Japanese Canadians

Social class/ ethnicity

• Like social class, ethnicity is also a subjective and objective condition.

• To put it in sociological terms, "an ethnic group is one which is a collectivity of individuals sharing unique socio-cultural traditions which are generationally transmitted". (1980:4)

Two Views: Conflict

• Social class argument…ethnic groups are an ascribed status within the larger class structure

• Ethnic group status hierarchy is largely the result of capitalism and its inherent inequality.

• Order of arrival is important.

Other position: Structural Functional

• Is the structural functionalist argument that ethnic success or not, is cultural.

• Cultural values, ethnic ghetto culture hold certain groups from success.

• In this view the stratification system, which class based is open. Achievement and not ascription determine social standing.

Japanese Canadians

• The struggle of Japanese Canadians indicated that a group success is related to the system and how the group was treated by the political and economic establishment.

• The system not cultural values is the reason for their historical oppression

The Japanese In Canada

• Over the past century, the Japanese in Canada have changed in remarkable ways.

Japanese Identity

• The Japanese have undergone an evolution from:

1. cheap labour,

2. yellow peril, enemy aliens

3. model minority.-assimilated?

The history

• The history of the Japanese community corresponds to the demands of capitalism, the acceptance and rejection of the dominant group. 

Formative Stage

• The first period in their history in Canada occurred between 1877-1907.

• It was characterized by free entry.

• There were no quotas on the number of Japanese immigrants.

•  THEY WERE CHEAP LABOUR!

The Struggle

• Manzo Nagano, the first known immigrant from Japan, arrived in Canada in 1877.

• Like other minorities, Japanese Canadians since that time struggled against prejudice

• . 

• Gradually, they earned a respected place in the Canadian mosaic through hard work and perseverance

• By 1901 this number had increased to almost 5,000 migrants

Bachelor Society

• Most newcomers before 1908 were young, single males from economically depressed farming and fishing villages who had traveled to Canada in hopes of amassing their fortunes and returning to Japan.

Bachelor Society

• These were mainly men who intended on working diligently for a few years and returning to Japan with enough capital to start their own farms and businesses.

• In 1895, the British Columbia government changed the provincial elections act to deny Japanese and their Canadian-born offspring the right to vote.

• In 1907 a white mob rampaged through the Chinese and Japanese sections of Vancouver to protest the presence of Asian workers who threatened their livelihood.

• They lobbied the federal government to stop immigration from Asia. 

• Following the riot, the Canadian government sent the Minister of Labour at that time, Rodolphe Lemieux, to Tokyo to meet with the Japanese government.

• The result was the 1908 Hayashi-Lemieux “Gentlemen’s agreement” where Japan voluntarily limited migration to 400 agricultural labourers or domestic servants per year

• At the beginning of the 20th century, the Japanese in Canada were concentrated in British Columbia.

• Before World War II, 95% were living in this province. Japanese labourers often moved throughout BC as they found jobs in fishing, farming, mining, and lumbering industries.

•

The Dream vs Reality

• Between 1908 and 1940 “Dreams of Riches Phase”

• Government restriction allowed families to join together.

End Bachelor Society

• After the 1908, Hayashi-Lemieux agreement, the structure of the Japanese community began to change as women began arriving from Japan in significant numbers.

The Family Society Gentlemen’s Agreement

 

• As a result of “Gentlemen’s Agreement in 1908-

• The Japanese government issued visas and restricted the number of male labourers entering Canada to only 400 per year from 7000 per year…..

Issei, Nisei and Sansei

• ISSEI  - The first generation of immigrants, born in Japan before moving to Canada.

• NISEI  - The second generation, born in Canada to Issei parents.

• SANSEI  - The third generation, born in Canada to Nisei parents born in Canada

 Three Generational Hypothesis  

• The Japanese concepts of Issei (first generation) , Niesei (Second) and Sansei runs counter to Herberg’s Three Generational Hypothesis.

• After WW2, the Sansei assimilated rather than rediscover Japanese roots.

Issei, Nisei and Sansei

• Pre war immigrants spoke vocabulary of the past era and Issei, Nisei and Sansei spoke a mix –

• -Whereas the Post War new immigrant speaks modern Japanese and looks at others as illiterate

Towards Assimilation

• The Issei did their best to inculcate Japanese language and values.

• The Issei relied up the Niesi to retain Japanese and act as interpreter for the Issei.

• However, the Neisie became increasingly assimilated for three important reasons:

Towards Assimilation

• First, public school-teaches individualism over the Japanese value of social conformity

•  • Second, Christian demominations swayed

immigrants away from Buddhism to Anglican and United churches.

• Third, English night school, established by the Christian churches helped to generate a new way of life for the second generation Japanese that was half way between traditional Japanese culture and the new world.

Pre War Community

• a. Large & cohesive and well unified collectivity

• b. Sponsorship leads to group migration

• c. All were victims of a hostile political climate –see Regina Riots

• d. Common language, religion and occupational similarity

Post-war Japanese Immigrants

• Post-war immigrants were sponsored by relatives, a category enabling people who lacked skills to enter Canada.

Observations of the Differences

• The differences in the social organizations of the pre war and post war Japanese:

• 1. Pre war had collective consciousness –• The Post War new group was ethnically

and ideologically diverse.

•  

Japanese Canadian attitudes

2. Pre war appreciates traditional Japanese language and customs-•Prewar institutionally complete

3. Post war does not fully appreciate•Post war Japanese Canadian looks to host culture• 

Maintenance Phase

• Life as Enemy Aliens 1941-1949

• FROM CHEAP LABOUR TO ENEMY ALIEN

Japanese alienation

• The alienation of Japanese Canadian was always present from late 19thc onward.

• However, pearl harbour turned cultural alienation in political/legal alienation.

• DEC 7th, 1941.. "a date which will live in infamy."

• The bombing killed more than 2,300 Americans

After Pearl Harbour Dec. 7th 1941

• Japanese were severely restricted:• a.      all naturalized Japanese were interned in a

restricted area• b.     51 Japanese language schools were closed• c.      publication of 3 Japanese Newspapers were

banned• d.     1200 fishing boats were confiscated

Following Pearl Harbour

• Under the direction of Prime Minister Mackenzie King, all Japanese were order to register with the government on January 8, 1942.

• Those who resisted and challenged the orders of the Canadian government were rounded up by the RCMP and incarcerated in a barbed-wire prisoner-of-war camp in Angler, Ontario.

• While they were being distributed across Canada, the Japanese were required to sign their property and belongings over to the Custodian of Enemy Property. These possessions (including homes, land and businesses) were subsequently sold beginning in 1943. This was done without the permission of the owners…

‘Japs” -CARDED PEOPLE

• They were issued either yellow, pink or white cards for Japanese Nationals, Naturalized Japanese or Canadian Japanese respectively.

1941-1951

• In 1941, over 95% of all Japanese lived in BC, a decade later, in 1951, only 33% lived west of the Rockies.

• (The internment and treatment of the Japanese was more severe than for other groups such as the Italian)

Ethnic sub-society obliterated

• The ethnic sub-society form in phase two was obliterated.

• Racial discrimination decreased reduced their visibility.

• Since 1950, the Japanese have had full legal rights in Canada.

•  

Japanese Assimilation

• Indicators include:

• a.      Christianization-by 1971, half of the group identify themselves as Christian

• b.     Sansei-third generation highly assimilated

• c.      Speak English Fluently

• d.     Sansei have more non-Japanese friends

• E. Dramatic increase in intermarriage by 1980

Actualization

• The final phase “Home at Last” is their phase of group actualization.

• The war, evacuation, and resettlement brought about massive changes to the community.

•  

• Post War Japanese Community in British Colombia” by Victor Ujimoto 1987.

•  

Immigration Act of 1952

• Following the Act and as a result of an Amendment in 1957, more immigrants began to come.

• But the old days of the community were gone…

• The Japanese Canadian assimilates as they moved East.

Impact of the Points System

• In 1967 new immigration regulations allowed immigrants to enter Canada based on factors such as skills and occupational demand , unlike other Asian countries, Japan has sent relatively few recent migrations to Canada.

• Of the total population of immigrants in the country after 1970, less than half a percent were from Japan

• The post-WWII immigrants are similar to the first arrivals in that they are predominantly young adults who have families after they come to Canada, but unlike the early immigrants, they are highly skilled professionals and workers from Japan’s industrialized, urban middle class. -

1966

• Following 1965, a new technical elite emerged.

• A new Canadian visa office opened in Tokyo in 1966, and a vigorous advertising campaign was launched to attract highly skilled workers.

•  

• Furthermore the gender difference is very different from the earlier immigrant streams.

• Women currently make up the majority of the new arrivals from Japan.

• They are typically highly educated and often find work in the arts or social service sector.

• They tend to settle in major Canadian cities and marry men of non-Japanese background, further increasing the multi-ethnic nature of the contemporary Japanese Canadian community.

Summary

• Japanese Canadians have witnessed an historical struggle with alienation in Canadian society.

• World War 2 was particularly problematic

• The community gradually assimilated as it was forced to move eastward and laws restricting their movement were lifted.

Institutionally completeness

• Institutionally complete- associations in which members could secure social and financial assistance

The Chinese Canadian Family

 •  • The first wave came as part of

the Gold rush.

• Upon discovery of gold many worked for the railway or made their way east.

•  

After 1885

• However, after 1885, when the railroad was completed a 50 dollar head tax was instituted which rose to 500 dollars in 1903.

•  • The head tax in other words was

systemic discrimination.

Bachelor society

•  • These Chinese men were forced

to have a Bachelor society, but given capitalism’s need for investment and entreprenuership, many `women’ were allowed into Canada subject to a head tax, following 1900.

Chinese Entrepreneurs

• The Chinese who made their way easy found their way into a entrepreneurial business areas such as groceries, laundries etc.

• With legislation banning Chinese from many professions, Chinese entered professions that non-Chinese Canadians did not want to do like laundry shops or salmon processing.

•  • Many experienced isolation by

Canadian Immigration policies such as preferred and non preferred until 1962. (Richmond,1977)

History 

• In the absence of Native and others (Chinese were allowed to work on the railway between 1860 and 1885 -reserve army of labour)

• 15,000 were `let in’ despite the protests of the BC government.

• Chinese settlers began moving eastward after the completion of the CPR,[ although Chinese numbers in BC continued to grow and, until the 1960s, there were no significant populations of Chinese in any other province.

The Chinese Family

•  • The Chinese marital status differs

significantly from the larger Canadian population.

•  • The myth that Chinese have large

families is not supported by empirical evidence. The fertility rate among Chinese Canadian females is lower than their Canadian counterparts.

•  • The data clearly show that Chinese

Canadians has significantly higher levels of education than there Canadian counterparts.

Chinese and South Asian

•  • Chinese and South Asian men from

the Bachelor period sent their money home to their families.

Dill (1983)

• Dill (1983) refers to this as the split family household.

• Lineage involves a group of families from the same ancestry living in the same household or locality.

Bachelor Chinese

•  • Men arrived in Canada living

communally on ships and continue the pattern once they arrive.