)

There came out of Egypt about this time to Jerusalem one that said he was a prophetand advised the multitude of the common people to go along with him to the Mountof Olives as it was called which lay over against the city and at the distance of fivefurlongs He said further that he would show them from hence how at hiscommand the walls of Jerusalem would fall down and he promised them that hewould procure them an entrance into the city through those walls when they werefallen down Now when Felix was informed of these things he ordered his soldiersto take their weapons and came against them with a great number of horsemen andfootmen from Jerusalem and attacked the Egyptian and the people that were withhim He also slew four hundred of them and took two hundred alive But theEgyptian himself escaped out of the fight but did not appear any more (AJ 20169-172)

The description in BJ 2261-263 is similar but more negative And it adds the informationthat this messianic leader ldquogot together thirty thousand menrdquo that he ldquoled round about fromthe wilderness to the mount which was called the Mount of Olivesrdquo The ensuing battle isdescribed in a similar way

There are significant differences but had the Egyptian been active in the 30s instead of in the50s historians would undoubtedly have made comparisons with Jesus from Nazareth Thereasons are manifold

Like Jesus the Egyptian had lingered in ldquothe wildernessrdquo or ldquodesertrdquo (ἐρημία) Both speak of tearing down the walls of Jerusalem (cf Luke 1943-44) Both had lived in Egypt Both are described as messianic leaders with a great following Both are perceived as major threats by the authorities rdquoThe Egyptianrdquo is defeated on the Mount of Olives where Jesus was arrested

Aside from chronology the one thing which most clearly distinguishes Jesus and the Egyptianare the circumstances surrounding their defeat Jesus is arrested on the Mount of Olivescrucified resurrected and then vanishes The Egyptian is defeated in a battle on the Mount ofOlives and then vanishes

Let us however look more closely at the events surrounding Jesusrsquo arrest as theyare depicted in the Gospels

THE EVENTS ON THE MOUNT OF OLIVES

Mark 157 states that ldquoa man called Barabbas was in prison with the rebels who hadcommitted murder during the insurrectionrdquo The author uses the definite form as if we shouldalready know which insurrection is intended The fact is however that Mark describes noinsurrection nor do the other gospel authors The only reported disturbances are the onesoccurring when Jesus is arrested on the Mount of Olives (meeting his adversaries with thewords ldquoHave you come out with swords and clubs to arrest me as though I were arobberrdquo)36 But the conflict seems predominately religious and it is the Sanhedrin whichsends out people to arrest Jesus as indeed Mark Matthew and Luke all write37


One Gospel however differs In John 1812 we read that ldquothe Jewish policerdquo areaccompanied by ldquothe soldiersrdquo and ldquotheir officerrdquo (NRSV) But it is when we go to the Greekoriginal of John that we get the full picture The word for ldquosoldiersrdquo is σπεῖρα speira Aσπεῖρα is a Roman cohort with a paper strength of one thousand soldiers So as to confirmthat this is indeed what John describes he uses the word χιλίαρχος for their commander(ldquothe commander of one thousandrdquo)

If Johnrsquos account is correct then what occurred on the Mount of Olives must havebeen some sort of battle It is difficult to imagine that the Romans would send out hundreds ofsoldiers to arrest one resting man It is also worth noting that prior to the departure for theMount of Olives Luke 2236 has Jesus admonishing his disciples that ldquothe one who has nosword must sell his cloak and buy onerdquo Thus judging by John the events preceding thearrest of Jesus bear distinct similarities to the events surrounding the defeat of the EgyptianAnd the location is the same

Assuming that John is correct and that Josephusrsquo narrative on the fate of the Egyptian isaccurate the one clear remaining difference between the Egyptian and Jesus is the crucifixionAlthough this may be a decisive distinction one event in the gospel accounts deserves to bementioned in this context the release of Barabbas Unlike Jesus Barabbas (or as he is calledin Matt 2716-17 Jesus Barabbas meaning ldquoJesus Son of the Fatherrdquo) escapes crucifixionThat Jesus from Nazareth and Jesus Barabbas could be one and the same person is aproposition that has been made previously by scholars as well as in fictional accounts38 Thepeculiar resemblance of the names as well as a failure to find either a biblical or an extra-biblical precedent for the described custom of releasing a prisoner at the feast are generallycited as reasons for the hypothesis39

Although not necessarily the answer the hypothesis that Jesus and Barabbas couldbe the same deserves to be taken into account when one evaluates the one decisive non-chronological difference between the New Testament descriptions of Jesus and Josephusrsquodescription of the Egyptian

As it is the Egyptian has before the publication of an earlier work by this author beenvirtually completely neglected by scholars attempting to find evidence for Jesusrsquo presence inthe historical narratives40 R Travers Herford in his 1903 work Christianity in Talmud andMidrash does touch upon the Egyptian in an attempt to separate ben Stada from benPantera Herford suggests that perhaps only ben Pantera is Jesus and that ben Stada issomeone else Then he adds ldquoI venture to suggest as worth consideration the hypothesis thatben Stada originally denoted lsquothat Egyptianrsquohellipwho gave himself out as a prophet led a crowdof followers to the Mount of Olives and was routed there by the Procurator Felix This man iscalled a sorcerer hellip This verdict is more appropriate to the Jewish-Egyptian impostor than tothe much more dangerous Jeshu ha-Notzrirdquo41 In other words Herford does note thesimilarities between the Egyptian and ben Stada (thought to be Jesus) but he does so in anattempt to find an alternative identity for ben Stada other than Jesus Despite their clearsimilarities Herford never considers Jesus and the Egyptian to be the same man One mayassume that the reason is that the Egyptian appeared twenty years later than Jesus

Postulating that Jesus could be identical to the Egyptian would require us to also assume theradical idea that the events as they occurred have been shifted from the 50s to the 30s whendepicted in the Gospels It would however offer us a plausible explanation for theparadoxical fact that a person Jesus who according to the New Testament arouses suchattention in his time and is perceived as such a threat by the authorities nevertheless appearsto be invisible in other contemporary sources The additional fact that a better general


concordance between the gospel texts and those of Flavius Josephus would be achieved bysuch a shift is cause enough to consider this possibility

Curiously this identification between Jesus and the Egyptian may actually havetravelled through history at least oral history Although the source of his information isunclear (possibly an early version of Sepher Toldoth Yeshu)42 Amulo Bishop of Lyons inthe ninth century (ca 847) wrote a book called Letter or Book Against the Jews to KingCharles where he stated that the following was the name that the Jews gave to Jesus

In their own language they call him Ussum Hamizri which is to say in LatinDissipator AEliggyptius [the Egyptian Destroyer]43

And in the Huldrich version of the Sepher Toldoth Yeshu from 1705 the name of Jesusrsquofather is said to be ldquothe Egyptianrdquo because ldquohe did the work of the Egyptiansrdquo44

THE NEW TESTAMENT AND rdquoTHE EGYPTIANrdquo

Although the Egyptian vanishes his name nevertheless appears again toward the end ofFelixrsquo reign It is in Acts 2138 that we read ldquoThen you are not the Egyptian who recentlystirred up a revolt and led the four thousand Sicarii out into the wildernessrdquo The person thequestion is directed to is Paul who has just been discovered in the Temple

The question of Paulrsquos relationship to the Egyptian and to Jesus thus comes intofocus As does Paulrsquos possible early connection with the Jewish rebels45

JOHN THE BAPTIST

The forerunner of Jesus was John the Baptist The last major messianic leader to be named byJosephus before the emergence of the Egyptian was Theudas And Josephus describes him inthe following way

Now it came to pass while Fadus was procurator of Judea that a certain magicianwhose name was Theudas persuaded a great part of the people to take their effectswith them and follow him to the river Jordan for he told them he was a prophetand that he would by his own command divide the river and afford them an easypassage over it and many were deluded by his words However Fadus did notpermit them to make any advantage of his wild attempt but sent a troop of horsemenout against them who falling upon them unexpectedly slew many of them andtook many of them alive They also took Theudas alive and cut off his head andcarried it to Jerusalem (AJ 2097-99)

In the chronicles of Flavius Josephus there are three passages that refer to either Jesus orthose close to him AJ 1863-64 (Testimonium Flavianum) refers to Jesus himself AJ20200 refers to Jesusrsquo brother James and AJ 18116-119 refers to John the Baptist All threeare thus found in Antiquitates Judaicae none of them in De bello Judaico Although a matterof much discussion Testimonium Flavianum is by the majority of scholars regarded as notwholly authentic ie at least partially a later Christian interpolation on account of itsconfessional nature and on account of the fact that Origen makes no reference to it (Cels147 Comm Matt 1017)46

With regard to the other two references scholars tend to be more favorablyinclined towards them being authentic47 One of the reasons is that Origen mentions thesereferences (or in the case of AJ 20200 a reference similar to it)48


Nevertheless there are arguments also against Josephusrsquo reference to John being authentic

John the Baptist is not at all mentioned in De bello Judaico although when it waswritten in the 70s John had been dead for several decades

The appearance of John the Baptist is very sudden considering his impliedimportance He is mentioned in one single paragraph where it is stated that some Jewshold the opinion that Godrsquos displeasure with the killing of John the Baptist is the causeof Herod Antipas losing a war

The paragraph disturbs the flow of the narrative It is fitted in between the descriptionof how Tiberius orders Vitellius to punish Aretas (AJ 18115) and that of howVitellius prepares this punishment (AJ 18120) In other words the text would flowconsiderably better if the paragraph on John the Baptist was not in the middle

In the paragraph on John the Baptist it says that Herod Antipas sent John to the castleof Macherus to have him put to death But in the previous paragraph Josephus writesthat Macherus is controlled not by Herod Antipas but by Aretas the man with whomHerod Antipas is at war49

In this paragraph Josephus shows an atypical reverence toward John the Baptistconsidering the contempt with which he treats other messianic leaders

If we were to rely on the information supplied in this paragraph John the Baptistwould have been killed later than Jesus is assumed to have been killed

On the other hand there are undoubtedly elements in the gospel texts themselves whichstrengthen the conclusion that John the Baptist was an authentic and important person He isone of the best examples of the so called ldquocriterion of embarrassmentrdquo for authenticity50

Johnrsquos presence is in the gospel narratives a complication he must be deferred to and at thesame time he must be diminished (ldquoI am not worthy to stoop down and untie the thong of hissandalsrdquo)51 He obviously can not be ignored This in fact increases the likelihood that Johnhas existed and been of great importance52

This author would suggest that just as the Egyptian displays significant similaritieswith Jesus albeit twenty years too late so does his forerunner Theudas display significantsimilarities with John the Baptist again about fifteen to twenty years too late

Just like John the Baptist Theudas is a spiritual leader who brings his followers to theJordan river

Just like John the Baptist Theudas is killed by the authorities and in the samemanner they sever his head

The New Testament describes John the Baptist as the forerunner of Jesus SimilarlyTheudas is the last major messianic claimant to be named by Josephus before theemergence of rdquothe Egyptianrdquo

Just as the New Testament describes John the Baptist and Jesus in similar terms sodoes Josephus describe Theudas and the Egyptian in similar terms Josephus howeveruses negative terms he talks about them as aspiring prophets (in the case of theEgyptian ldquofalse prophetrdquo) and he calls them both ldquomagicianrdquo or ldquosorcererrdquo (γόης)This negative portrayal is something to factor in when evaluating the logic behind apossible time shift in the writing of the Gospels

If John the Baptist of the New Testament is identical to the messianic leader called Theudas inAntiquitates Judaicae then of course AJ 18116-119 would be a later Christianinterpolation And the mentioning of Theudas in Acts would be part of what one might callthe Lukan subtext further discussed below


WRITING ON TWO LEVELS

The author of Acts thus manages to mention three of the major messianic rebel leaders of thefirst century Judas the Galilean Theudas and the Egyptian In all three instances the personis thrown into the NT narrative without much context53 And in all three instances the name ismentioned only once This random dropping of names seems inexplicable when the namesare taken one by one Taken all together they may form a pattern Adding to this Luke 22defines the time of Jesusrsquo birth by an event ndash the census ndash that in the chronicles of Josephus issignificant only for one reason it heralds the birth of the organized anti-Roman resistancemovement (AJ 181-10) As Steve Mason points out ldquoJosephus places great emphasis onthis early rebellion as a prototype of the later revolt [] the census is not mentioned in passingby Josephus it is for him a watershed event in recent Jewish historyrdquo54 That Luke mentionsthe census without mentioning the rebellion thus seems conspicuous Instead of linking thecensus to the birth of the anti-Roman resistance movement he links it to the birth of Jesus

Once again the rebels seem to be present in the NT narrative but only as a subtextInterestingly the one Gospel which refrains from defining either Barabbas or the two mencrucified with Jesus as λῃσταί is Luke (he calls them κακοῦργοι ldquomalefactorsrdquo)55 It wouldappear that when Luke brings up Zealotry he consistently does so as a subtext never overtly

The century before the fall of Jerusalem was a time of intense scripturalinterpretation not least seen in the pesharim of the Dead Sea Scrolls The writers of pesharimbelieved that scripture was written on two levels one obvious one concealed From theGospels ndash particularly Matthew 13 Mark 8 and Luke 8 ndash we see that also Jesus admonisheshis disciples to look at the deeper level of his parables for the hidden story ldquoDo you still notperceive or understand Are your hearts hardened Do you have eyes and fail to see Do youhave ears and fail to hearrdquo (Mark 817-18)

It is perhaps not a far-fetched idea that also the narrative describing the life ofJesus the master of parables would utilize this technique of writing on two levels oneobvious one hidden to be interpreted It is noteworthy that when we do see parallelsbetween Josephusrsquo accounts and the New Testament almost every word in the NT narrativeseems to bear significance But the action is sometimes modified ndash or even completelyreversed On at least two occasions a pacifist action in the Gospels closely corresponds to amore violent one in Josephusrsquo accounts When the Galileans react to the hostility in theSamaritan village (ldquorsquoLord do you want us to command fire to come down from heaven andconsume themrsquo But he turned and rebuked them Then they went on to another villagerdquoLuke 951-56) and when Jesus meets his adversaries on the Mount of Olives (ldquoSuddenly oneof those with Jesus put his hand on his sword drew it and struck the slave of the high priestcutting off his ear Then Jesus said to him lsquoPut your sword back into its place for all whotake the sword will perish by the swordrsquordquo Matt 2651-52)

One may further speculate that yet another unveiling level is introduced when theword ldquorobberrdquo is thrown into the gospel narrative (ldquoHave you come out with swords and clubsto arrest me as though I were a robberrdquo Matt 2655) and in Jesusrsquo admonition to thedisciples that ldquothe one who has no sword must sell his cloak and buy onerdquo (Luke 2236) Ifindeed the NT narrative is written on different levels it would appear that whenever the storyis disguised on one level it is opened up on another Another example may be the reversal ofthe order of Theudas and Judas the Galilean in Acts 536-37 The mentioning of Theudascould be interpreted as a disclosing subtext and the following mention of Judas as hissuccessor rather than predecessor as a disguise aimed at hiding the previous disclosure

Finally there may be parallels within the New Testament itself that become visibleonly after a time shift has been assumed Note for instance that Acts 2138 mentions theEgyptian leading ldquofour thousandrdquo into the ldquowildernessrdquo whereas Matthew 15 and Mark 8


mention Jesus leading ldquofour thousandrdquo into the ldquowildernessrdquoThe NT narratives by themselves do not provide the reader with enough

information to elucidate anything but the obvious story Occasional oddities such as thenaming of rebel leaders or Jesusrsquo admonition to his disciples to buy swords remainunexplained It is only when we put the accounts of Josephus next to those of the NewTestament that certain similarities and possible underlying patterns of storytelling can bediscerned The relevance of these similarities is of course open to interpretation

LATER PARALLELS

Curiously some accounts in Acts 5 concerning the later work of the Apostles seem to sharecertain elements with events described by Josephus at the beginning of the Jewish War Thetime interval is thus different than what we have hitherto seen and the possible parallels arenot only puzzling but also less explicit Nevertheless placing Acts 51-33 next to AJ 20204-210 and BJ 2441-446 as is done below is thought-provoking not least in light of the namesgiven to Jesusrsquo chief apostle in Matthew 1617-18 ndash Simon Bariona and Simon Peter

Acts of the Apostles Antiquitates Judaicae De bello Judaico

Acts 51-4But a man named Ananiaswith the consent of his wifeSapphira sold a piece ofproperty with his wifesknowledge he kept back someof the proceeds and broughtonly a part and laid it at theapostles feet Ananias Peterasked why has Satan filledyour heart to lie to the HolySpirit and to keep back part ofthe proceeds of the landWhile it remained unsold did itnot remain your own And afterit was sold were not theproceeds at your disposal Howis it that you have contrived thisdeed in your heart You did notlie to us but to Godrdquo

AJ 20204-207Now as soon as Albinus wascome to the city of Jerusalemhe used all his endeavors andcare that the country might bekept in peace and this bydestroying many of the SicariiBut as for the High PriestAnanias he increased in gloryevery day and this to a greatdegree and had obtained thefavor and esteem of the citizensin a signal manner for he was agreat hoarder up of money hetherefore cultivated thefriendship of Albinus and ofthe high priest [Jesus] bymaking them presents He alsohad servants who were verywicked who joined themselvesto the boldest sort of the peopleand went to the thrashing-floors and took away the tithesthat belonged to the priests byviolence and did not refrainfrom beating such as would notgive these tithes to them


Acts 55-11Now when Ananias heard thesewords he fell down and diedAnd great fear seized all whoheard of it The young mencame and wrapped up his bodythen carried him out and buriedhim After an interval of aboutthree hours his wife came innot knowing what hadhappened Peter said to herTell me whether you and yourhusband sold the land for suchand such a price And she saidldquoYes that was the pricerdquoThen Peter said to her How isit that you have agreed togetherto put the Spirit of the Lord tothe test Look the feet of thosewho have buried your husbandare at the door and they willcarry you outrdquo Immediatelyshe fell down at his feet anddied When the young mencame in they found her dead sothey carried her out and buriedher beside her husbandAnd great fear seized the wholechurch and all who heard ofthese things

BJ 2441-442But on the next day the HighPriest [Ananias] was caughtwhere he had concealed himselfin an aqueduct he was slaintogether with Hezekiah hisbrother by the robbershereupon the seditious besiegedthe towers and kept themguarded lest any one of thesoldiers should escape Now theoverthrow of the places ofstrength and the death of theHigh Priest Ananias so puffedup Menahem that he becamebarbarously cruel

Acts 512-16Now many signs and wonderswere done among the peoplethrough the apostles And theywere all together in SolomonsPortico None of the rest daredto join them but the people heldthem in high esteem Yet morethan ever believers were addedto the Lord great numbers ofboth men and women so thatthey even carried out the sickinto the streets and laid themon cots and mats in order thatPeters shadow might fall onsome of them as he came by Agreat number of people wouldalso gather from the townsaround Jerusalem bringing thesick and those tormented byunclean spirits and they wereall cured


Acts 517-23Then the High Priest tookaction he and all who werewith him (that is the sect of theSadducees) being filled withjealousy arrested the apostlesand put them in the publicprison But during the night anangel of the Lord opened theprison doors brought themout and said Go stand in thetemple and tell the people thewhole message about this lifeWhen they heard this theyentered the temple at daybreakand went on with their teachingWhen the High Priest andthose with him arrived theycalled together the council andthe whole body of the elders ofIsrael and sent to the prison tohave them brought But whenthe temple police went therethey did not find them in theprison so they returned andreported We found theprison securely locked and theguards standing at the doorsbut when we opened them wefound no one inside

AJ 20208-210But now the Sicarii went intothe city by night just before thefestival which was now athand and took the scribebelonging to the captain of thetemple whose name wasEleazar who was the son ofAnanias the High Priest andbound him and carried himaway with them after whichthey sent to Ananias and saidthat they would send the scribeto him if he would persuadeAlbinus to release ten of thoseprisoners which he hadcaught of their party soAnanias was plainly forced topersuade Albinus and gainedhis request of him This was thebeginning of greater calamitiesfor the robbers perpetuallycontrived to catch some ofAnaniass servants and whenthey had taken them alivethey would not let them go tillthey thereby recovered someof their own Sicarii And asthey were again become nosmall number they grew boldand were a great affliction tothe whole country

Acts 524-33Now when the captain of thetemple and the chief priestsheard these words they wereperplexed about themwondering what might be goingon Then someone arrived andannounced Look the menwhom you put in prison arestanding in the temple andteaching the people Thenthe captain went with thetemple police and broughtthem but without violence forthey were afraid of beingstoned by the people Whenthey had brought them they hadthem stand before the councilThe High Priest questionedthem saying We gave youstrict orders not to teach in thisname yet here you have filled

BJ 2443-447And as he [Menahem] thoughthe had no antagonist to disputethe management of affairs withhim he was no better than aninsupportable tyrant butEleazar [the captain of thetemple] and his party whenwords had passed betweenthem how it was not properwhen they revolted from theRomans out of the desire ofliberty to betray that liberty toany of their own people and tobear a lord who though heshould be guilty of no violencewas yet meaner thanthemselves as also that in casethey were obliged to set someone over their public affairs itwas fitter they should give thatprivilege to any one rather than


Jerusalem with your teachingand you are determined to bringthis mans blood on us ButPeter and the apostles answeredWe must obey God rather thanany human authority The Godof our ancestors raised up Jesuswhom you had killed byhanging him on a tree Godexalted him at his right hand asLeader and Savior that he mightgive repentance to Israel andforgiveness of sins And we arewitnesses to these things and sois the Holy Spirit whom Godhas given to those who obeyhim When they heard thisthey were enraged andwanted to kill them

to him they made an assaultupon him in the temple forhe went up thither to worshipin a pompous manner andadorned with royal garmentsand had his followers withhim in their armor ButEleazar and his party fellviolently upon him as did alsothe rest of the people andtaking up stones to attack himwithal they threw them at thesophister and thought that if hewere once ruined the entiresedition would fall to theground Now Menahem and hisparty made resistance for awhile but when theyperceived that the wholemultitude were falling uponthem they fled which wayevery one was able those thatwere caught were slain andthose that hid themselves weresearched for A few there wereof them who privately escapedto Masada among whom wasEleazar the son of Jairus whowas of kin to Menahem andacted the part of a tyrant atMasada afterward

Note that although the passages by Josephus are broken up they are just like the passagefrom Acts shown in their entirety (Acts 51-33 AJ 20204-210 BJ 2441-446)

The parallels are considerably more ambiguous in this last example Neverthelessthe analogies between Peter and Menahem that would emerge if one were to attributerelevance to this comparison not only would lend significance to Peterrsquos names (Barionabeing an Aramaic term for a rebel possibly directly synonymous to Sicarios56 Peter andCephas in the form of a very concrete rock or crag on which to build a community ndash cf Matt1618) but also to that of Menahem a name which means ldquoparacleterdquo ldquocomforterrdquo (cf John141626 1526 167)

But even if one were to accept that there are certain similarities between Acts and Josephus inthis last example the time interval is entirely different than that seen for previous parallelsThis is something which will be discussed in the following section


ARGUMENTS AGAINST A TIME SHIFT

There are elements in the NT narrative and in other sources that would seem to argue againsta time shift having occurred

TacitusOne argument against a time shift is that Tacitus in Ann 1544 writes that ldquoChrist had beenexecuted in the reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilaterdquo It would thus seem thatthere is a Roman source placing the crucifixion of Jesus in the time of Pilate On the otherhand Tacitus wrote this passage around 116 CE thus well after Luke and the assumedimplementation of the time shift (see below) Furthermore since Tacitus refers to Jesus asldquoChristrdquo rather than ldquoJesusrdquo or any other proper name it is thought that he received hisinformation from the Christian community in Rome rather than from official Roman recordsAlthough not a majority opinion the authenticity of the passage has been called into questionnot least because early Christian writers do not refer to it57

The CensusIf we go to the Gospels one point possibly arguing against a time shift is the description ofthe census under Quirinius The information in Luke fits well with the description of thiscensus (ca 6 CE) as related by Josephus ndash and it is the only social or political event in theGospels which does fit Josephusrsquo description One could argue that if Jesus was active in thelate 40s and 50s he would not have been born as early as 6 CE (although the only argumentagainst it is Luke 323 and John 857 actually suggests that he may have been older)

The question is however if the time-point Luke provides for Jesusrsquo birth is not asymbolical one The census marks the birth of the organized anti-Roman resistancemovement In a similar vein one could argue that the attack on Stephanos of BJAJ as wellas the conflict after Galileans enter a Samaritan village and the death of Herod Agrippa I(which appears to be depicted in Acts 1220-23) constitute milestones in the re-emergence ofthe anti-Roman resistance movement All four events ndash or events markedly similar to those ndashare mentioned by the author of Luke-Acts but not by the other gospel authors58 In each caseLuke mentions these rebellion-related events in a different context than Josephus does andthus they fill a different purpose for Luke Presumably they function as a subtext One mighthere even find an explanation for the puzzling ldquoLysanias ruler of Abilenerdquo reference used inLuke 31 to define the time when John the Baptist began his ministry The only Lysaniasknown to have exercised authority in this area was Lysanias tetrarch of Chalcis executed byMarc Antony in 36 BCE (AJ 1592)59 However Josephus in AJ 19275 does mention thatClaudius in 41 CE bestows upon Agrippa I ldquoAbila of Lysaniasrdquo (the town retained itssurname after its former ruler) If this again is an example of the Lukan subtext theinterpretation might be that John the Baptist actually started his ministry in the time ofAgrippa I 41-44 CE

As mentioned it is a fairly common opinion (n 12) that Luke had read AntiquitatesJudaicae Irrespective of whether he had Luke is the historian among the gospel writers andhe has been ldquoinvestigating everything carefully from the very firstrdquo (Luke 13) One couldspeculate that if a time shift was performed then Luke might have been active inaccomplishing this as well as more deliberate when making veiled references to rebelactivity Looking at his writing through the glasses of a time shift one can discern a definitepattern This is less the case with Mark and Matthew (which were presumably written earlier)Perhaps thus changes in these two Gospels were made retroactively and through moresimple means It will be argued below that possibly the same could be postulated with regardto the Pauline Letters in relation to Acts


ActsActs is considered one of the most problematic of the New Testament texts And also inrelation to the time shift hypothesis it constitutes a particular case

There are some features of Acts which on the surface would appear to argueagainst a time shift First Acts describes a couple of events that ndash also judging by Josephusrsquonarrative ndash clearly occur before the times of both Felix and Cumanus One example concernsActs 1220-23 The description closely resembles that in AJ 19344-350 of the death ofHerod Agrippa I estimated to have occurred in 44 CE In most instances we expect Acts todescribe events occurring after the events in the Gospels Thus if Acts in this case details anevent preceding the defeat of the Egyptian (which happened in the 50s) it would seem toargue against him being identical to Jesus In addition if Stephanos of Acts is identical to theStephanos of BJAJ then the stoning of Stephanos occurred ca 48 CE also prior to thedefeat of the Egyptian So could there be instances when events portrayed in Acts precedethose described in the Gospels Interestingly when it comes to the chronology in Acts thereare other indications that it may be jumbled both when compared to Josephus and perhapsmore significantly when compared to the Letters of Paul

If we begin by comparing Acts with Josephus we do find a number of seemingparallels But whereas the parallels between the Gospels and Josephus consistently appearwith a fifteen to twenty year delay in Josephus the situation with Acts appears much lessconsistent While Acts 5 bears certain similarities to events referred by Josephus to the mid60s chapters 6 and 7 bear certain similarities to an event in the late 40s Acts 818-24(concerning Peterrsquos opinion of Simon the magician) possibly to an event in the 50s (AJ20141-144) and Acts 1220-23 appears to refer to something in the mid-40s Oneexplanation could of course be that these parallels are weaker and possibly not relevant

What is important to take into account however is that this chaotic structure is notunexpected when it comes to Acts It is often stated that the chronology of Acts is not alwayslinear especially when compared to the Letters of Paul At least the two sources are difficultto reconcile60 For instance Gal 118 and Gal 21 provide Saint Pauls post-conversion lifewith seventeen years where no activity is recorded This long string of inactive years is notapparent in Acts What is described in Acts on the other hand is at least two visits toJerusalem as well as the first missionary journey that are not visible in Galatians at least notif Gal 21-10 corresponds to Acts 152-29 (which is the majority opinion) Paulrsquosinvolvement in collecting money for the poor in Jerusalem is described in both Acts andLetters but the timing appears to be different etc61

The differences between the two sources are so extensive and incompatible thatmany scholars choose to rely on only one of them But the question is why such significantchronological discrepancies are there Acts and the Letters manage to describe a similar timespan and yet fill the time with very different activity (or in the case of Galatians lack ofactivity) In this paper it will be suggested that perhaps this discrepancy is due to the timeshift more specifically to a dissimilar implementation of the time shift in the two sourcesJust as the internal inconsistencies seen in the Gospels could be explained by an elaboratetime shift in Luke and a retroactive and not fully implemented time shift in Mark andMatthew so could the incompatibilities between Letters and Acts possibly be explained bythe same phenomenon a more elaborate time shift in Acts (presumably written by the sameauthor as Luke) a more rudimentary retroactive one in the earlier source the Pauline Letters

It will be suggested that the time shift in the particular case of Paul accomplishes avery specific task to adjust the narrative back to real time perhaps in time for Paulrsquos arrivalin Rome And that the requisite artificial prolongation of Paulrsquos pre-imprisonment activity ishandled differently by the two sources Acts and Letters leading to two very different stories


The proposition is thus that the actual period between conversion andimprisonment is considerably shorter than presented that both events could even fit withinFelixrsquo reign (52-ca59 CE) and that the time given for Paulrsquos arrival in Rome is the factualone ie we are brought back to real time

In the Letters the artificial lengthening of this period from perhaps less than five tomore than twenty years would have been accomplished simply by inserting seventeen emptyyears (Galatians) and occasional names of authority figures The seventeen inactive yearspresented in Galatians are not only out of character when it comes to Paul they are absent inActs In Acts on the other hand these seventeen inactive years seem to be replaced byactivities not reported in the Letters or reported at a later date One possibility is that latermissionary journeys were moved to earlier dates in Acts This would have accomplished moreactivity between conversion and arrest But it would also jumble the chronology in Actsleading to the general problem of reconciling Acts and the Letters

Possibly Paul was known in Rome and a re-adjustment of the narrative back toreal time by the time of his arrival in Rome would have had to be accomplished in order tomake the story hold together Thus the time between Paulrsquos conversion and his arrival inRome would have had to be stretched out And events occurring between the late 40s and theearly 60s would have been presented as occurring between the early 30s and the early 60s (seeFigure 5) It is worth noting that those historical people presented by Acts in connection withPaulrsquos arrest and imprisonment ndash Felix and Drusilla Agrippa II and Bernice Ananias son ofNebedaios Festus the recently disappearing Egyptian etc ndash are portrayed in ways whichmeld well with the descriptions by Josephus of those same people Which makes sense if weare at this stage back to real time

Although it is the most complicated aspect of the time shift hypothesis this proposition wouldnot only allow us to fit Paul into the modified chronology it would also provide an eventualadjustment back to real time as well as and perhaps most importantly an explanation for thepuzzling extensive and seemingly inexplicable chronological incompatibilities between Actsand the Letters

Figure 5New Testament chronology vs Hypothesized actual chronology

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament

Hypothesized actual chronology

Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt

Jesus Period of inactivity

Jesus Period of inactivity Missionaryactivity ofJesus

Missionaryactivity of Jesus

Paulrsquos arrivalin Rome


Missionaryactivity andarrest ofPaul

Paul Period of inactivity(Galatians)

Missionary activity and arrest of Paul (Acts)

Missionaryactivity ofPaul (Lett)


NATURE OF THE PARALLELS

The parallels presented here have all involved commonly reported events or individuals in theNew Testament and in the works of Josephus The study has not concerned itself withsimilarities in vocabulary or thought processes Nor has any evaluation of the relationshipbetween the sources been made Although this author agrees that much of the evidence is infavor of Luke having read Josephus their knowledge of events could be independent of eachother In this study Josephus mainly functions as a historical reference being the main sourceof knowledge of Judea and Galilee in the decades leading up to the Jewish War62

What is fundamental when assessing the relevance of these parallels is the fact thatthe NT narrative so poorly matches the concurrent descriptions in De bello Judaico andAntiquitates Judaicae In fact of all the historical events presented in the Gospels only oneseems to fit the description by Josephus chronologically as well as content-wise the censusunder Quirinius In Acts we find a few more (eg the death of Herod Agrippa I or the famineunder Claudius63) None of them are however earlier than 44 CE It could be argued that thecircumstances surrounding the arrest and beheading of John the Baptist are somewhathistorical since Josephus confirms that Herod Antipas married his brotherrsquos wife and thatthis stirred up controversy (AJ 18109-129) But in fact not much else in the gospel storymatches Josephusrsquo description In his narrative it is the father of the first wife Aretas who isangered on account of the new marriage And it is Aretas who is threatened with decapitation

As a rule when people in authority are introduced in the Gospels their namesmatch with those of people active during Pilate Their actions however do not

This stands in sharp contrast to what would materialize if we were to move theaccounts from the Gospels (and some from Acts) fifteen to twenty years forward in time andchange the names of people in authority accordingly The number of matches would increasesignificantly (fifteen are presented in this study including some internal NT inconsistencieswhich would be resolved) and although the matches are separate not inter-dependent theyform a pattern with regard to the subject matter In addition a person with significantsimilarities to Jesus would appear in both De bello Judaico and in Antiquitates Judaicae Thisperson however was not as far as is known tried or crucified

Barring this last fact no new obvious historical inconsistencies are produced withthe time shift

There are at least a couple of noteworthy statements from early Church Fathers ndash statementstraditionally seen as paradoxical but in this context seemingly corroborating One is thecurious suggestion by Irenaeus that Jesus lived and worked into his fifties 64 Another is fromVictorinus of Pettau who according to a surviving ninth century fragment in the monasteryin Bobbio wrote that Jesus was born in the consulate of Sulpicius Camerinus and PoppaeusSabinus ie in 9 CE that he was baptised in the second consulate of Valerius Asiaticus iein 46 CE and that he died in the third consulate of Nero with Valerius Messala ie in 58CE Victorinus according to this fragment claimed to have found this information ldquoamongthe parchments of Alexanderrdquo bishop of Jerusalem and founder of the Theological Librarythere who died ca 250 CE Alexander in turn had relied on ldquoapostolic documentsrdquo

Whether this information holds any truth is impossible to say Nevertheless it isinteresting if a bishop of the Church Victorinus would come up with this kind of deviatinginformation information which in itself ought to live up to the ldquocriterion of embarrassmentrdquo

Alexanderrsquos predecessor as Bishop of Jerusalem was Narcissus who presidedover the great council in Jerusalem ca 198 CE One of the burning questions at this councilwas to settle the alleged ldquodisagreement between the Gospelsrdquo with regard to chronology65


CONCLUSIONS

A number of parallels between the New Testament and the works of Josephus have beendescribed where the events appear to occur with a consistent delay of fifteen to twenty yearsin the works of Josephus (Fig 4) Although the reliability of Flavius Josephus as a historianhas been questioned the length and consistency of these delays make it hard to ascribe themto a consistent error on his part (see n 6) Whether the parallels are true parallels and refer toidentical events or people is another matter In some cases (the death of Theudas but also thepresence of rdquorobbersrdquo) the individuals undoubtedly are historical and the activity evidentlyplaced in the wrong period in the New Testament Even so the question remains if this is dueto an error on the part of the gospel writers or if the time shift is deliberate

The fact that Josephus describes two messianic claimants in the 40s and 50sTheudas and the Egyptian with significant similarities to John the Baptist and Jesus and thathe does so using distinctly negative terms could be an argument for the time shift beingdeliberate Those who put together the Gospels may have wanted to avoid an unfavorablecomparison with established historical sources and may have preferred to eliminate or atleast greatly diminish Jesus as a historical person

It must be remembered that when these historical accounts were written the nationwhich they portrayed had been destroyed and its people either killed or dispersed The gospelwriters wrote in exile for an audience largely removed from Palestine The availability oftestimonies was limited after the war which is also the reason why the Mishna was set downin writing soon thereafter Thus the chances for a competing account of the life of Jesus waslimited but it was not non-existent Just like the gospel writers Josephus while in exileendeavoured to rescue to posterity a history he feared would otherwise be lost He wassuccessful at it Eusebius called Josephus lsquothe most famous Jew of his timersquo a statue of himwas erected in Rome and his books were deposited in the Public Library of Rome (Hist eccl392 Vir ill 13) In addition although his works have now been lost there was at least oneother contemporary Jewish historian Justus of Tiberias who wrote about the eventspreceding the Jewish war If Luke as is often suggested had read Antiquitates Judaicae hewould have known how Josephus depicted the period If he did not know of Josephus orJustus then certainly at some later point these competing historical accounts would havebecome known This one could hypothesize could be a reason for Luke or a later editor totry to minimize the chances for competing narratives Shifting the story of Jesus to a differenttime would have been one way to accomplish this

In particular those who put together and edited the Gospels may have wanted toremove Jesus from the political setting in which he according to this hypothesis was activethe beginning uprising of rdquorobbersrdquo of Zealot rebels often with a messianic leader at thehelm It was a violent uprising targeted primarily against the Romans but also against theestablished Jewish leadership the Pharisees and the Sadducees

Whatever its roots by the time Christianity spread around the Mediterranean itwas a religion that advocated non-violence a view that permeated its approach to thedemands and decisions of human existence Likely this attitude to life was present alsoduring the formative years But perhaps the persistent strain put upon the masses living underon-again-off-again foreign occupation in Judea and Galilee and the recurringdisappointments when periods of hope invariably ended in despair ultimately led to violentrebellion As Josephus laments ldquoGod brought the Romans upon us and threw a fire uponthe city to purge it and brought upon us our wives and children slavery as desirous to makeus wiser by our calamitiesrdquo (AJ 20166)

The scattered sprinkling of references to rdquorobbersrdquo and uprisings still found in theGospels could perhaps be the remnants of a story that could not be told at least not overtly


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ldquoThe Zealots The Case for revaluationrdquo JRS 61155-170

Backhaus Knut1991

Die lsquoJuumlngerkreisersquo des Taumlufers Johannes Eine Studie zu denreligionsgeschichtlichen Urspruumlngen des ChristentumsPaderborn Schoumlning

Bammel E1967

ldquoChristian Origins in Jewish Traditionrdquo NTS 13317-335

Baras Zvi1987

ldquoThe Testimonium Flavianum and the Martyrdom of Jamesrdquo InJosephus Judaism and Christianity eds L H Feldman and GHata 338-348 Leiden Brill

Barnett Paul1986

Is the New Testament History Sydney Hodder amp Stoughton

Barnett Paul2005

The Birth of Christianity The First Twenty Years GrandRapids Eerdmans

Bauckham Richard2006

Jesus and the Eyewitnesses The Gospels as EyewitnessTestimony Cambridge Eerdmans

Bilde Per1988

Flavius Josephus between Jerusalem and Rome His Life hisWorks and their Importance Sheffield JSOT Press

Birdsall J Neville1985

ldquoThe Continuing Enigma of Josephusrsquo Testimony About JesusrdquoJRL 67609-622

Bockmuehl Markus2004

ldquoSimon Peterrsquos Names in Jewish Sourcesrdquo Journal of JewishStudies 5558-80

Brandon Samuel GF1967

Jesus and the Zealots A Study of the Political Factor inPrimitive Christianity Manchester U Press

Brighton Mark A2009

The Sicarii in Josephusrsquos Judean War Rhetorical Analysis andHistorical Observations Atlanta GA Society of BiblicalLiterature

Bruce F F1981 (1943)

The New Testament Documents Are They ReliableCambridge Eerdmans

Bruce F F1990

The Acts of the Apostles The Greek Text with Introduction andCommentary Grand Rapids Eerdmans


Buumlchner K1957

ldquoTacitus uumlber die Christenrdquo In Humanitas Romana Studienuber Werke und Wesen der Romer 229-239 HeidelbergWinter

Burkitt F Crawford1911

Carmichael Joel1963

The Gospel History and its Transmission Edinburgh T amp TClark

Death of Jesus New York Macmillan

Catchpole DR1971

The Trial of Jesus A Study in the Gospels and JewishHistoriography from 1770 to the Present Day Leiden Brill

Cohen Shaye J D1979

Josephus in Galilee and Rome His Vita and Development as aHistorian Leiden Brill

Crossan John Dominic 1991 The Historical Jesus The Life of a Meditarranean PeasantSan Francisco Harper

Crown Alan D1991

ldquoRedating the schism between the Judaeans and theSamaritansldquo JQR 8217-50

Cullman Oscar1970

Jesus and the Revolutionaries trans G Putnam (New YorkHarper and Row)

Cutner Herbert2000

Jesus God Man or Myth An Examination of the EvidenceSan Diego Book Tree

Dalman G H1891

Was sagt der Thalmud uumlber Jesum Berlin Reuther

Davies Stevan L1981

ldquoWho is called Bar Abbasrdquo NTS 27260-262

Derenbourg Joseph1867

Essai sur lHistoire et la Geacuteographie de la Palestine dApregraves lesThalmuds et les Autres Sources Rabbiniques I Histoire de laPalestine Paris

Dibelius Martin1911

Die urchristliche Uumlberlieferung von Johannes dem TaumluferGoumlttingen Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht

Doherty Earl1999

The Jesus Puzzle Did Christianity Begin with a MythicalChristOttawa Ontario Canadian Humanist

Drews Arthur1909-1911

Die Christusmythe Jena Diederich

Dupuis C F1794

Origine de tous les cultes Paris Chasseriau


Durant Will1944

Caesar and Christ New York Simon and Schuster

Einhorn Lena2007 (2006)

The Jesus Mystery Astonishing Clues to the True Identities ofJesus and Paul Guilford CT Lyons Press (Vad haumlnde paringvaumlgen till Damaskus Paring spaning efter den verklige Jesus fraringnNasaret Stockholm Prisma)

Eisenman Robert1997

Eisler Robert1929-30

James the Brother of Jesus The Key to Unlocking the Secretsof Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls New YorkViking Penguin

Iesous Basileus ou Basileusas Die messianischeUnabhaumlngigkeitsbewegung vom Auftreten Johannes des Taumlufersbis zum Untergang Jakobs des Gerechten Heidelberg CarlWinkler

Ellegaringrd Alvar1999

Jesus ndash One Hundred Years Before Christ A Study In CreativeMythology Woodstock NY Overlook

Ernst Josef1989

Johannes der Taumlufer InterpretationmdashGeschichte-Wirkungsgeschichte Berlin de Gruyter

Evans Craig A1992

ldquoJesus in Non-Christian Sourcesrdquo In Dictionary of Jesus andthe Gospels eds Joel B Green Scot McKnight and IHMarshall 364-368 Diners Grove Ill InterVarsity

Fairchild Mark R1999

ldquoPaulrsquos Pre-Christian Zealot Associations a Re-examination ofGal 114 and Acts 223rdquo NTS 45514-532

Feldman Louis H1982

ldquoThe Testimonium Flavianum The State of the Question ldquoIn Christological Perspective eds R F Berkey and S AEdwards 179-199 New York Pilgrim

Feldman Louis H1984

Josephus and Modern Scholarship 1937-80 Berlin de Gruyter

Feldman Louis H1989

ldquoA Selective Critical Bibliography of Josephusrdquo In Josephusthe Bible and History eds L H Feldman and G Hata 330-448 Detroit Wayne State U Press

Goguel Maurice1928

Au Seuil de l eacutevangile Jean-Baptiste Paris Payot

Goldberg GJ1995

ldquoThe Josephus-Luke Connectionrdquo JSP 1359ndash77

Goldstein Morris1950

Jesus in the Jewish Tradition New York Macmillan 57-81


Hemer Colin J1989

The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic HistoryTuumlbingen Mohr

Hengel Martin1976 (1961)

Die Zeloten Untersuchungen zur juumldischen Freiheitsbewegungin der Zeit von Herodes I Bis 70 n Chr Leiden Brill

Hengel Martin1970

Was Jesus a Revolutionary trans William Klassen(Philadelphia Fortress Press)

Herford R Travers1903

Christianity in Talmud and Midrash London Williams ampNorgate


ldquoJesus in Rabbinical Literature rdquo Universal JewishEncyclopedia 687-88

Hirschberg Harris1942

ldquoSimon Bariona and the Ebionitesrdquo Journal of BiblicalLiterature 61182-184

Hjelm Ingrid2004

ldquoWhat do Samaritans and Jews have in Common RecentTrends in Samaritan Studiesrdquo Currents in Biblical Research39-59

Hochart Polydore1890

De lauthenticiteacute des Annales et des Histoires de TaciteBordeaux Kessinger

Hogeterp ALA2006

Paul and Gods Temple A Historical Interpretation of CulticImagery in the Corinthian Correspondence Leuven Peeters

Horsley Richard A1979

ldquoJosephus and the Banditsrdquo JSJ 1037-63


Galilee History Politics People Valley Forge PA Trinity

Keim Karl Theodor 1872 Geschichte Jesu III Zuumlrich Orell Fuumlssli

Kittel Gerhard GerhardFriedrich and Geoffrey W

Bromiley eds1985

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Grand RapidsEerdmans

Klauck Hans-Josef2000

Magic and Paganism in Early Christianity The World of theActs of the Apostles Edinburgh T amp amp Clark

Klausner Joseph1925

Jesus of Nazareth His Life Times and TeachingLondon Allen amp Unwin

Kohler Kaufmann MarcusJastrow and Louis Ginzberg

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ldquoApostomusrdquo Jewish Encyclopedia New York Funk andWagnalls


Kohler Kaufmann1906b

ldquoZealotsrdquo Jewish Encyclopedia New York Funk andWagnalls

Kraeling Carl H1951

John the Baptist New York Scribner

Krauss S1906

ldquoJesus of Nazareth in Jewish Legendldquo Jewish EncyclopediaNew York Funk and Wagnalls

Krenkel Max1894

Josephus und Lukas Leipzig Haessel

Laible H1891

Jesus Christus im Thalmud Berlin Reuther

Lauterbach J Z1951

ldquoJesus in the Talmud In Rabbinic Essays eds JZ Lauterbach473-570 Cincinnati Hebrew Union College

Lewis J P1971

Historical Backgrounds of Bible History Grand Rapids Baker

Lohmeyer Ernst1932

Das Urchristentum 1 Buch Johannes der TaumluferGoumlttingen Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht

Maccoby Hyam Z1969

ldquoJesus and Barabbasrdquo NTS 1655-60

Maccoby Hyam1973

Revolution in Judaea Jesus and the Jewish resistanceLondon Orbach and Chambers

Maier Johann1978

Jesus von Nazareth in der talmudischen UumlberlieferungDarmstadt Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellsch

Mason Steve1992 (2003)

Josephus and the New Testament Peabody MA Hendrickson

Mason Steve2009

Josephus Judea and Christian Origins Methods andCategories Peabody MA Hendrickson

Meier John P1990

ldquoJesus in Josephus A Modest Proposalrdquo CBQ 5276-103

Meier John P1991

A Marginal Jew Rethinking the Historical JesusNew York Doubleday

Meier John P1992

ldquoJohn the Baptist in Josephus Philology and Exegesisrdquo JBL3225-237


Meyer A1904

ldquoJesus im Talmud rdquo In Handbuch zu den neutestamentlichenApokryphen 47-71 Tuumlbingen Mohr

Nodet Etienne1985

ldquoJeacutesus et Jean-Baptiste selon Josegravepherdquo RB 92320-348 497-524

Paget James Carleton2001

ldquoSome Observations on Josephus and ChristianityrdquoJTS 52539-624

Pervo Richard I2006

Dating Acts between the evangelists and the apologistsSanta Rosa Polebridge

Pines Shlomo1971

An Arabic Version of the Testimonium Flavianum and itsImplications Jerusalem Israel Acad Sciences and Humanities

Price J T1992

Jerusalem under siege the collapse of the Jewish state 66-70CE Leiden Brill

Price Robert M2003

The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man How Reliable is theGospel Tradition Amherst NY Prometheus

Rajak Tessa1983

Josephus The Historian and His Society London Duckworth

Reimarus Hermann Samuel1879

Apologie oder Schutzschrift fuumlr die vernuumlnftigen VerehrerGottes (Apology or defence for the rational worshippers ofGod) (1774ndash78) fragment entitled ldquoThe object of Jesus and hisdisciplesrdquo (London Williams amp Norgate)

Riesner Rainer1998

Pauls Early Period Chronology Mission Strategy TheologyGrand Rapids Eerdmans

Riesner Rainer2011

ldquoPauline Chronologyrdquo In The Blackwell Companion to Pauled Stephen Westerholm 9-27 Chichester UK Wiley-Blackwell

Rigg Horace Abram Jr1945

ldquoBarabbasrdquo JBL 64417-456

Ross John Wilson1878

Tacitus and Bracciolini London Diprose amp Bateman

Rothschild Clare K2011

ldquorsquoEcho of a Whisperrsquo The Uncertain Authenticity of JosephusrsquoWitness to John the Baptistrdquo In Ablution Initiation andBaptism Late Antiquity Early Judaism and Early Christianityeds David Hellholm Tor Vegge Oslashyvind Norderval andChrister Hellholm 255-290 Berlin de Gruyter


Rougeacute Jean1974

rdquoLrsquoincendie de Rome en 64 et lrsquoincendie de Nicomeacutedie en 303rdquoIn Meacutelanges drsquohistoire ancienne offerts agrave William Seston 433-441 Paris Boccard

Sanders E P1993

The Historical Figure of Jesus London Penguin

Schaumlfer Peter2007

Jesus in the Talmud Princeton Princeton U Press

Schreckenberg Heinz1980

rdquoFlavius Josephus und die lukanischen Schriftenldquo In Wort inder Zeit Neutestamentliche Studien eds W Haubeck and MBachmann 179-209 Leiden Brill Archive

Schuumlrer Emil1901

Geschichte des juumldischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi 3rded i Leipzig Hinrichs

Schuumltz Roland1967

Johannes der Taumlufer ZuumlrichStuttgart Zwingli

Schwarz R Yehoseph1852

Das Heilige Land Frankfurt am Main JKaufmann

Scobie Charles HH1964

John the Baptist London SCM

Schulthess Friedrich1917

Das Problem der Sprache Jesu Zuumlrich Schulthess

Smith Robinson1913

ldquoFresh Light on the Synoptic Problem Josephus a LukanSourcerdquo AJT 17614-621

Soumlderberg Hjalmar1928

Jesus Barabbas Stockholm Bonniers


Den foumlrvandlade Messias Jesus Barabbas IIStockholm Bonniers

Sterling Gregory E1992

Historiography and Self-Definition Josephos Luke-Acts andApologetic Historiography LeidenBrill

Stern Menahem1976

ldquoThe Political and Social History of Judea under Roman RulerdquoIn A History of the Jewish People eds HH Ben-Sasson 239-276 London Weidenfeld amp Nicolson

Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984

Jesus die Haumlretiker und die Christen nach den aumlltestenjuumldischen Angaben Leipzig Hinrichs

ldquoThe Zealots and Jesusrdquo in Jesus and the Politics of his Dayeds Ernst Bammel and CFD Moule Cambridge U Press


Taylor Justin SM1998

ldquoWhy Did Paul Persecute the Churchrdquo InTolerance and Intolerance in Early Judaism and Christianityeds Graham N Stanton and Guy G Stroumsa 99-120Cambridge

Taylor JE2010

J E Taylor ldquoThe Name lsquoIskariothrsquo (Iscariot)rdquo JBL 129367-383

Taylor Robert1829

The Diegesis Being a Discovery of the Origin Evidences andEarly History of Christianity London Carlile

Van Voorst Robert E2000

Jesus outside the New Testament An Introduction to theAncient Evidence Grand Rapids Eerdmans

Volney Constantin-Franccedilois1791

Les ruines ou Meacuteditations sur les reacutevolutions desempires Paris Desenne

Whealey Alice2003

Josephus on Jesus The Testimonium Flavianum Controversyfrom Late Antiquity to Modern Times New York Peter Lang

Whealey Alice2007

ldquoJosephus Eusebius of Caesarea and the TestimoniumFlavianumrdquo In Josephus und das neue Testament edsChristfried Boumlttrich Jens Herzer and Torsten Reiprich 90-91Tuumlbingen Mohr Siebeck

Webb Robert L1991

John the Baptizer and Prophet A Socio-Historical StudySheffield JSOT Press

Wells George Albert1986

Did Jesus exist London Pemberton

Williamson G A1964

The World of Josephus London Secker amp Warburg

Wink Walter1968

John the Baptist in the Gospel TraditionCambridge Cambridge U Press

Winter Paul1973

ldquoJosephus on Jesus and Jamesrdquo In The Jewish People in theAge of Jesus Christ (175 BC-AD 135) vol 1 ed EmilSchuumlrer revised and edited by G Vermes F Millar and MBlack 428-441 Edinburgh T amp T Clark

Witherington Ben III1998

The Acts of the Apostles A Socio-rhetorical CommentaryGrand Rapids Eerdmans

Zangenberg Juumlrgen2006

ldquoBetween Jerusalem and the Galilee Samaria in the Time ofJesusrdquo In Jesus and Archaeology ed James H Charlesworth393-432 Grand Rapids Eerdmans


Zeitlin Solomon1924

ldquoThe Halaka in the Gospels and its Relation to the Jewish Lawat the Time of Jesus rdquo HUCA 1357-373

Zeitlin Solomon1974

ldquoWho were the Galileans New Light on Josephusrsquo Activities inGalileerdquo JQR 64193

1 Justus of Tiberias A Chronicle of the Kings of the Jews in the form of a genealogy Photius Bibliotheca Cod332 eg Pliny Ep Tra 1096-97 Tacitus Ann 15443 see eg Sanders (1993 49-51)4 Volney (1791) Dupuis (1794) Durant (1944) Wells (1986) Doherty (1999) Ellegaringrd (1999) Price (2003)5 AJ 1835 55-64 85-89 177 BJ 2169-177 Philo Legat 299-305 Tacitus Ann 15446 for discussions on Josephus and on his reliability as a historian see eg Cohen (1979) Rajak (1983)Feldman (1984) Bilde (1988) Mason (2009)7 2 Cor 1132 mentions Aretas king of the Nabataeans ca9 BCE to ca 40 CE8 Krenkel (1894 162-174) Bruce (1981 (1943) 106-107) Williamson (1964 129) Barnett (1986 149) Mason(1992 208-211) Goldberg (1995) Witherington (1998 238-239)9 eg Mason (1992 211)10 Bruce (1981 106-107) Bruce (1990 32 176) Williamson (1964 129) Lewis (1971 170) Barnett (1986149) Hemer (1989 162)11 Krenkel (1894 162-174)12 Keim (1872134) Krenkel (1894) Burkitt (1911) Smith (1913) Schreckenberg (1980) Mason (1992 185ndash229) Goldberg (1995) Pervo (2006) For a critical view see eg Bruce (1990 43-44) Sterling (1992 365-369) Klauck (2000 41-43)13 Matt 2655 2738 2744 Mark 1448 1527 Luke 2252 John 184014 Kohler (1906b) Appelbaum (1971 159) Hengel (1976 (1961) 42-47) Horsley (1979) Kittel et al (1985532) Price (1992 17-24) Brighton (2009 7)15 AJ 14142 to 187 BJ 1204 to 265 AJ 20124 Whiston16 from AJ 205 BJ 2228 and Vita 21 respectively words scanned for (lemmas) lēistēs archilēistēslēistērion lēisteia lēistrikos lēisteuō17 Klausner (1925206)18 BJ 275 241 253 306 BJ 3321 BJ 4317 BJ 5289 449 451 AJ 17295 AJ 1879 AJ 1994 AJ20102 129 Vita 42019 Crown (1991) Hjelm (2004)20 AJ 1855-62 1885-8921 Most clearly in John 49 see also Matt 105 Luke 951-56 Luke 1025-37 Luke 1711-19 John 84822 Acts 18 Acts 85 14 25 Acts 931 Acts 15323 see eg Barnett (2005 100) Hogeterp (2006 157) Zangenberg (2006 394)24 AJ 20115-117 Derenbourg (1867 58) Schwarz (1852 279) Kohler et al (1906a)25 Reimarus (1879 27)26 Eisler (1929-30) Carmichael (1963) Brandon (1967) Maccoby (1973)27 Mark 317 Matt 1617 see eg Schulthess (1917 54) Hirschberg (1942) Eisenman (1997179) For otherinterpretations of the name Iscariot see eg Bauckham (2006 106) Taylor (2010367-383)28 Hengel(1971 9) see also Cullman (1970)29 Luke 32 John 1813 24 Acts 4630 AJ 20160 119-124 Zeitlin (1974) Horsley (1995 258-259)31 Philo On the Embassy to Gaius 299-30532 bShab 104b Dalman (1891) Laible (1891) Krauss (1907) Travers (1903) Meyer (1904) Strack (1910)Zeitlin (1924) Klausner (1925 18-54) Travers (1942) Goldstein (1950 57-81) Lauterbach (1951) Bammel(1967) Catchpole (1971 1-71) Maier (1978) Meier (1991 94-98) Evans (1992) Schaumlfer (2007)33 Matt 1355 Mark 63 Luke 42234 AJ 18240-252 BJ 2181-183 AJ 19345-35035 AJ 20167-168 BJ 2258-26036 Matt 265537 Matt 2647 Mark 1443 Luke 225238 Soumlderberg (1928) Soumlderberg (1932) Rigg (1945) Maccoby (1969) Maccoby (1980) Davies (1981)39 Rigg (1945 421) Matt 2715 Mark 156 John 1839


40 Einhorn (2007 190-194)41 Herford (1903 345 n1)42 the earliest unequivocal reference to a text reminiscent of Toldoth Yeshu comes from Amulorsquos predecessor asArchbishop of Lyons Agobard ca 826 in De Judaicis Superstitionibus43 Amulo Epistola seu Liber contra Judaeos ad Carolum Regem 39 for references and discussions see egSamuel Krauss Das Leben Jesu nach juumldischen Quellen (Georg Olms 1994 (1902)) p 13 Hugh J SchonfieldAccording to the Hebrews (London Duckworth 1937) pp 128-129 Bat-Sheva Albert ldquoAdversus Judaeos inthe Carolingian Empirerdquo in Contra Iudaeos Ancient and Medieval Polemics Between Christians and Jews edsOra Limor and Guy G Stroumsa (Tuumlbingen Mohr 1996) p 139 Frank R Zindler The Jesus the Jews NeverKnew Sepher Toldoth Yeshu and the Quest of the Historical Jesus in Jewish Sources (Cranford NJ Am AtheistPress 2003) pp 277-278 G R S Mead Did Jesus Live 100 BC (New York Cosimo 2005) pp 292-29344 Johann Jacob Huldrich Sepher Toldoth Yeshua haNotzri (1705) pp 20 24 26 Digital version at BayerischeStaatsbibliothek45 Fairchild (1999) Taylor (1998) Einhorn (2007 173-240)46 see eg Pines (1971) Winter (1973) Feldman (1982) Birdsall (1985) Baras (1987) Feldman (1989) Meier(1990) Crossan (1991 373) Mason (1992 151-184) Paget (2001) Whealey (2003) Whealey (2007)47 Dibelius (1911123-129) Goguel (1928) Lohmeyer (1932 31-36) Kraeling (1951) Scobie (1964 17-22)Schuumltz (1967 13-27) Wink (1968) Nodet (1985) Ernst (1989 253-263) Webb (1991 31-43) Backhaus(1991 288-274) Meier (1992) Mason (1992151-184) Rothschild (2011)48 Origen Cels 147 Origen Comm Matt 101749 Josephus Antiquities 1811250 Meier (1991 168)51 Mark 17 Luke 316 Matt 311 John 12752 see eg Sanders (1993 94)53 Acts 536 Acts 537 Acts 213854 Mason (1992 205-206)55 Luke 2332 33 3956 bGittin 56a for an analysis of the name ldquoBarionardquo and the alternative suggestion that it means ldquoson of Jonahrdquosee eg Hirschberg (1942) Bockmuehl (2004)57 Taylor (1829 394-397) Drews (1909-1911 179) Buumlchner (1957) Rougeacute (1974) Ross (1878) calls intoquestion the authenticity of Annals itself as does Hochart (1890) For reviews see Van Voorst (2000 39-53)Cutner (2000 110-128)58 Luke 21-3 Acts 1220-23 Acts 754-60 Luke 951-5659 an inscription found at Suk Wadi Barada near Damascus could possibly be interpreted to support theexistence of a younger Lysanias but there is no historical narrative supporting it see Schuumlrer (1901 712) Bruce(1990 44 n15)60 Riesner (2011) provides a survey of scholarship on Pauline Chronology See also Riesner (1998 3-28)61 Acts 1127-30 Gal 29-10 1 Cor 161-4 2 Cor 81-4 91-2 Rom 1525-2662 for discussions on Josephus and on his reliability as a historian see eg Cohen (1979) Rajak (1983)Feldman (1984) Bilde (1988) Mason (2009)63 Acts 1127-28 Josephus AJ 2049-5364 Irenaeus Against Heresies 222565 Bibl Ambros H 150f fo 137v-38r See eg Benjamin Wisner Bacon The Fourth Gospel in Research andDebate (New York Moffat Yard and company 1910) pp 398-402 see also Johann van Bebber ZurChronologie des Lebens Jesu (H Schoumlningh 1898) p 122 Charles E Hill J Theol Studies 49 (1998) pp 634-839 a parallel fifteenth century manuscript was found in Padua (Padoue Bibl Univ 1473 fo 164)


INTRODUCTION

One of the limitations facing historical Jesus studies has been that the New Testament is theonly source of first century texts in which Jesus unequivocally is described This is in spite ofthe fact that the period in other respects is fairly well documented Flavius Josephus wrote Debello Judaico and Antiquitates Judaicae in the 70s and the 90s CE respectively Both worksdescribe personalities mentioned in the Gospels Pilate Annas Caiaphas Quirinius etcJosephus also describes several Jewish messianic leaders of the first century SimonAthronges Judas the Galilean Theudas lsquoThe Egyptianrsquo Menahem etc But exceptingTestimonium Flavianum (AJ 1863-64) ndash by most scholars considered at least a partial laterChristian interpolation ndash Jesus from Nazareth is not visible in the works of Josephus Nor washe according to Photius described in the now lost works of another first century localhistorian Justus of Tiberias1 Only from the second century do we begin to see moreunequivocal extra-biblical references to Jesus2

The fact that the Gospels describe Jesus as someone with a large following andone whose trial involved two high priests the tetrarch of Galilee and the prefect of Iudaeaheightens the discrepancy between sources

This discrepancy has led to the common view that although Jesus from Nazarethmost likely existed he was probably less significant in his own time than the gospel accountssuggest3 A minority view holds that Jesus was an entirely mythological character4

However in the course of comparing the NT narratives with other historicalsources primarily the works of Josephus this author came upon a number of hithertoneglected parallels that in Josephusrsquo writings occur with a consistent delay of fifteen totwenty years ie in the mid-40s to early 50s

It will be discussed whether these delayed parallels really are depictions of thesame events and if so if the delay is the result of errors or if the parallels could besuggestions of a deliberate time shift in the New Testament narratives

THE TIMING OF EVENTS DEPICTED IN THE GOSPELS

We base our timing of the events in the life of Jesus entirely on the presence of certaindignitaries in the NT narratives Since we know from other sources that Pilate was prefect ofIudaea between 26 and 36 (or 37) CE and that Caiaphas was high priest between 18 and 36(or 37) CE we may conclude that the crucifixion of Jesus could not have taken place before26 or after 37 CE5 The information that John the Baptist began his ministry ldquoin the fifteenthyear of the reign of Emperor Tiberiusrdquo narrows this gap further (Luke 31 NRSV)

All the same some of the accounts presented in the New Testament do not fitwithin that timeframe at least not when compared with the information we can gather fromJosephus Although the reliability of Josephus has been questioned the consistency of thesediscrepancies makes it unlikely that they can be ascribed to a consistent error on his part6 Inaddition there are a number of known internal chronological inconsistencies in the NTnarrative

These chronological discrepancies form the basis for the hypothesis presented here

THE DEATH OF THEUDAS

Acts 526-40 depicts how the Apostles are brought to the Sanhedrin At one point rabbiGamaliel says ldquoFellow-Israelites consider carefully what you propose to do to these men For








rdquoROBBERSrdquo







25

323-160 BCEAJBook 12BJ131-47

160-63 BCEAJ131-1453BJ148-140

63-37 BCEAJ1454-491BJ1141-363

37-4 BCEAJ151-17192BJ1364-673

4 BCE-6 CEAJ17193-1825BJ21-166

6-26 CEAJ1826-35BJ2167-168

26-37 CEAJ1836-89BJ2169-180

37-44 CEAJ1890-19353BJ2181-219

59-66 CEAJ20182-258BJ2271-654

44-48 CEAJ201-104BJ2220-222

48-59 CEAJ20105-181BJ2223-270

15

20

5

10









CRUCIFIXIONS





















No ofmentions

0

5

10

10

New Testament


30


STEPHANOS









TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974












rdquoROBBERSrdquo







25

323-160 BCEAJBook 12BJ131-47

160-63 BCEAJ131-1453BJ148-140

63-37 BCEAJ1454-491BJ1141-363

37-4 BCEAJ151-17192BJ1364-673

4 BCE-6 CEAJ17193-1825BJ21-166

6-26 CEAJ1826-35BJ2167-168

26-37 CEAJ1836-89BJ2169-180

37-44 CEAJ1890-19353BJ2181-219

59-66 CEAJ20182-258BJ2271-654

44-48 CEAJ201-104BJ2220-222

48-59 CEAJ20105-181BJ2223-270

15

20

5

10









CRUCIFIXIONS





















No ofmentions

0

5

10

10

New Testament


30


STEPHANOS









TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974







25

323-160 BCEAJBook 12BJ131-47

160-63 BCEAJ131-1453BJ148-140

63-37 BCEAJ1454-491BJ1141-363

37-4 BCEAJ151-17192BJ1364-673

4 BCE-6 CEAJ17193-1825BJ21-166

6-26 CEAJ1826-35BJ2167-168

26-37 CEAJ1836-89BJ2169-180

37-44 CEAJ1890-19353BJ2181-219

59-66 CEAJ20182-258BJ2271-654

44-48 CEAJ201-104BJ2220-222

48-59 CEAJ20105-181BJ2223-270

15

20

5

10









CRUCIFIXIONS





















No ofmentions

0

5

10

10

New Testament


30


STEPHANOS









TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974











CRUCIFIXIONS





















No ofmentions

0

5

10

10

New Testament


30


STEPHANOS









TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974
























No ofmentions

0

5

10

10

New Testament


30


STEPHANOS









TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974










No ofmentions

0

5

10

10

New Testament


30


STEPHANOS









TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






STEPHANOS









TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974








TWO HIGH PRIESTS




Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974





Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

War

Death of Theudas


Death of Theudas

New Testament


Figure 3

PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974





PONTIUS PILATE














Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974










Josephus












Pilate Felix Florus








Cumanus























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974

























THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974













THE EGYPTIAN


Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974





Robbers active


Crucifixion of Jews


4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE

4 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 CE



Robbers active

Robbers active


Galilean-Samaritan

WarSamaritans



Jewish king

Death of Theudas





Death of Theudas


New Testament



Figure 4





























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






























JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974




















JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974













JOHN THE BAPTIST
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974
































LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974
















LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974








LATER PARALLELS








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974








































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974




































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974































4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974

























4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974


















4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974











4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

4 BCE 6 CE 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 CE

New Testament


Jesus inEgypt

Birth of Jesus

Birth of Jesus

Jesus in Egypt





















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974
















CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






CONCLUSIONS








CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






CITED WORKS



Backhaus Knut1991


Bammel E1967


Baras Zvi1987


Barnett Paul1986


Barnett Paul2005




Bilde Per1988








Brighton Mark A2009


Bruce F F1981 (1943)


Bruce F F1990



Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






Buumlchner K1957



Carmichael Joel1963



Catchpole DR1971


Cohen Shaye J D1979



Crown Alan D1991


Cullman Oscar1970


Cutner Herbert2000


Dalman G H1891


Davies Stevan L1981




Dibelius Martin1911


Doherty Earl1999




Dupuis C F1794



Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






Durant Will1944




Eisenman Robert1997






Ernst Josef1989


Evans Craig A1992




Feldman Louis H1982


Feldman Louis H1984


Feldman Louis H1989


Goguel Maurice1928


Goldberg GJ1995





Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






Hemer Colin J1989




Hengel Martin1970








Hjelm Ingrid2004




Hogeterp ALA2006








Bromiley eds1985




Klausner Joseph1925



1906a





Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974








Kraeling Carl H1951


Krauss S1906


Krenkel Max1894


Laible H1891


Lauterbach J Z1951


Lewis J P1971


Lohmeyer Ernst1932


Maccoby Hyam Z1969


Maccoby Hyam1973


Maier Johann1978




Mason Steve2009


Meier John P1990


Meier John P1991


Meier John P1992



Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






Meyer A1904


Nodet Etienne1985




Pervo Richard I2006


Pines Shlomo1971


Price J T1992


Price Robert M2003


Rajak Tessa1983




Riesner Rainer1998


Riesner Rainer2011









Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






Rougeacute Jean1974


Sanders E P1993






Schuumlrer Emil1901










Smith Robinson1913








Stern Menahem1976


Strack HL1910

Sweet JPM1984






Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974








Taylor JE2010


Taylor Robert1829






Whealey Alice2003


Whealey Alice2007


Webb Robert L1991




Williamson G A1964


Wink Walter1968


Winter Paul1973







Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974






Zeitlin Solomon1924


Zeitlin Solomon1974





