CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPMENT

Jen Lubelchek

Period 6

Developmental Psychology a branch of psychology that studies

physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Issues that Developmental Psychologists Study Nature/nurture: How do genetic inheritance

(our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our development?

Continuity/stages: Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?

Stability/change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?

When men and women start producing egg cells Women were born producing eggs Men start producing sperm at puberty

Definition of zygote

Zygote: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Definition of Embryo

Embryo: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Definition of Fetus

Fetus: the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Definition of placenta

Placenta: which formed as the zygote’s outer cells attached to the uterine wall, transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus. The placenta also screens out many potentially harmful substances

Definition of teratogens

Teratogens: agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Smoking mothers

If she is a heavy smoker, her fetus may receive fewer nutrients and be born underweight and at risk for various problems

Definition of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: physical and

cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

Rooting Reflex

When something touches their cheek, babies turn toward that touch, open their mouth, and vigorously root for a nipple. Finding one, they automatically close on it and begin sucking—which itself requires a coordinated sequence of reflexive tonguing, swallowing, and breathing

William James

The pioneering American psychologist William James presumed that the newborn experiences a “blooming, buzzing confusion.”

Definition of Habituation

Habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Novelty Preference Procedure In the novelty preference procedure, the

infants looked at the face rather than the body of the animal

We Know the Smell of our mothers at 1 week old

Within days after birth, our brain’s neural networks were stamped with the smell of our mother’s body. Thus, a week-old nursing baby, placed between a gauze pad from its mother’s bra and one from another nursing mother, will usually turn toward the smell of its own mother’s pad

We can recognize our mothers voice at 3 weeks old

At 3 weeks, if given a pacifier that sometimes turns on recordings of its mother’s voice and sometimes that of a female stranger’s, an infant will suck more vigorously when it hears its now-familiar mother’s voice

Figure 5.5In humans, the brain is immature at birth. As the child matures, the neural networks grow increasingly more complex

Pruning Process

Fiber pathways supporting language and agility proliferate into puberty, after which a pruning process shuts down excess connections and strengthens others

Definition of Maturation

Maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Motor Development

With occasional exceptions, the sequence of physical (motor) development is universal.

Babies roll over before they sit unsupported, and they usually creep on all fours before they walk

Back-to-sleep-position

The recommended infant back-to-sleep position (putting babies to sleep on their backs to reduce the risk of a smothering crib death)

Genes play a role in motor development Identical twins typically begin sitting up

and walking on nearly the same day

Infantile amensia

Our earliest memories seldom predate our third birthday. We see this infantile amnesia in the memories of some preschoolers who experienced an emergency fire evacuation caused by a burning popcorn maker

First Conscious Memory

The average person remembers their first conscious memory at 4 or 5

Hippocampus

Hippocampus is the brain structure responsible for memory

Figure 5.7

Definition of Cognition

Cognition: all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Piaget

Piaget is a Developmental Psychologist

Figure 5.8

Psychologists Judy DeLoache, David Uttal, and Karl Rosengren (2004) report that 18- to 30-month-old children may fail to take the size of an object into account when trying to perform impossible actions with it. At left, a 21-month-old attempts to slide down a miniature slide. At right, a 24-month-old opens the door to a miniature car and tries to step inside.

Definition of Schema

Schema: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Definition of Assimilate

Assimilate: interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

Definition of Accommodation Accommodation: adapting our current

understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Figure 5.10

Figure 5.1

Definition of sensorimotor stage

Sensorimotor Stage: in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Definition of Object Permanence

Object Permanence: the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Definition of Preoperational Stage Preoperational Stage: in Piaget’s theory,

the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Definition of Conservation Conservation: the principle (which

Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Judy DeLoache’s study on symbolic thinking Judy DeLoache (1987) discovered this when

she showed children a model of a room and hid a model toy in it (a miniature stuffed dog behind a miniature couch). The 2½ -year-olds easily remembered where to find the miniature toy, but they could not use the model to locate an actual stuffed dog behind a couch in a real room. Three-year-olds—only 6 months older—usually went right to the actual stuffed animal in the real room, showing they could think of the model as a symbol for the room.

Definition of Egocentrism Egocentrism: in Piaget’s theory, the

preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

Definition of Theory of Mind Theory of Mind: people’s ideas about

their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

Jenkins and Astington Jennifer Jenkins and Janet Astington (1996)

showed Toronto children a Band-Aids box and asked them what was inside. Expecting Band-Aids, the children were surprised to discover that the box actually contained pencils. Asked what a child who had never seen the box would think was inside, 3-year-olds typically answered “pencils.” By age 4 to 5, the children’s theory of mind had leapt forward, and they anticipated their friends’ false belief that the box would hold Band-Aids

Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky concept of relying on inner speech: internalizing their culture’s language and relying on inner speech

Definition of Concrete Operational Concrete Operational: in Piaget’s theory,

the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Difference in Neurological Speed “When my daughter Laura was 6, I was

astonished at her inability to reverse simple arithmetic. Asked, “What is 8 plus 4?” she required 5 seconds to compute “12,” and another 5 seconds to then compute 12 minus 4. By age 8, she could answer a reversed question instantly” -Piaget

Definition of formal operational

Formal operational: in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Definition of Autism

Autism: a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others’ states of mind.

Autism Statistics

Once believed to affect 1 in 2500 children, autism or a related disorder will now strike 1 in 150 American children and, in Britain’s London area, 1 in 86 children

Theory that people with autism have an impaired theory of mind

They have difficulty inferring others’ thoughts and feelings. They do not appreciate that playmates and parents might view things differently.

Asperger’s Syndrome

a “high-functioning” form of autism Asperger syndrome is marked by normal

intelligence, often accompanied by exceptional skill or talent in a specific area

Deficient social and communication skills (and thus an inability to form normal peer relationships)

Autism

Autism affects four boys for every girl

Simon Baron Cohn

“If two ‘systemizers’ have a child, this will increase the risk of the child having autism,”

“I do not discount environmental factors,” he notes. “I’m just saying, don’t forget about biology.”

Genetics Studies

If one twin is diagnosed with autism, the chances are 70 percent that the identical co-twin will be as well (Sebat et al., 2007). The younger sibling of a child with autism also is at a heightened risk of 15 percent or so (Sutcliffe, 2008).

Scaffold Material

From which children can step to higher levels of thinking

By mentoring children and giving them new words, parents and others provide this

Definition of Stranger Anxiety Stranger Anxiety: the fear of strangers

that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Definition of Attachment

Attachment: an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Harlow’s Study

The Harlows recognized that this intense attachment to the blanket contradicted the idea that attachment derives from an association with nourishment.

Why the monkeys liked the cloth mother Researchers soon learned that other

qualities—rocking, warmth, and feeding—made the cloth mother even more appealing.

Parent-infant emotional Communication Much of this communications happens

via touch Touch is very important in development

Definition of critical period Critical period: an optimal period shortly

after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Definition of imprinting

Imprinting: the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Definition of secure attachment

Secure attachment: In their mother’s presence they play comfortably, happily exploring their new environment. When she leaves, they are distressed; when she returns, they seek contact with her

Definition of insecure attachment Insecure attachment: They are less

likely to explore their surroundings; they may even cling to their mother. When she leaves, they either cry loudly and remain upset or seem indifferent to her departure and return

Mary Ainsworth

Sensitive, responsive mothers—those who noticed what their babies were doing and responded appropriately—had infants who exhibited secure attachment. Insensitive, unresponsive mothers—mothers who attended to their babies when they felt like doing so but ignored them at other times—had infants who often became insecurely attached.

Harlow’s Monkey Study

The Harlows’ monkey studies, with unresponsive artificial mothers, produced even more striking effects. When put in strange situations without their artificial mothers, the deprived infants were terrified

Definition of temperament Temperament: a person’s characteristic

emotional reactivity and intensity

Easy vs. Difficult babies

difficult—irritable, intense, and unpredictable

easy—cheerful, relaxed, and feeding and sleeping on predictable schedules

Definition of Basic Trust

Basic trust: according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Harlow’s Study

The Harlows recognized that this intense attachment to the blanket contradicted the idea that attachment derives from an association with nourishment.

When abandoned in an orphanage Those abandoned in Romanian

orphanages during the 1980s looked “frighteningly like [the Harlows’] monkeys

Monkeys could not mate

Monkeys that lived in isolation were unable to mate

Monkeys when impregnated When monkeys who lived in isolation

were impregnated, they almost murder their first born and are very aggressive

Maestripieri, 2005 study

A recent experiment with primates confirms the abuse-breeds-abuse phenomenon. Whether reared by biological or adoptive mothers, 9 of 16 females who were abused by their mothers became abusive parents, as did no female reared by a nonabusive mother

Sandra Scarr

In Mother Care/Other Care, developmental psychologist Sandra Scarr (1986) explained that children are “biologically sturdy individuals… who can thrive in a wide variety of life situations.”

Definition of self concept

Self concept: all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Self awareness vs. self recognition Self-awareness begins when we

recognize ourselves in a mirror. By this indicator, self-recognition emerges gradually over about a year, starting in roughly the sixth month as the child reaches toward the mirror to touch her image as if it were another child

Dutch researchers Femmie Juffer and Marinus van IJzendoorn

they found “no difference in self-esteem” between adopted and not adopted kids

Positive self concept

CONFIDENT SOCIABLE INDEPENDENT OPTIMISTIC ASSERTIVE

Definition of authoritarian parents parents impose rules and expect

obedience: “Don’t interrupt.” “Keep your room clean.” “Don’t stay out late or you’ll be grounded.” “Why? Because I said so.

Definition of authoritative parents parents are both demanding and

responsive. They exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reasons for rules. And, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions

Definition of permissive parents

Parents submit to their children’s desires. They make few demands and use little punishment.

Definition of adolescence Adolescence: the transition period from

childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Definition of puberty

Puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Definition of primary sex characteristics Primary sex characteristics: the body

structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Definition of secondary sex characteristics Secondary sex characteristics:

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Definition of Menarche

Menarche: the first menstrual period

Definition of Spermarche

Spermarche: Most men similarly recall their first ejaculation (spermarche), which usually occurs as a nocturnal emission

Predictability

The sequence of sexual development is more predictable compared to the timing of the development

Characteristics of boys who develop early For boys, early maturation pays

dividends: Being stronger and more athletic during their early teen years, they tend to be more popular, self-assured, and independent, though also more at risk for alcohol use, delinquency, and premature sexual activity

Characteristics of girls who develop early If a young girl’s body is out of sync with

her own emotional maturity and her friends’ physical development and experiences, she may begin associating with older adolescents or may suffer teasing or sexual harassment

Definition of myelin

the fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds neurotransmission, enables better communication with other brain regions

Frontal Lobe

The frontal lobe is not fully matured until one is 25 years old

Not able to make great decisions “If a gun is put in the control of the

prefrontal cortex of a hurt and vengeful 15-year-old, and it is pointed at a human target, it will very likely go off.”National Institutes of Health brain scientist Daniel R. Weinberger, “A Brain Too Young for Good Judgment,” 2001

The frontal lobe of a 15 year old is not fully developed

Teens care too much what others think of them

“When the pilot told us to brace and grab our ankles, the first thing that went through my mind was that we must all look pretty stupid.”Jeremiah Rawlings, age 12, after a 1989 DC-10 crash in Sioux City, Iowa

Formal operation

Most achieve the intellectual summit Piaget called formal operations, and they become more capable of abstract reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg

sought to describe the development of moral reasoning, the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong

came up with preconventional, conventional, and postconventional morality

Preconventional Morality

Before age 9, most children’s morality focuses on self-interest: They obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards.

Conventional Morality

By early adolescence, morality focuses on caring for others and on upholding laws and social rules, simply because they are the laws and rules

Postconventional Morality With the abstract reasoning of formal

operational thought, people may reach a third moral level. Actions are judged “right” because they flow from people’s rights or from self-defined, basic ethical principles.

Joshua Greene

used brain imaging to spy on people’s neural responses as they contemplated such dilemmas. Only when given the body-pushing type of moral dilemma did their brain’s emotion areas light up

Marc Hauser’s study

Hauser believes that humans are hard-wired for moral feelings. Faced with moral choices, people across the world, with similar evolved brains, display similar moral intuitions.

Table 5.2

Definition of identity

Identity: our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Definition of social identity Social identity: the “we” aspect of our

self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships

William Damon

Concept of achieving a purpose: a desire to accomplish something personally meaningful that makes a difference to the world beyond oneself

Definition of Intimacy

Intimacy: in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter’s study used a beeper to sample the daily

experiences of American teens, they found them unhappiest when alone and happiest when with friends

As Aristotle long ago recognized, we humans are “the social animal.”

mundane things that children and parents fight over

household chores bedtime, homework

positive correlations amongst peer relationships that go hand in hand with girls having a good relationship with your mom High school girls who have the most

affectionate relationships with their mothers tend also to enjoy the most intimate friendships with girlfriends

Peers vs. Parent influence Adolescence is typically a time of

diminishing parental influence and growing peer influence.

rite of passage

Shortly after sexual maturity, such societies bestowed adult responsibilities and status on the young person, often marking the event with an elaborate initiation—a public rite of passage.

Marriage Rates

the average age at first marriage varies by ethnic group but has increased more than 4 years since 1960 (to 27 for men, 25 for women)

Definition of emerging adulthood Emerging adulthood: for some people in

modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

A 20 year old would be more likely to win a marathon than a 27 year old

Definition of Menopause

Menopause: the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Data from Africa

Data from Africa support an evolutionary theory of menopause: Infants with a living maternal grandmother—typically a caring and invested family member without young children of her own—have had a greater chance of survival

Gradual Declines for menThey experience a gradual decline in… sperm count testosterone level speed of erection and ejaculation Some may also experience distress

related to their perception of declining virility and physical capacities

Life expectancy

The increasing life expectancy, which provides an increasing demand for cruise ships, hearing aids, retirement villages, and nursing homes

Definition of telomeres

Telomeres: people’s chromosome tips

Death- deferral phenomenon In one recent 15-year-period, 2000 to

3000 more Americans died on the two days after Christmas than on Christmas and the two days before

And the death rate increases when people reach their birthdays, as it did for those who survived to the milestone first day of the new millennium

Sensory abilities that decline Visual sharpness Distance perception Adaption to changes in light level Muscle strength Reaction time Stamina Vision Sense of smell Hearing

Immune system weakens The body’s disease-fighting immune

system weakens, making older people more susceptible to life-threatening ailments such as cancer and pneumonia.

Physical exercise benefits Physical exercise stimulates brain cell

development and neural connections, thanks perhaps to increased oxygen and nutrient flow

That may explain why active older adults tend to be mentally quick older adults, and why, across 20 studies, sedentary older adults randomly assigned to aerobic exercise programs have exhibited enhanced memory and sharpened judgment

Dementia

Dementia: A series of small strokes, a brain tumor, or alcohol dependence can progressively damage the brain, causing that mental erosion we call dementia

Alzheimer’s disease

the feared brain ailment, Alzheimer’s disease, which strikes 3 percent of the world’s population by age 75. Alzheimer’s symptoms are not normal aging. (Occasionally forgetting where you laid the car keys is no cause for alarm; forgetting how to get home may suggest Alzheimer’s.)

Crook and West invited 1205 people to learn some names.

Fourteen videotaped people said their names, using a common format: “Hi, I’m Larry.” Then the same individuals reappeared and said, for example, “I’m from Philadelphia”—thus providing visual and voice cues for remembering their name.

everyone remembered more names after a second and third replay of the introductions, but younger adults consistently surpassed older adults

Figure 5.30

Figure 5.31

Definition of prospective memory Prospective memory: (“Remember

to…”) remains strong when events help trigger memories, as when walking by a convenience store triggers a “Pick up milk!” memory.

Definition of cross-sectional study Cross sectional study: a study in which

people of different ages are compared with one another

Definition of longitudinal study

Longitudinal study: research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Figure 5.32

Definition of crystallized intelligence Crystallized intelligence: our

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Definition of fluid intelligence Fluid intelligence: our ability to reason

speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Definition of terminal decline Terminal decline: Researchers call this

near-death drop terminal decline

No mid life crisis

For the 1 in 4 adults who do report experiencing a life crisis, the trigger is not age, but a major event, such as illness, divorce, or job loss

Definition of social clock

Social clock: the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Adult bonds of love

Adult bonds of love are most satisfying and enduring when marked by a similarity of interests and values, a sharing of emotional and material support, and intimate self-disclosure

Marriage

Marriage is a predictor of… happiness, health, sexual satisfaction income

Biggest Mistake in life

When people are asked what they think their biggest mistake in life, the most common answer is that they wish they tried harder in school

Figure 5.35

Definition of integrity

Integrity: a feeling that one’s life has been meaningful and worthwhile

Figure 5.38

Caspti’s 2003 research

On temperament Studied 1000 New Zealanders from age

3 to 26, they were struck by the consistency of temperament and emotionality across time