Japanese and Western Confluences in Large-Scale Pitch Organization of Tōru Takemitsu's

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    Japanese and Western Confluences in Large-Scale Pitch Organization of Tru Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn Author(s): Edward Smaldone Source: Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1989), pp. 216-231Published by: Perspectives of New MusicStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/833413Accessed: 30-05-2015 18:42 UTC

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  • JAPANESE AND WES1ERN CONFLUENCES IN

    LARGE-SCATLE PITCH ORGANIZATION OF TORU TAKEMITSU'S

    NOVEMBER STEPS AND A UTUMN

    tLyt

    EDWARD SMALDONE

    T HE ATMOSPHERE IN Japan during the years immediately following World War II was characterized by a clamor for all things Western,

    including music, which threatened the extinction of many traditional art forms. Even before the onset of the war, efforts of wholesale cultural adop- tion were demonstrated by the formation, in 1930, of a composers organi- zation, Shinko Sakkyoku Renmei (New Composers Federation), which became the Japanese chapter of the League of Composers/ISCM the same year. Remarkably, by the beginning of the 1950s, Japan had produced an entire generation of world-class composers who were taking their place among the new generation from the West. There were performances of major works by Boulez, Stockhausen, Schonberg, and Berg, and even a kind of Japanese version of the Darmstadt summer courses was held in Japan between 1957 and 1963. The composers who emerged exhibited the

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  • Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn

    same range of styles as those who emerged in Europe and the United States, including those who favored aleatoric, stochastic, and serial pro- cedures, and everything in between. While most of these composers were self-taught (there were no avant-garde composers permitted on Japanese conservatory faculties), a few studied abroad (Yuji Takahashi in Europe with Xenakis and Toshi Ichiyanagi in the U.S. with John Cage).

    Kuniharu Akiyama, a music critic, declares the central group of Toru Takemitsu, Joji Yuasa, Hiroyoshi Suzuki, Keijiro Sato, Kazuo Fukushima, and pianist Takahiro Sonada to be "the spiritual progeny of Varese, Cage, and Messiaen" (Kunihara 1974, 365). In a matter of two decades these composers put Japan on the map of the international new music scene. Despite the developing reputation of these composers, Japanese contempo- rary music was perceived in the West, at best, as imitative of Western music. The Japanese nature of Takemitsu's music, for example, is most often alluded to in comments which refer to a perceived "preoccupation ... with timbre and texture-and with silence" (Kanagawa 1980). This kind of superficial descriptive language indicates a failure to recognize that a con- nection with the pitch structure of Japanese traditional forms could exist.1

    At virtually the same time that Japan's efforts in "Western-style" con- temporary composition achieved this international profile, the study of its traditional music became an almost clandestine affair. The years immedi- ately following the war saw Japanese traditional music severely neglected, despite a significant number of "living national treasures" who continued to study their art, to the complete indifference of the general public. The second-class image of traditional music furthermore extended to Japanese conservatories where students of traditional music were required to learn piano. Only very recently have students in Japan been permitted to major exclusively in Japanese traditional music at the Tokyo University of Fine Arts (Tokyo Geijitsu Daigaku).

    Born in 1930, To-ru Takemitsu is one of the most prominent Japanese composers to bear the burden of the unique cultural confusion which char- acterizes this milieu. Like most Japanese composers of his generation, he was largely self-taught. At first Takemitsu exhibited a distinct lack of enthu- siasm for his own traditional music ("For some reason it never really appealed to me, never moved me"), and was attracted to the Western (especially American) music he heard as a young teenager "over the Armed Forces Radio ... hearing the music of Roy Harris, Aaron Copland, Walter Piston, and Roger Sessions" (Takemitsu 1989). After intensive study of Western music (to the exclusion of Japanese music), Takemitsu studied the biwa and incorporated this and other traditional Japanese instruments into scores composed for Western instruments.

    Until this writing the relationship between contemporary composition and traditional structural models has been unexplored. The present study

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  • Perspectives of New Music

    will focus on two pieces by Takemitsu, November Steps and Autumn (each for biwa, shakuhachi, and orchestra), in an effort to demonstrate a particular aspect of the pitch structure which shares features with the Western atonal tradition and Japanese traditional music. In both the Japanese traditional music and in these compositions by Takemitsu (1) musical space is articu- lated through a process of nuclear tones and (2) large-scale pitch organiza- tion is defined by the path between the nuclear tones. November Steps is one of Takemitsu's best-known pieces and both of these compositions are of particular interest as they incorporate the shakuhachi (Japanese vertical bamboo flute) and the biwa (Japanese lute).2

    The analytical procedure utilized here takes its cue from a quotation from Takemitsu: "I think that we have Western music discover sine tone. Twelve-tone music to electronic and they discover sine wave tone. We have many tones. Like white noise. Make music is just sign [sic] to noise. Most important thing is to cut away-my notes not so important. I always use many tone clusters" (Lieberman 1965, 142).3 Takemitsu is here expressing a fundamental aspect of Japanese musical art. To the Japanese, the indi- vidual pitches of a musical sound are less important than the quality of the sound along a timbral spectrum between the extremes of a pure sine tone and white noise. The concept of sine-to-noise implies a freewheeling approach to pitch which would be an unfair representation of Takemitsu's music. The many tone clusters of November Steps, for example, reveal a care- ful compositional technique with regard to register, tone color, transposi- tion, and specific pitch content. However, Takemitsu implies that these parts of his scores are less fundamental to the central focus and thrust of his musical ideas. If we "cut away" the tone clusters we are in fact left with a very colorful, elegant, and slowly evolving pitch motion which involves a small number of highly audible pitches, highlighted through careful atten- tion to tone color, register, orchestrational doubling, and dynamics. What remains is a small number of nuclear tones around which the tone clusters circulate. These nuclear tones thus articulate long-range form and provide the basic structural component of the pitch material.

    One of the central features of pitch organization in Japanese traditional music is a symmetrical modal hexachord within which nuclear tones are articulated (Burnett 1989). As Burnett explains, the Japanese in-sempo mode developed into a symmetrical structure in which two central nuclear tones a fifth apart (one primary and one secondary) are heard as the pri- mary pitches of a given transposition. Various modulation schemes trans- pose these relationships to new nuclear pitches and project the basic pitch structure across large-scale spans of the composition. This internal struc- ture provides the complex heterophonic textures of a classical chamber- music piece such as Zangetsu with a powerful pitch-oriented direction

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  • Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn

    which is conceived in modal terms quite different from the harmonic struc- ture we are accustomed to in the West. It is the intervallic design of the mode as it surrounds and articulates the nuclear tones which provides this music with a sense of direction in its pitch domain.

    In a similar way the pitch structures of November Steps provide a suitable demonstration of pitch-oriented direction which is conceived in chromatic terms. What we actually hear through the dense and richly detailed orches- tral web of the opening tutti are a precious few pitches which guide our ear along a large arch, providing a deeper level of structure to which the many small details of this passage relate. Example 1 shows the first few measures of the score, and Example 2 indicates those pitches which are most promi- nent. Example 3 shows a reduction of the complete opening orchestral tutti to the entrance of the shakuhachi.

    The pitches included in this reduction (placed in the register in which they appear in the score) are those which Takemitsu has highlighted through orchestral doubling, registral placement, and so on. One tech- nique of which Takemitsu appears to be particularly fond is the highlighting of a pitch through doubling with the harp (the harp itself most often having two strings tuned to a unison). This is itself reminiscent of classical Japa- nese chamber music in which the shakuhachi essentially doubles the shamisen (with the occasional addition of ornamental figures) highlighting the same pitches in a manner which similarly combines plucked and sus- tained attacks.

    The pitch spans which are articulated by this reduction are not specifi- cally related to any form of the Japanese modal system but portray a subtle reference to that practice. The in-sempo mode is used in Zangetsu, for ex- ample, to articulate specific nuclear tones which are in turn directly related to the manner in which the instrument is tuned. As such, the pitch param- eters of the instrument itself are a factor in the pitch structure which is ulti- mately derived. The secondary collection (a transposition of the original collection) is furthermore based on one of the pitches of the original.

    In a like manner, Takemitsu projects nuclear tones across large time spans which reflect the fully chromatic nature of the Western orchestra and, as in the Japanese model, there is a common tone which links the large-scale projections of the basic pitch-class relationships. The pc sets indicated on the reduction of Example 3 show the prominent function of the trichords 0 1 3 and 0 1 4. These pc sets operate in the manner of a motivic cell which unifies the pitch organization in both the short range and at deeper levels. 0 14 occurs twice within the first five measures, but the more important pitch here is FB which is both a focal point in this passage and in the latter passage which outlines the trichord 0 1 3. F] will return as an important component of the large-scale structure.

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  • 220 Perspectives of New Music

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  • Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn

    EXAMPLE 2: November Steps, REDUCTION MM. 1-3

    Fig. 3 trpt.

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    EXAMPLE 3: November Steps, REDUCTION MM. 1-24

    In the following passage, the trumpet's g#2 begins a motion which incor- porates a recurring five-note motive, each transposition of which contains the Ft (Example 3). The motion away from the initial Gt and the motion back to it is furthermore guided by F], and in the case of the return to Go, by the trichord 0 1 3. The projection of 0 1 3 is interrupted by the comple- tion of the five-note motive involving g#2. Immediately following (meas- ures 21-24) the pitches D and E are strongly emphasized as the goal of the passage setting up the entrance of the Japanese instruments (Example 4). The shakuhachi enters on D and E, making a strong sonic connection with the orchestral passage. These two pitches furthermore complete a second statement of the trichord 0 1 3 projected from FI (Example 5).

    Burnett's Examples 3 and 4 show how the pitch structures of Zangetsu are organized across large spans by nuclear pitches surrounded by a specific configuration of pitches derived from the in-sempo mode. My Examples 3 and 5 demonstrate how Takemitsu organizes pitch structures across large spans through the similar use of a nuclear tone and the projection of related pc sets. It is in viewing a relationship of this sort that one can see a coordi- nation of Western and Japanese elements which penetrates below the surface.

    November Steps is perhaps Takemitsu's best-known composition. Com- missioned in 1967 for the 125th Anniversary of the New York Philhar- monic, it was his first attempt at a large-scale piece which combined Japanese and Western instruments. Soon afterward, with the composition of Autumn (1973), Takemitsu again turned to the combination of biwa, shakuhachi, and orchestra. Autumn is, unfortunately, unrecorded and the score is available only as a rental item. Given these facts, a few words on its

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  • Perspectives of New Music

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    most striking features would seem to be in order. In Autumn, there is con- siderably more integration of the Japanese instruments and the orchestra, and the orchestral statements are longer and generally build to more con- vincing climaxes (perhaps a result of the larger forces). As in November Steps, these orchestral passages alternate with solo passages for the traditional instruments, though even these are generally accompanied by a pared- down orchestra in Autumn. In both pieces there are elaborate cadenza pas- sages for both shakuhachi and biwa which seem to serve as the dramatic goal of the entire composition, followed by a closing orchestral statement.

    In general, Autumn gives the impression of greater drama and emotional impact. Though the two compositions are almost identical in length (about twenty minutes) Autumn builds in a more continuous arc and with broader gestures. Whereas the cadenzas in November Steps are notated in a graphic notation of Takemitsu's own invention, all of the material in Autumn is fully notated, implying an even greater degree of pitch control. This is exercised in an especially beautiful moment at the end of the final cadenza in which the shakuhachi's final note is picked up by the orchestra. It is a moment at which the Western orchestra appears to "hear" the traditional instruments in a very concrete manner. As if this were the ultimate goal of the composition, a final orchestral statement then brings the piece to a quiet close.

    Takemitsu's approach to orchestration in Autumn is distinguished from that in November Steps by a more pervasive use of octave and unison doub- ling between different choirs of instruments. The use of orchestral doubling as a means of highlighting a particular pitch or group of pitches is thus expanded. If we take the same approach of tracking those pitches made most prominent by the orchestral texture, the opening of Autumn can be reduced to the pitch structures of Example 6.

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  • Perspectives of New Music

    The opening Bb-Bt-Bb presented (in two different registers and in the wind choir, string choir, and harp) establishes Bb as the primary point of departure for this opening passage. The chromatic dyad is significant in that it is a common component of the other trichords which will be projected in the course of the piece. The unison D of measure 5 (doubled in all string parts as well as in the horn, flute, and harp) completes a statement of the trichord 0 1 4. This D then gives rise to a foreground statement of the tri- chord 0 1 3 in the upper register. The Bt in the first violins and basses in measure 8 establishes that pitch as a longer-range completion of the same 0 1 4 trichord (10,11,2). The variety of trichords is further expanded in the first-violin tune which proceeds from B and can be divided into two tri- chords, 01 5 and 0 14. The orchestral tutti continues as the strings are divided into a swirling mass of carefully organized canons and pc-set "pro- gressions" beginning at letter A in the score (Example 7). The foreground is organized by a complex procedure of transposition, ordering, and transfor- mation, which governs the nineteen individual string parts. Within this context, the octave C in the basses and high Bt of the viola and piccolo stand out as the most prominent pitches. The climax of the passage dis- solves into silence, except for a lone Eb (doubled at the unison) in the harp. This Eb is then picked up by the shakuhachi entrance. These three pitches (B-C-Eb) form a statement of 0 1 4 which is a transposition of the opening statement of the same trichord, with Bt as a common tone (Example 8).

    The pitches outlined by the opening shakuhachi figure consist of four pcs which project another variant of the trichords 0 14 and 0 1 5, shown by the two trichords beamed to ebl in Example 6. An especially dramatic outline of the trichord 0 1 5 is projected across an even larger span if one considers the function of the Eb octave which powerfully dominates the texture at Letter I (Example 9). This Eb completes a statement of 0 1 5 which began with the opening Bb of the piece and proceeded to the Bt of measure 8.

    The long-range goal of Eb in some way also reflects the more delicately stated goal of Eb which ended the opening tutti passage. This second arrival on Eb thus incorporates two temporal levels of structure and coordinates the statements of 0 14 and 0 1 5. In this way there is a reflection of purpose across two large independent spans (see Example 6). Eb (spelled D#) also serves as the final goal of the composition, played by the harp and celeste over the sustained Bt of the basses. Bt is the central pitch around which vir- tually all of the various trichordal statements (both 0 14 and 0 1 5) revolve. In this way all of the pc sets emanate from this central tone in a way which reflects traditional Japanese modal organization.

    The long-range projection of pc sets is clearly an organizing factor in these two pieces by Takemitsu. In addition, they serve to point up a signifi- cant distinction between November Steps and Autumn. Autumn is by far the more powerful and more successful composition. Part of the reason for this

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  • Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn

    has to do with the clarity with which the nuclear tones are projected on the musical surface. Despite the larger orchestral forces, Autumn delineates these nuclear tones through octave doubling and orchestral reinforcement which makes the long-range connection more audible. As a result, the large-scale form of the composition is more convincingly articulated by the pitch structures.

    The foregoing analysis illustrates a conceptual link between Japanese tra- ditional music and these compositions which operates on the deepest level of structure. What is perhaps most surprising is that in comparison to the usual Western perception of Japanese contemporary composition, the anal- ysis demonstrates an indigenous aspect of pitch structure which survives the intense Westernization of Japanese twentieth-century culture. The Japanese spirit of Takemitsu's music can thus be shown in concrete pitch- defined terms. The pitch structures which pervade the music are more than the mere reflection of a fully absorbed understanding of Western atonal tra- dition; they are a positive demonstration of the tenacity of the Japanese spirit.

    The author wishes to express his gratitude to John Rahn and Joseph N. Straus for their careful reading and helpful suggestions on this manuscript.

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  • Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn

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  • Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn 229

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  • Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn

    NOTES

    1. In defense of this perception, pitch-defined analyses of Japanese tradi- tional music have only very recently appeared in the professional liter- ature. See Burnett 1989 and Smaldone 1984.

    2. The shakuhachi is used in Zen solo playing, and in chamber music along with the shamisen and koto. The biwa is traditionally used as a solo instrument to accompany narrative tales such as the "Heike Monogatari" of A.D. 1189 and in the gagaku orchestra. There is no traditional music of Japan which uses both instruments simultaneously.

    3. Lieberman 1965, 142. This quotation is Lieberman's transcription of a conversation with Takemitsu, conducted in English. It seems clear from the context that Takemitsu meant "sine" and not "sign," as transcribed by Lieberman. Lieberman himself agrees with the viability of the author's interpretation.

    BIBLIOGRAPHY

    Akiyama, Kunihara. 1974. "Japan." In Dictionary of Contemporary Music, edited by John Vinton, 364-67. E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc: New York.

    Burnett, Henry. 1989. "Minezaki K6to's Zangetsu: An Analysis of a Tradi- tional Chamber Music Composition." Perspectives of New Music 27, no. 2 (Summer).

    Kanagawa, Masakata. 1980. "Toru Takemitsu." In The New Grove Diction- ary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie, 18:534-35.

    Lieberman, Frederic. 1965. "Contemporary Japanese Composition: Its Relationship to Concepts of Traditional Oriental Music." Masters Thesis, University of Hawaii.

    Smaldone, Edward. 1984. "Godanginuta: A Structural Analysis." Hogaku 1, no. 2: 55-91.

    Takemitsu, Toru. 1989. "Contemporary Music in Japan." Perspectives of New Music 27, no. 2 (Summer).

    231

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    Article Contentsp.[216]p.217p.218p.219p.220p.221p.222p.223p.224p.225p.226p.227p.228p.229p.230p.231

    Issue Table of ContentsPerspectives of New Music, Vol. 27, No. 2, Summer, 1989Front Matter [pp.1-318]What Is Valuable in Art, and Can Music Still Achieve It? [pp.6-17]Language for One, Language for All: Adorno and Modernism [pp.18-36][Illustration]: Yoji Shinagawa: Clear Mirror, Tetsuzan Calligraphy on Ricepaper, 50 by 74 Inches [p.37]On Thinking about Various Issues Induced by the Problem of Discovering That One Is Not a 'Composer', and That the Space Which One Inhabits Musically Is Not 'America' [pp.38-42][Illustration]: Yoji Shinagawa: Clear Moon, Tetsuzan Calligraphy on Ricepaper, 38 by 74 Inches [p.43]Tradition and Renewal in the Music of JapanIntroduction [pp.45-47]Glossary of Commonly Used Terms [pp.48-51]Coming to Terms: (Futaiken) Reibo [pp.52-76]

    [Illustration]: Yoji Shinagawa: Each Day Anew, Tetsuzan Calligraphy on Ricepaper, 38 by 74 Inches [p.77]Tradition and Renewal in the Music of JapanMinezaki Kt's Zangetsu: An Analysis of a Traditional Japanese Chamber Music Composition [pp.78-117]The Neonationalist Movement: Origins of Japanese Contemporary Music [pp.118-163]The Role of Traditional Japanese Instruments in Three Recent Operas [pp.164-174]

    [Illustration]: Yoji Shinagawa: Great Universe, Tetsuzan Calligraphy on Ricepaper, 38 by 74 Inches [p.175]Tradition and Renewal in the Music of JapanMusic as a Reflection of a Composer's Cosmology [pp.176-197]Contemporary Music in Japan [pp.198-204]Afterword [pp.206-214]

    [Illustration]: Yoji Shinagawa: On Distant Mountains the Snow Forms a Range; In the near Lake the Light Glimmers and Smiles, Tetsuzan Calligraphy on Ricepaper, 38 by 74 Inches [p.215]Tradition and Renewal in the Music of JapanJapanese and Western Confluences in Large-Scale Pitch Organization of Tru Takemitsu's November Steps and Autumn [pp.216-231]Contemporary Notation for the Shakuhachi: A Primer for Composers [pp.232-251]

    Exorcism and Epiphany: Luciano Berio's Nones [pp.252-268][Illustration]: Yoji Shinagawa: Heart's Friend, Tetsuzan Calligraphy on Ricepaper 38 by 74 Inches [p.269]Colloquy and ReviewIt's about Time: Some Next Perspectives (Part One) [pp.270-281]Report on the First AIM Conference Sankt Augustin, Germany September 1988 [pp.282-289]Comments on the First Workshop on A. I. and Music: 1988 AAAI Conference St. Paul, Minnesota [pp.290-298]

    [Illustration]: Yoji Shinagawa: Daybreak, Tetsuzan Calligraphy on Ricepaper, 38 by 74 Inches [p.299]Colloquy and ReviewUCSD at Darmstadt 1988 [pp.300-303]

    Editorial Notes [pp.304-306]Correspondence [pp.307-315]Erratum: A European Trilogy [p.319]Back Matter [pp.320-320]