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Janapadas, Mahājanapadas, Kingdoms, and Republics

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Editorial Note

[This offers the first view of Indian history at the beginningof the historic period in the Ganga plain and also discussesthe basic background factors behind the rise of thecontemporary complex political and economicinstitutions. The Buddhist Jatakas form a major source,and in view of the facts that the Jatakas depict Banarasas an independent kingdom and that it was later annexedby Ajatasatru, the Jatakas may very well depict thecondition of the Banaras region around 500 BC. It is alsoimportant to note that by about 1800 BC, there was awide use of iron in the central Ganga plain agricultureand thus there is no scope to relate the agricultural useof iron to the growth of states and cities in the region,which took place only from c. 800 BC onward.]

h

Towards the end of the Vedic period, tribalallegiance had begun to make way for territorialallegiance and the loyalty of the people wasgetting transferred from tribal organisations topolito-geographical units. Such a developmentwas also reflected in a relationship between theraja and others based on reciprocity rather thankinship, but it also indicated the emergence ofa class of non-kinsmen who eventually becamethe cronies of the raja contributing towards theconcentration of authority in the throne. By themiddle of the sixth century BC, politicaljanapadas, some with fairly well-definedboundaries, came into existence and theheadquarters of these janapadas remained nolonger rural. Some of these janapadas soon grewinto mahajanapadas with more than one urbansettlement. The legal and ideological outfit inthese mahajanapadas was supported by a well-defined caste system under which the producers

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were saddled with economic obligations as wellas social disabilities. Such a mechanismfunctioned through the establishment of aprofessional army and an administrative set-upthat collected taxes and punished crimesagainst property, family, and social order.Starting with the middle Ganga zone andits periphery, this phenomenon becameuniversal in the whole of India by the fourthcentury BC.

The earliest methodical postulationregarding the origin of the state has been madein the Ambattha (D.i.87-110) and the Agganna(D.iii.61-77) suttantas of the Digha Nikaya whichbelong to the earliest strata of the Pali literature.Here it has been pointed out that as a result ofthe origin of private property and other socialevils the golden age became graduallycorroded. Consequently, people got togetherand elected a male from among themselves tobe their ruler so that he may maintain order. Inlieu of his services, he was granted the right tocollect one-sixth of the produce. Since such anorderly model of the origin of state waspropounded only when the state had become afirmly-established institution, state must havecome into origin before the composition of theabovestated suttantas. In other words, state hadcome into origin before the Buddha andMahavira began their ministries.

The fiscal and administrative patternreflected in the Pali texts, especially in majorityof the Jatakas, belongs to the Mahajanapadaperiod. In this literature, the use of terms suchas vetana/ bhattavetana (wages or professionalfee. Sn.24; D.iii.191; Vin.iii.222; J.iv.132),donamapaka (official responsible for themeasuring of revenue. J.ii.367, 378, 381),mahantasenagutta (chancellor of theexchequer. J.v.115, vi.2), bhogagama (atributary village. J.i.235), rasika (revenue.

D.i.135), donamapaka (minister measuring therevenue with dona. J.ii.367, 381), rajabali(kingís share, revenue. A.ii.68, iii.45; D.i.135,142), rajabhaga (kingís share. J.ii.378),samudaya (revenue. D.i.227), bali (tax, revenue.D.i.135). sunka (toll tax, customs Vin.iii.52;iv.131; A.i.54); sunkaghata (customsí frontier.Vin.iii.47, 52), sunkatthana (customsí house.Vin.iii.62), rajakosa (royal treasury. A.iv.95).kosarakkha (the keeper of the kingís treasury.A.iii.57), and kosakotthagara (treasury. Vin.i.342;D.i.134; S.i.89) indicates towards well-organizedeconomic and taxation system during theMahajanapada period. During the same period,local officials such as gamabhojaka, gamapati,gamani, gamanika, collected royal rues, settledlocal disputes, maintained law and order (J.i.199,483; ii.135; Vin.ii.296; S.i.61). Other officialsincluding aggapurohita (prime minister. D.i.138;J.vi.391), rajamacca (royal minister, privycouncillor. J.i.262; v.444), rajamahamatta(kingís prime minister. D.iii.44; A.i.154, 252,279, iii.128), parisajja (councillor. D.i.136),ratthika (kingdomís official. A.iii.76),rajakammika (a royal official. J.i.439; iv.169),rajapurisa (one in the kingís service. J.iii.34),rajaporisa (servant of the king or governmentservant. D.i.135; M.i.85; A.iv.281),antarabhogika (a subordinate chieftain(Vin.iii.47), voharika (minister of justice. Vin.i.74,iv.223), and bandhanagarika (prison-keeper.A.ii.207), helped in running the affairs of thestate and maintaining law and order at differentlevels of governing. Bimbisara is said to havecalled a meeting of 80,000 gamikas (villagesuperintendents) (Vin.i.179; A.iii.76, 78, 300),which may have been a conventional numberbut indicates that at Bimbisaraís time theMagadhan state had become not only a largesettled territorial unit but had also acquired thecapacity to bear taxes and other associated

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obligations. Texts of the mahajanapada periodindicate that now the chief advisors of the kingsdid not necessarily belong to the families of theheads of the state. For instance, Vassakara, theprime minister of Ajatasattu, was a brahmana.Moreover, collaboration and integration of thedominant with the defeated chiefs can also beseen during the mahajanapada period. Further,the use of terms such as senanayaka (army-general, minister of defence. Vin.i.73), anika(army. Vin.iv.107; Sn.623), anikattha (royalguard. D.iii.64, 148), anikadassana (troop-inspection. D.i.6), caturini (army consisting ofhatthi-assa-ratha-patti, i.e., elephants, chariots,cavalry and infantry. D.ii.190; Vin.iv.105),davika (a certain rank in the army. D.i.51), dajini(an army. Sn.442), senanayaka (a general.Vin.i.73), senapati (a general (Vin.i.233; Sn.556;A.iii.38, iv.790, senapatika (a general. A.iii.76,300), senabyuha (gathering an army. Vin.iv.107;D.i.6), rajabhata (soldier. Vin.i.74, 88) indicatestowards the existence of professional armies.Apart from Magadha, at least five states in thenorth-western part of the Indian subcontinentpossessed well-organised military systems in thepre-Mauryan period. Well-developed institutionof kingship with accompanying powers andprivileges is also indicated in the early Paliliterature through the use of terms such asrajagara (a kingís pleasure house. D.i.7), raja-anga (royal qualification or kingís property.Vin.i.219), rajana (kingís command. J.iii.180),rajadanda (Kingís punishment. J.i.369, 433),rajanubhava (kingís power or majesty. J.iv.247),raja-antepura (the royal harem. A.v.81),rajabhiraja (king of kings. Sn.553), rajayatana(the royal tree. Vin.i.3), raja-isi/rajisi (a royalascetic. Th.1, 1127), raja-upatthana (royalaudience (Vin.i.269), raja-uyyana (royal garden.J.iii.143), raja-orodha (a royal concubine.Vin.iv.261), rajakatha (talk about kings. D.i.7;

Vin.i.188), rajakutumba (kingís property.J.i.439), rajakumara (a prince. Vin.i.269),rajakumbhakara (royal potter. J.v.290), rajakula(kingís palace. A.i.128; ii.205; Vin.iv.265),rajakhadaya (kingís food. Sn.831), rajaguna(kingís virtue. M.i.446), rajadaya (royal gift.D.i.127), rajaduta (kingís messenger. Sn.411),rajadhamma (norm of kingship. J.iii.274;J.v.112), rajadhani (capital city. A.i.159, ii.33,iii.108; Vin.iii.89), rajadhita (princess. J.i.207),rajaputti (princess. J.iv.108; v.94), rajaputta(prince. Sn.455), rajabhogga (in the service ofthe king, royal, worthy of a king. D.i.87;Vin.iii.221; A.i.244, ii.113), rajamalakara (royalgardener. J.v.292), and rajavara (famous king.Vv.321).

The existence of a variety of states in thesixth century BC is demonstrated in the early Paliand Prakrit texts through the use of terms suchas janapada, mahajanapada, rattha,antararattha, tirorattha, desa, padesa,janapadapadesa, mahapadesa, gana, andsamgha. It may be worthwhile to examine theseterms in the geo-political context of themahajanapada period.

The term janapada in the context of themahajanapada period meant a land wherepeople lived through many generations andwere linked to each other not only through bloodand geography but also through customs,religious rituals, and dialects (D.ii.349; A.i.160,178; Sn.422, 683, 995, 1102; J.i.258, 139, 300).It was made up of a number of nagaras (cities)nigamas (trading centres), and gamas (villages)(D.i.136; J.ii.3) and was based on agemeinschaft-type of society. Formed naturally,it neither had any well-defined territorial boundsnor did it include uninhabited places, such asghost towns and wasteland. In other words,primary meaning of the term janapada in the

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context of the mahajanapada period may betaken as ìcleared landî, with strong kin andgeographical ties. Thus, dakkhinajanapada(D.i.96, 153) was used in the Pali texts vaguelyto indicate the region of south India.

The term rattha means ìa systematizedkingdomî and was a gesellschaft-type of societyformed artificially for the purpose ofgovernance. Thus, a rattha (Sn.46, 287, 444,619; J.iv.389) was an artificial society over whicha kingís rule extended; it was a proto-gesellschaft-type of society with a far moreprecisely defined territory and socialorganization than a janapada. Hence, atirorattha (D.i.161) was a foreign kingdom andan antararattha (Vin.iii.47), a subordinatekingdom, both with defined territories but thelatter existing as a vassal state.

A mahajanapada, in its pristine stage, wasnot only much larger in size than a janapada asis indicated by the term itself, it also appears tohave taken on rattha-like characteristics and maybe considered as a proto-gesellschaft institution.However, under King Ajatasattu, themahajanapada of the Magadhas as well as theVijjian Republic had become fully growngemeinschaft-type states with professionalarmies and administrative and judicial machinery.

The term desa (Vin.i.46, ii.211; M.i.437) inthe pre-Mauryan context may be translated ascountry but basically as a gemeinschaft-typesociety, formed naturally but with no clearterritorial bounds. A good example of this is theMajjhimadesa (Middle Country. Vin.i.197) whichincluded fourteen of the sixteen mahajanapadasat the time of the Buddha and extended in theeast to the town of Kajangala (Kankjol in Bihar),on the south-east to the river Salalavati; on thesouth-west to the town of Setakannika; on thewest to the brahmana village of Thuna(Thaneshvar in Haryana); on the north to the

Usiraddhaja Mountain (Vin.i.197; J.i.49, 80).Terms such as padesa (district, region. S.ii.227,254, v.201), mahapadesa (province. A.ii.167),janapadapadesa (a rural district. A.iv.366, v.101)appear to have been used in the proto-gemeinschaft sense in the pre-Mauryan context.

The words gana and samgha have been usedin the sense of republican form of governmentin the Pali and Prakrit texts (AS.i.3, 60; Vin.i.319).The Vinaya Pitaka provides invaluable data onthe organization of the Buddhist samgha whoserules and regulations were adopted from therepublican states of the time of the Buddha andMahavira. Both gana and samgha aresynonymous words and have been defined byscholars as ìrepublicsî (Jayaswal, 1924: 28),ìrepublics with either complete or modifiedindependenceî (Rhys Davids 1903: 2), stateswith ìrepublican or oligarchic constitutionî(Thomas 1914: 413), ìa republican or quasi-republican form of government in which thesupreme power of the state was vested in aconsiderable portion of the population soqualified only on account of their birth, propertyor merit... In short, it was a government bydiscussionî (Sharma 1968: 12-13).

The early Pali texts often mention thefollowing sixteen mahajanapadas (solasamahajanapada) that existed at the time of theBuddha:

1. Anga

2. Magadha

3. Kasi

4. Kosala

5. Vajji

6. Malla

7. Ceti

8. Vamsa

9. Kuru

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10. Pancala

11. Maccha

12. Surasena

13. Assaka

14. Avanti

15. Gandhara

16. Kamboja.

The first fourteen are included in theMajjhimadesa, the last two being in Uttarapatha(A.i.213, iv. 252, 256, 260). In the JanavasabhaSuttanta of the Digha Nikaya, only tenmahajanapadas are given and the first two andthe last four are omitted. However, the first twomahajanapadas are mentioned separately in thesame suttanta (see D.ii.200-201, 202-203). TheNiddesa adds Kalinga to the list of sixteen (hencemaking seventeen) but substitutes Yona forGandhara (Cn.37). The Jaina Bhagavati Sutra,which is a late text, also gives a list of sixteenmahajanapadas. But majority of the names aresomewhat different: Anga, Banga, Magadha,Malaya, Malava, Accha, Vaccha, Kocchaka,Padha, Ladha, Bajji, Moli, Kasi, Kosala, Avahaand Sambhuttara (Majumdar 1943: 15-16).

Apart from the above statedmahajanapadas, early Pali and Prakrit texts alsomention the following ganas/samghas thatexisted at the time of the Buddha:

1. Licchavis of Vaisali

2. Videhas of Mithila

3. The Sakyas of Kapilavatthu

4. Koliyas of Ramagama

5. Moriyas of Pipphalivana

6. Mallas of Kusinara

7. Mallas of Pava

8. Kalamas of Kesaputta

9. Bulis of Allakappa

10. Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri

11. Nayas of Kundapura

Interestingly, of these republics only theLicchavis and the Mallas are included in the listof the sixteen mahajanapadas. The others,including the Sakyas, among whom the Buddhawas born, are not included in the list of the solasamahajanapada.

ANGA

This mahajanapada was located to the east ofMagadha from which it was separated by theriver Campa (the present Chandan Nala.Chakrabarti 2007: 198). However, Chakrabartifeels that Kiul River most probably formed theboundary between Magadha and Anga(Chakrabarti 2007: 198). It had its capital atChampa, identified with Nathnagar locality ofBhagalpur (Chakrabarti 2007: 198). Other thanCampa, Bhaddiya (VA.i.280; DhA.i.384DA.i.279) and Assapura (M.i.271) were twoimportant cities of this mahajanapada. Bhaddiyais identified with Bhadariya, located about eightmiles south of Bhagalpur (N.L. Dey 1899: 337-338). Early Buddhist texts mention it as Anga,i.e. mahajanapada of the Anga people. But inthe commentaries it is referred to as a rattha(e.g., DhA.i.384) indicating that at the time ofthe Buddha, it was a proto-gemeinschaft typeof state. At the time of the Buddha, the king ofthe Anga people appears to have been merelya wealthy nobleman who had the authority onlyto grant pensions to a brahmana and such things(M.ii.163). He was subject to Bimbisara, the rulerof Magadha (ThA.i.548; MA.i.394). Though thereare references to wars between the twomahajanapadas, one does not come across anyreference to Anga having been fullyindependent (see e.g., J.iv.454; v.316; vi.271).A janapada called Anguttarapa, located to thenorth of the river Mahi, was most probably a

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part of Anga on the other side of the river Mahi(SnA.ii.437). This janapada possibly comprisedthe districts of Begusarai, Saharsa, and Purneaof Bihar (Chakrabarti, 2007: 198). AsAnguttarapa and Apana are always mentionedtogether, it seems Apana was the main urbancentre in Anguttarapa and possibly its rajadhani(capital) and a marketplace (nigama) connectingnorth and south Bihar. The Samyutta Nikaya,mentions Apana as a nigama of the Angacountry (S.v.225). It appears Apana was situatedto the north of the Ganga in the modern Purneaor Saharsa district of Bihar and may be identifiedwith Sikligarh near Banmankhi (Chakrabarti,2007: 198).

MAGADHA

According to Buddhaghosa, Magadhamahajanapada received its name from a tribeof khattiyas called Magadha (SnA.i.135f).Initially, Rajagaha (Sk: Rajagrha) was its capitalwhich was later shifted to Pataliputta (Sk:Pataliputra). The core of the state was the areaof modern Bihar south of the Ganga. At the timeof the Buddha, Magadha mahajanapada wasbounded on the south by the Vindhya mountains,on the west by the river Sona, on the north bythe Ganga, and on the east by the river Champa,the state of Anga being beyond the Champa(J.iv.454). Sona formed the boundary betweenMagadha and the Licchavis, and both the statesevidently had equal rights over the river. In mostof the pre-Buddhist Brahmanical texts, Magadhawas viewed as falling outside the pale of ìAriyanîand Brahmanical culture, and was thereforelooked down upon by Brahmanical writers.According to one of the Jatakas, the state ofMagadha was initially under the suzerainty ofAnga (J.vi.272). According to early Buddhisttexts, Magadha and Anga together consisted ofeighty thousand villages at the Buddhaís time

(Vin.i.179) and had a circumference of aboutthree hundred yojanas (D.i.148). The cornfieldsof Magadha were rich and fertile (Th.vs.208) andit was known for a special kind of garlic(VA.iv.920). During the early Buddhist period,Magadha was an important political andcommercial centre, and was visited by peoplefrom all parts of northern India in search ofcommerce and learning. In Saratthappakasini,the commentary of the Samyutta Nikaya, it hasbeen mentioned that the people of Anga andMagadha had a practice of performing a sacrificeannually to god Mahabrahma in which a fire waskindled with sixty cartloads of firewood. Thesepeople held the belief that anything cast intothe sacrificial fire would bring a thousandfoldreward (SA.i.269).

Magadha was the cradle of two of Indiaísmajor religions, Jainism and Buddhism (Vin.i.5)and it was from here that they spread to differentparts of the Indian subcontinent. The Buddhaíschief disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana, werenatives of Magadha. Two of Indiaís greatestempires, the Maurya Empire (c. 221ñ185 BC) andthe Gupta Empire (c. AD 219ñ540) originatedfrom Magadha. However, the informationavailable on the early rulers of Magadha is veryscanty. According to the Puranas, the MagadhaEmpire was established by the Brihadratha, whowas the sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of theBharata dynasty. The Brihadrathas weresucceeded by the Pradyotas who in turn werefollowed by the Haryanka dynasty. It appearsthat Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynastyfor some 200 years, its most important kingsbeing Seniya Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, both ofwhom were contemporaries of the Buddha.Bimbisara was responsible for expanding theboundaries of his kingdom through matrimonialalliances and conquest. The states of Anga andKasi became part of Magadha during his reign.

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Bimbisara reigned from Rajagaha for a periodof fifty-two years. He was five years youngerto the Buddha and died eight years before him.Ajatasattu ruled for thirty-two years out of whicheight years were during the lifetime of theBuddha (Dip.iii.60; Mhv.ii.32). Bimbisara wasmurdered by his son, Prince Ajatasattu. Ajatasattuis credited with building the fortress ofPataliputta, which later became the capital ofMagadha (D.ii.86ff; Ud.87-90). Bimbisara hadmarried a sister of Pasenadi, and when he waskilled she died of grief. The revenue of a Kasivillage had been given to her by her father,Mahakosala, as part of her dowry. But after

Bimbisaraís murder, Pasenadi refused tocontinue it. Thereupon Ajatasattu declared waron him. He was defeated and captured byPasenadi. However, on promising not to wagewar again, he was released. To seal thefriendship, Pasenadi gave him his daughterVajira as wife, by whom he had a sonUdayibhadda, and the revenue of the disputedvillage was gifted to her as bath-money (S.i.68,82-5; J.ii.403-4, iv.343f). However, Ajatasattuevidently took his reverses very unsportingly(J.ii.237f). The Avasyaka Sutra mentions thatAjatasatru humbled Kosala and permanentlyannexed Kasi and also absorbed the state of

Fig. 1. India about sixth century BC.

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Vaisali (see Jain 1991: 22). Shortly before theBuddhaís death, Ajatasattu sent his chief ministerVassakara to the Buddha to know of hisprediction about his wish to conquer the Vajjians.The Buddha told Vassakara that as long as theVajjians practised the seven conditions ofwelfare taught by him they wereunvanquishable (D.ii.72f). However, theBuddha made a forecast that someday theVajjians would relinquish their strenuous life-style and that would give Ajatasattu hisopportunity. This happened three years laterwhen through treachery, Vassakara sowed seedsof dissension among Vajjians and Ajatasattucompletely destroyed them (S.ii.267-268;D.ii.73f, 86). Under Bimbisara and Ajatasattu,Magadha rose to such political eminence thatfor several centuries the history of northern Indiawas practically the history of Magadha. TheHaryanka dynasty was overthrown by theSisunaga dynasty. The last ruler of Sisunagadynasty, Kalasoka, was assassinated byMahapadma Nanda, the first of the so-called NineNandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons). TheNanda Dynasty is said to have ruled for about100 years. Around 321 BC, the Nanda dynastywas ended by Chandragupta who became thefirst king of the great Mauryan dynasty.

KASI

The mahajanapada of the Kasi, with an extentof three hundred yojanas, had its capital atBaranasi (J.iii.304, 391, v.41). It consisted of thepresent day Ballia, Azamgarh, Ghazipur,Varanasi itself, and parts of the districts of Jaunpurand Mirzapur (Chakrabarti 2007: 201). At thetime of the Buddha, it had been absorbed intothe Kosala mahajanapada under King Pasenadiwho ruled over the two mahajanapadas jointly(D.i.288; M.ii.111). However, as the VinayaPitaka refers to a king of Kasi (Kasika-raja) who

sent a gift of a robe to Jivaka (Vin.i.28l), the kingof this mahajanapada may have continued as avassal-king of Pasenadi. Recurrent andprotracted wars between the mahajanapadasof Kasi and Kosala have been mentioned in thePali texts and in one such war, the Kosala kingDighati lost to the Kasi king. However, laterDighatiís son Dighavu reconquered Kasi(Vin.i.334; J.iii.487). There is also a referenceto another war between the two sides in whichthe Kosalan king defeated the king of Kasi,Mahasilava, and took him prisoner. But laterMahasilava was able to get his kingdom back(J.i.262, 409). Other than Kiki (M.ii.49) andKalabu (J.iii.39) whose names are mentioned inthe Jatakas as the kings of Kasi, the traditionalname of Brahmadatta as the king of Kasi is givenin numerous Jatakas. According to the Jatakas,there was also a time when king Manoja of Kasiwas able to subdue the kings of Assaka, Kosala,Anga, and Magadha (J.ii.155, v.312). During thepre-Buddhist period, protracted wars forsupremacy between the rulers of Kasi andKosala are said to have taken place whichculminated in the annexation of Kasi into Kosalaunder King Kamsa (J.ii.403f). Later, Mahakosala,father of Pasenadi, appears to have been incontrol of Kasi as he gave it in dowry toBimbisara, the king of Magadha (S.i.82-85).Baranasi was a harbour (pattana) and was oneof the six metropolitan cities (mahanagaras) atthe time of the Buddha (D.ii.146). Baranasi ismentioned in early Buddhist texts as a wealthyand prosperous place which was the centre oftrade and industry (A.i.213; D.ii.75) and wasparticularly known for its manufacture of ships(J.iv.2), sandalwood, and cloths (A.i.145, 245,iv.281; v.61f; D.iii.110) where various kinds ofbusinessmen (setthanusetthi) lived (Vin.i.18).Hundreds of merchants are said to havefrequented Baranasi harbour to buy cargo

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(J.iv.121) and from where rich merchants are saidto have sailed to Suvannabhumi (Sk:Suvarnabhumi, Southeast Asia) (J.iv.15).Existence of locations, such as ivory-workersístreet (dantakaravithi) within the city of Varanasi(J.iv.320) and villages, such as a carpentersívillage (vaddhakigama) near its four gates(J.i.121, 125, 231, 11.18, iii.414, iv.344, v.288,vi.170; Vin.i.15) indicate toward the existenceof commercial importance of this city. Isipatanawith its famous Deer Park (Migadaya), wherethe Buddha had delivered his first sermon, wasnear Varanasi (M.i.170f, ii.157). According toone of the Jatakas, Varanasi was properlydefended with rampart wall, gates, towers,moats, and battlement (J.ii.94). According to theMahagovinda Sutta of the Digha Nikaya(D.ii.220f), when Mahagovinda, the brahmanachaplain of King Renu, divided his empire, theadministration of Kasi mahajanapada fell intothe hands of Dhatarattha (Sk: Dhartarastra) whois represented as a king of the line of Bharata.B.C. Law is of the opinion that the Bharata lineof the Kasi kings appears to have beensupplanted by a new line of kings called theBrahmadattas who were probably of Videhanorigin (Law 1941:128ff).

KOSALA

This mahajanapada, with its capital at Savatthi,was located to the north-west of Magadha andin the neighbourhood of Kasi mahajanapada(A.i.213; iv.252; J.iii.270). The geographical unitof Kosala consisted of large territory, dividedinto two parts: Dakkhina Kosala lying to thesouth of the river Sarabhu (Sk: Sarayu) withSaketa/Ayojjha (Sk: Ayodhya) as its principal city(J.iii.270) and Uttara Kosala which lay to thenorth of Sarayu with Savatthi as its major focus(see Law 1932: 6). The western boundary ofKosala could have extended up to Sultanpur and

possibly even up to Jaunpur on the one handand up to the Ganga on the other (Chakrabarti2001). Apart from Sarabhu (Vin.ii.237) and itstributary Aciravati (D.i.235), Sundarika/Bahuka(S.i.167; M.i.39) is mentioned as an importantriver that flowed through Kosala. Some of theimportant settlements of Kosala wereDandakappa (A.iii.402), Kesaputta (Kasariya.Sarao 2010: 74) (A.i.188), Nalakapana (A.v.122;M.i.462), Nalanda (S.iv.322), Opasada(M.ii.164), Pankadha (A.i.236), Setavya (Satiabaand Basedita. Sarao 2010: 99) (D.ii.316),Toranavatthu (S.iv.374), Ukkattha (D.i.87), andVenagapura (A.i.180). Many of the Vinaya ruleswere formulated in Kosala and the Buddha spentmajority of his vassavasas (rainy-retreats) nearSavatthi. At the time of the Buddha, Kosala wasa powerful kingdom under king Pasenadi, whowas succeeded by his son Vidudabha. Differentkings of Kasi and Kosala are mentioned as havingprotracted wars for territorial hegemony in thepre-Buddhist period. There are also referencesin the Pali literature to the kings of these twomahajanapadas having entered into matrimonialalliances (e.g., J.iii.407). The different kings ofKosala who fought wars against Kasi arementioned as Dighiti (J.iii.211f; Vin.i.342f),Mallika (J.ii.3), and Chatta (J.iii.116). Many otherKosala kings who are mentioned in the Jatakasas having successfully subdued Kasi arementioned as Dabbasena (J.iii.13), Dighavu(J.iii.211f), Kamsa (J.ii.403; v.112), and Vanka(J.iii.168). The final annexation of Kasi intoKosala appears to have taken place either underKamsa (J.ii.403f) or Mahakosala, father ofPasenadi (S.i.82-85). It appears that with thecapture of Kasi the power of Kosala increasedrapidly. However, this development seems tohave put Kosala on a collision path with Magadhawhich was also having territorial ambitions asKosala. Bimbisaraís marriage to Mahakosalaís

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daughter was probably only a political alliancewhich only helped in postponing the ultimateclash. Quite soon after Bimbisaraís death, hissuccessor fought fiercely against Pasenadi.Though in the first battle Ajatasattu sufferedreverses, but later after having conqueredLicchavis, Ajatasattu also succeeded inprevailing upon Kosala (See Smith 1906: 33-34).In the sixth century BC the Sakyas also appear tohave been subject to Kosala. For instance, insome of the Pali texts not only that the Buddhais mentioned as a Kosalan but Kapilavatthu isalso mentioned as being in Kosala (Sn.405;A.i.276; M.ii.124).

VAJJI

The mahajanapada of the Vajji people, with itsheadquarters at Vesali, was a confederacy ofseveral clans among whom the clans of theLicchavis and the Videhas were the mostdominant. On the basis of a reference in theSumangala-Vilasini that atthakulaka wereresponsible for administering justice in thecountry of the Vajjis (DA.ii.519), it hassometimes been conjectured that the Vajjianconfederacy was composed of eight clans.However, there is no other evidence to indicatethat the number of confederate clans was indeedeight (see DPPN: s.v. Vajji). With the passage oftime, the Licchavis appear to have become sopowerful that the names Vajji and Licchavi beganto be used synonymously (MA.i.394; A.iii.76).According to Xuanzang, who visited it in theseventh century, the Vajji country was broadfrom east to west and narrow from north to south(Xiyu Ji.217). The Vajjian territory was boundedon the north and the east by the Bagmati riverand the entire area between the Gandaka andBagmati lay in the Vajji territory thus includingthe present Begusarai, Samastipur, Muzaffarpur,Motihari and Betiah in the Vajji mahajanapada

(Chakrabarti 2007: 200. See also Pandey, 1963:139). The river Vaggumuda flowed through theVajjian mahajanapada (Ud.iii.3). At the time ofthe Buddha, the Vajjians were a prosperous andpowerful mahajanapada. This was so accordingto the Buddha because the different clans wereunited among themselves. However, shortlyafter the death of the Buddha, Ajatasattu withthe help of his minister Vassakara sowed seedsof dissension among them and annexed theirterritory into Magadha (DA.ii.522). Apart fromVesali, Ukkacela (Sonpur. Sarao 2010: 105),Kotigama, Nadika, Beluvagama, Bhandagama,Bhogagama (Bhogaon. Sarao 2010: 64), andHatthigama were important settlements of theVajjian confederacy (M.ii.225; D.ii.124; A.ii.167;S.iv.109; J.ii.232).

MALLA

The republican mahajanapada of the Mallas(M.i.231) was located in the Gorakhpur districtof Uttar Pradesh, covering the territory betweenthe Licchavis of Vesali and that of the Sakyas ofKapilavatthu, the Moriyas, and the Koliyas, tothe east of the Kosalas (J.P. Sharma, 1968: 174-175). At the Buddhaís time, this mahajanapadaappears to have been divided into autonomousparts with their respective capitals at Pava andKusinara, each with its own santhagara (mote-hall). This has been suggested on the basis thatafter the death of the Buddha at Kusinara, theMallas of Pava had claimed a share of theBuddhaís relics (D.ii.165). Whereas Kusinara isidentified with Kasia, Pava may be located inthe Jharmatiya-Usmanpur sector rather than atPadrauna (Chakrabarti 2001). The Buddha tookhis last meal at Pava and breathed his last atKusinara (D.ii.126ff). Pava was the scene ofNigantha Nataputtaís death (D.iii.210). TheMallas, both of Pava and Kusinara, erectedstupas over their respective shares of the relics

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of the Buddha (D.ii.167). The Malla chiefs aresaid to have administered the affairs of their statein turns (DA.ii.569). Like the Licchavis, the Mallarepublic appears to have fallen into the handsof Ajatasattu, as did that of the Licchavis(Bhandarkar 1925: 79).

CETI

The mahajanapada of the Cetis lay near theYamuna, to the east, in the neighbourhood ofand adjoining the Kuru mahajanapada(Vin.iv.108f). B.C. Law (1932: 16) has suggestedthat it corresponded roughly to the modernBundelkhand and the adjoining region (seeDPPN. s.v. Ceti). Its capital located at Sotthivatiwas the city from where once Upacara, the firstliar in the world, ruled (J.iii.454ff). The Buddhapreached several discourses to the Cetis in thetown of Sahajati (A.iii.355f, v.41f, 157ff). On thebasis of the legend on a seal-die of terracottafound at Bhita, ten miles from Allahabad, Sahajatihas been identified with Bhita (see Sarao 2010:95).

VAMSA

The mahajanapada of the Vamsas, with itscapital at Kosambi (now Kosam), lay to the southof Kosala (J.iv.28) and north of Avantimahajanapada (Vin.i.277). The mahajanapadaof the Cetis also appears to have been itsneighbour (D.ii.200). At the time of the Buddha,Udena was the king of the Vamsas (J.iv.370). Insome of the texts, such as the Divyavadana(528), the Vamsas are also called Vatsas (seeRhys Davids 1903: 3, 27). The area from thewestern bank of the Ganga in the Allahabadsector to the Yamuna in the Kosambi-Pabhosasector could have constituted the domain ofVamsa mahajanapada (Chakrabarti 2001: 284).The Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri appear to have

been subject to the Vamsa at the Buddhaís time(J.iii.157).

KURU

The mahajanapada of the Kurus comprisedbroadly the area of Haryanaís districts of Kaithal,Thanesar, Karnal, Panipat, and Sonepat and theadjoin region of Uttar Pradesh till the Gangawhere Hastinapura is located (see Chakrabarti2007: 203). According to the Jatakas (J.v.57, 484,vi.255), this mahajanapada was three hundredyojanas in extent and its capital, Indapatta, wasseven yojanas in circumference. It is said thatKuru was originally the name of the chieftains(rajakumara) of this country, who later lent theirname to the territory. From some of the texts itappears that the earlier name of Kururattha wasUttarakuru (DA.ii.482). We are told that the menof Uttarakuru had no greed (amama), no privateproperty (apariggaha), had a definite term oflife (niyatayuka), and possessed great elegance(visesabhuno) and it was natural for them not totransgress virtue (A.iv.396). Kururattha seemsto have had very little political influence at theBuddhaís time, though, in the past, Pancala, Kuruand Kekaka were evidently three of the mostpowerful kingdoms (J.ii.214). The ruling dynastyat Indapatta belonged to the Yudhittha-gotta(J.iii.400; iv.450; vi.260). Among the kings ofthe past, Dhananjaya Koravya is mentionedseveral times (J.ii.366; iii.400; iv.450; vi.260).The people of Kuru had a reputation for deepwisdom and good health, and this reputation ismentioned as the reason for the Buddha havingdelivered some of his most profound discoursesto the Kurus such as the Mahanidana Sutta, andthe Mahasatipatthana Sutta. Indapatta ismentioned in the early texts as the capital ofKururattha. The original settlement of Indapattaaround which the Delhi of later times developed

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stood on the banks of the Yamuna, betweenKotla of Firoz Shah and the tomb of Humayun.Though city is mentioned as a puruttama (loftyfortress) located on a mount (J.ii.214), still itsdefenses are said to have been so fragile that itcould be taken with a very small army (J.ii.212).The Jatakas point out that in times past this citywas one of the three chief cities of Jambudipa(India), the other two being Kekaka (generallyidentified with Girjak or Jalalpur) andUttarapancala (J.ii.213) (possibly the famousKampilla). Kammasadhamma (A.v.29) andThullakotthita (M.ii.54, iii.261) were importantnigamas (market towns), located in theneighbourhood of Indapatta which are identifiedrespectively with Kamaspur (Sonepat district ofHaryana) and Tilpat (Faridabad district ofHaryana) (see Sarao 2010: 70, 103).

PANCALA

The mahajanapada of the Pancalas, located tothe east of the Kururattha, may be identified withthe territory to the north and east of Delhi, fromthe foot of the Himalayas to the river Chambalexcluding probably Meerut district and theMathura-Agra segment of Uttar Pradesh (seeChakrabarti 2007: 203, 205). Thismahajanapada consisted of two parts, northernand southern. The northern part appears to havebeen the cause of protracted conflict betweenthe Kurus and the southern Pancala, itspossession often changing hands between thetwo contesting powers (J.iii.79, v.21, 289, 444).Kampilla was most probably the capital ofSouthern Pancala but also seems to have workas the capital of the entire Pancalamahajanapada whenever Northern Pancalaformed part of it (J.vi.329, 396. See alsoUttara.xlv.57, 61). Some of the sources, includingthe Divyavadana (435) and the Mahabharata(i.138, 73-4), mention Hastinapura and

Ahicchatra respectively as the capitals ofNorthern Pancala.

MACCHA

The mahajanapada of the Macchas is generallymentioned along with the Surasena (e.g.,D.ii.200). The Maccha country lay to the southor south-west of Indapatta and to the south ofSurasena. Its capital was Viratanagara or Vairat,so called because it was the city of King Virata(Law 1954: 19). The Vidhura Pandita Jatakatalks of the Macchas as among those who werepresent at the time of the game of dice playedbetween Punnaka and the king of Kururattha(J.i.280).

SURASENA

This mahajanapada, which is generallymentioned along with the Macchas, was locatedin the south of Kuru mahajanapada andcovered the Mathura-Agra region of UttarPradesh and the adjacent areas of Rajasthanbetween Bharatpur and Sawai Madhopur (seeChakrabarti 2007: 205). Madhura, sometimesmentioned as Uttaramadhura in the Pali texts,was the capital of the Surasenas and was situatedon the Yamuna (M.ii.83; J.iv.79). Surasena isfamous in the Epics and the Puranas because ofits connection with Krisna, and the Yadavas. TheGhata Jataka confirms the brahmanical traditionas to the association of Vasudevaís family withMadhura (J.iv. 79ff.). Avantiputta, as the nameindicates, appears to have been related to theUjjeni royal family and ruled at Madhura afterthe death of Bimbisara (M.ii.83). Madhura whichwas connected to Veranja/Veranji through a highroad (addhanamagga) (A.ii.57), visited by theBuddha, but there is no record of his havingstayed there. Madhura was perhaps the only cityin the Majjhimadesa about which the Buddhamade somewhat uncharitable comments perhaps

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due to its close connections with the Jainas.According to the Buddha, this city had too muchdust, uneven ground, too many dogs, bestialyakkahas, and was short of alms (A.iii. 256).

ASSAKA

The mahajanapada of the Assakas (Sk:Asmakas) was located in the Dakkhinapatha(southern India). The janapada of Alaka (orMulaka) was located within its territories aroundits capital Patitthana (Sn.1011). Thismahajanapada is generally identified withAurangabad district and the neighbouring areasin the present state of Maharashtra (Law 1932:21). Its capital Patitthana, variously mentionedin the texts as Potana (D.ii.235), Potali (J.ii.155),and Potanagara (VvA.259), is identified withmodern Paithan (Kausan and other mounds)situated on the northern bank of the riverGodavari (see Sarao 2010: 85). According to astory given in one of the Jatakas, once KingKalinga of Dantapura challenged Aruna, theAssaka king of Potali to a war in which the formerlost to the latter. However, later Kalingaísdaughter was married to the Assaka king andthe two states became friends (J.iii.3-5). TheHathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela mentionsthat Kharavela sent a huge army towards the westto attack Asikanagara. B.C. Law has suggestedthat the Assaka of the Culla-Kalinga Jataka, theAsikanagara of the Hathigumpha Inscription, andthe Assaka of the Sutta-Nipata were one andthe same place (Law 1932: 21). In the time ofKing Renu, the Assaka king of Potana wasBrahmadatta (D.ii.236). The famous hermitageof Bavari was located in this mahajanapada(Sn.977). It has been pointed out in thecommentary of the Sutta-Nipata that the plot ofland on which Bavariís hermitage wasconstructed was bought at the time of theBuddha for a thousand coins from the Assaka

king who was the Andhakaraja (SnA.ii.581). Inthe Assaka Jataka mention is made of a kingAssaka whose realm was in the kingdom of Kasi(J.ii.155). These references seem to indicate thatthere may have been times when the territoriesof the mahajanapada of the Assakas may haveextended till the regions controlled by theKalingas, the Kasis, and the Andhras.

AVANTI

The mahajanapada of the Avantis was one offour most important mahajanapadas at the timeof the Buddha, the other three being Magadha,Kosala and Vamsa. It may be identified with theregion north of the Vindhaya Mountains andnorth-east of Maharashtra, roughlycorresponding to Malwa, Nimar and the adjoiningregions (Law 1932: 22). Though mostly Ujjeniis mentioned as the capital of thismahajanapada in the Pali texts, but sometimesMahissati is also cited as having been the capital(e.g., D.ii.235). On this basis, it has beensuggested that at least for some time ancientAvanti was divided into two parts, the northernpart having its capital at Ujjeni and the southernpart (Avanti Dakkhinapatha) at Mahissati(D.ii.235. Also see Bhandarkar 1925: 54).Mahissati, which lay on the road taken byBavariís ten disciples on their way fromPatitthana to Savatthi (Sn.194; Vin.ii.299), hasbeen identified, on the basis of a coin bearingthe word mahisati found here with Maheshwaror Mahesh, situated on the right (northern) bankof the Narmada forty miles to the south of Indore(see Sarao 2010: 80). King Pajjota of Avanti, whowas a contemporary of the Buddha wasnotorious for his violent temper and is knownas Canda Pajjota to Pali texts (Vin.i.277). He madeseveral attempts to defeat king Udena of theVamsas but could not succeed (DhA.i.191ff). Palitexts also refer to the rumours of his plans to

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attack (M.iii.7). During the life-time of theBuddha, Avanti appears to have become animportant centre of Buddhism and manyprominent monks and nuns includingMahakaccana, Nanda Kumaraputta, SonaKutikanna, Dhammapala, Abhayarajakumara,Isidatta, and Isidasi came from this state. Apartfrom Ujjeni and Mahissati, Kuraraghara(identified by G. Bühler with Kurawar located100 km west of Sachi. See Sarao 2010: 77) andSudarsanapura were the other two importanttowns of this mahajanapada (S.iii.9, 12; iv.115-16; A.v.46; Law 1924: 148). Kuraraghara wasidentified by G. Bühler with Kurawar, a site ofconsiderable size located about 100 km west ofSanchi (EI.ii.1894: 96). Avanti appears to havebecome part of the Magadhan kingdom duringthe pre-Mauryan period (see DPPN. s.v. Avanti).

GANDHARA

The mahajanapada of the Gandhara peopleincluded within its boundaries some parts ofmodern eastern Afghanistan, the whole ofKhyber Pakhtunkhawa, and the Kashmir Valley,the two countries being always mentionedtogether as Kasmira-Gandhara (Raychaudhuri1923: 93). A large number of Jatakas mentionits capital Takkasila (modern Taxila in Pakistan)as the location of a famous university wherestudents from far and wide came to study. Atthe Buddhaís time, the extent of this state ismentioned as over one hundred yojanas(MA.ii.988) and the distance from Takkasila toSavatthi was one hundred and ninety-twoyojanas (MA.ii. 987-88). Its king Pukkusati wasa contemporary of the Buddha and there wasfriendly relationship between him and KingBimbisara of Magadha. There was constantexchange of goods and valuables betweenMagadha and Gandhara and transit ofmerchandise between the two states was

allowed tariff-free (MA.ii.979ff). ThoughGandhara was regarded as a paccantima-janapada (border region), a well-known caravanroute linked the two mahajanapadas(MA.ii.982). Gandhara also had constant tradewith Videha (J.iii.365ff).

KAMBOJA

The mahajanapada of the Kambojas, along withGandhara, lay outside the Majjhimadesa andbelonged to the Uttarapatha (North-westernIndian subcontinent) (A.i.213; iv.252, 256, 260).It was well-known as the birthplace of horses(DA.i.124; AA.i.399; J.iv.464) which was caughtby the people by means of moss (jalajata)(J.v.445). The Assalayana Sutta of the MajjhimaNikaya states that at the time of the Buddha inthe states of the Yonas and the Kambojas as wellas the adjoining states, there were only twoclasses of people, masters and slaves, withmutually interchangeable positions dependingupon circumstances (M.ii.149). It has beenpointed out in the Anguttara Nikaya thatKamboja was as a place not visited by womenof other countries (A.ii.82) and according to theJatakas, the people of Kamboja had lost theiroriginal customs and had become barbarous(J.vi.208, 210). Apparently, a great caravan routepassed through this mahajanapada, and it wasalso directly linked to Dvaraka through a road(Pv.23).

YONA

The Yona, Yavana, or Yonaka were amahajanapada and its people. The name isprobably the Pali equivalent for Ionians, theBaktrian Greeks (DPPN: s.v. Yona). In theAssalayana Sutta (M.ii.149), Yona and Kambojaare mentioned as places in which there wereonly two classes of people, masters and slaves,and the master could become a slave or vice

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versa. The Commentary (MA.ii.784) explainsthis by saying that supposing a brahmana goesthere and dies, his children might consort withslaves, in which case their children would beslaves. Yonaka, statues, holding lamps, wereamong the decorations used by the Sakiyas ofKapilavatthu (MA.ii.575). The language of theYavanas is classed with the Milakkhabhasa(DA.i.276). The Anguttara Commentary recordsthat from the time of Kassapa Buddha theYonakas went about clad in white robes,because of the memory of the religion whichwas once prevalent there (AA.i.51).

KALINGA

Kalingarattha is mentioned in some of the Palitexts as one of the seven political divisions atthe time of King Renu (D.ii.235f). This kingdomis generally identified with parts of the presentstate of Odisha and neighbouring territories (seeMajumdar 2002: 590-595 and Law 1932: 64).Its capital was located at Dantapura (J.ii.367, 381,iii.376, iv.230-32,236; D.i.230f) from wherekings called Sattabhu (D.ii.235f), Kalinga(J.iv.230), Nalikira (J.v.144), and Karandu(J.iii.376ff) ruled. Dantapura has been variouslyidentified with Rajamahendri (Rajahmundry) onthe Godavari in Andhra Pradesh, Puri in Odishaand modern Dantan on the Kasai River nearMidnapur in West Bengal (See Majumdar 2002:590-595, 735; Dey 1899: 53; Law 1954: 159).But it is perhaps represented by the ruins of thefort of Dantapura situated on the southern bankof the river Vimsadhara, three miles fromChikakol (See Law 1954: 149). This identificationis favoured by the similarities of name andgeographical location. According to theBuddhavamsa, after the death of the Buddha,one of his teeth from among his relics was takento Kalinga and worshipped (Bu.xviii.6). Sinceearly times the people of the kingdoms of

Kalinga and Vanga appear to have had politicalintercourse (Dip.ix.2; Mhv.vi.1-3). According toone of the Jatakas, King Kalinga attacked Aruna,the Assaka king of Potali and lost to him. As aconsequence, he had to give his four daughtersin marriage to Aruna (J.iii.3f).

LICCHAVI

The Licchavis were a powerful state at the timeof the Buddha who claimed a share of theBuddhaís relics on the basis that they werekhattiyas (M.i.231; D.ii.165). The Licchavis seemto have been on friendly terms with Pasenadi,king of Kosala (M.ii.101). They were separatedfrom Magadha by the river Ganga and the twostates were not on friendly terms at all (D.ii.86).Ajatasattu, after sowing seeds of disunion amongthem, annexed the entire confederacy of theVajjis to his kingdom (DA.ii.524). The Licchavisfollowed a gana or a samgha form of governmentin which instead of one or a few, a considerableportion of the population was entrusted with thefinal power and ultimate authority of the state(J.P. Sharma, 1968: 98). At the time of theBuddha, the Licchavi republic was the largestrepublic. Their capital was Vesali, and theyformed part of the Vajjian confederacy. Theirstrength lay in their great unity (DA.ii.519). Theyoung men among the Licchavis were evidentlyfond of archery (A.iii.76). The governing classof the Licchavi republic was fairly large whohad the right to attend the assembly and wereindividually called rajas (see J.P. Sharma, 1968:100). Altekar has suggested that the Licchavishad a council of nine though the membershipof their assembly numbered 7,707 (Altekar,1958: 132). 7,707 was the number of theLicchavi khattiyas, all calling themselves rajas,who formed the General Assembly but usuallya much smaller body assembled in thesanthagarasala (mote hall) to look after the day-

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to-day administration (D.i.91, ii.164; M.i.227,457). It was a normal activity of the republics atthe time of the Buddha to hold their meetings aswell as different social and religious functionsin the santhagarasala (Altekar, 1958: 127-128;Rhys Davids, 1903: 19-20). Most probably theGeneral Assembly of the Licchavi republic metonly once in a year on the occasion of theirannual spring festival (Krta.II.i.13). In allprobability, the raja, who was the chief officerof the state, was elected during this festival(J.i.504). In the Niryavalika Sutra of the Jainas,raja Cedaga (Cetaka) is represented as an all-powerful king who is assisted by a council ofnine kings when he dealt with Licchavi affairs(Kalpa.65; NS.19-23. See also Basham 1951: 68-69). In the same text it has also been pointedout that king Cetaka of the Licchavis, whomKunika (Ajatasatru) was going to invade, calledtogether the eighteen confederate kings of Kasiand Kosala, the Mallas and the Licchavis, andconsulted them if they would like to meetKunikaís demands or face him on the battle field(AS.xii). Most likely, the elected raja of theLicchavi gana held office only about ten tofifteen years, except in an extraordinarysituation (J.P. Sharma, 1968: 107). The chief rajawas most probably elected by the Assembly andthe other eight members were the rajas electedby the eight clans of the Licchavis to constitutethe nine member inner council (J.P. Sharma,1968: 109). Most probably, it was this ninemember inner council of the rajas that met quitefrequently to discuss business (D.ii.72). Thoughsome prominent brahmanas and ksatriyas mayhave been allowed full political rights andappointed to high positions in the Licchavirepublic, it were only the ksatriyas who wieldedpolitical authority and participated in theformation of the government. Whenever ameeting had to be convened, a drum was beaten

and on hearing its sound members gathered atthe santhagarasala where seating-arrangementwas taken care of by a seat-regulator (asana-pannapaka) (Vin.i.233; ii.305). Decisions weretaken by majority vote (yebhuyyasika) whichtook place with salakas (wooden sticks)collected and counted by the salaka-gahapaka(Vin.ii.84, 99, 176, 306). An officer called gana-puraka looked after matters such as quorum andattendance at meetings (Vin.i.143). The raja,uparaja (deputy chief), senapati (general), andbhandagarika (treasurer) were members of theexecutive of the state (J.iii.1). There was anintricate judicial procedure by which any personcharged with an offence was handed over, inturn, to the vinicchayamahamattas (inquirers),the voharikas (experts in law), suttadharas(experts in tradition), the atthakulakas (eightchiefs), the senapati, the uparaja, and finally tothe raja, who imposed the appropriatepunishment (DA.ii.519).

VIDEHAS OF MITHILA

The republic of Videha with its capital at Mithilawas about seven yojanas in circumference(D.ii.235; J.iii.365, iv.316). At the time of theBuddha, the Videhas of Mithila formed one ofthe two important contituents of the Vajjianconfederacy (M.i.225). The Videhas werebounded on the east by the river Kausiki (Kusi),west by the river Gandaka, north by theHimalaya, south by the Ganga and occupiedroughly the present-day north Bihar, the Teraiand the south-eastern portion of Nepal includingthe lower range of hills (Dey 1899: 104; Mishra,1962: 151). Chakrabarti feels that their capitalMithila was possibly located at the present siteof Balirajgarh as it appears to be a more suitablesite as the capital of Videha (2007: 200). Thecouncil of the Videha republic consisting ofthree councillors and the raja was most probably

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similar to that of the Licchavis (see J.P. Sharma,1968: 152-54).

THE SAKYAS OF KAPILAVATTHU

The Sakyas were a tribal republic to which theBuddha belonged. Their capital Kapilavatthu isgenerally identified with Piprahwa (see Sarao2010: 72-73). Within the Sakyan tribe there wereprobably several clans (gotta), the Buddhahimself being of the Gotama clan. The Sakyasappear to have been under the suzereignty ofKosala at the time of the Buddha as in some ofthe references the Buddha is called a Kosalan(M.ii.124; D.iii.83-84; Sn.405; A.i.276).However, it appears that despite being underthe over-all control of Kosala, the Sakyas enjoyedfair amount of internal freedom and appear tohave managed their own internal affairs. TheSakyan territory lay along the foothills of theHimalayas; to the west and south lay thekingdom of Kosala, and to the east beyond theriver Rohini (river Kohana) the land of theKoliyas of Ramagama (J.P. Sharma, 1968: 195).Apart from the settlements of Silavati (S.i.117)and Catuma (M.i.456), the Pali texts mention atleast five nigamas (market towns) of the Sakyasíviz., Devadaha (S.iii.5, iv.124; M.ii.214.Identified by W. Vost with a mound near Parariavillage located about seven miles east ofPiprahwa. See Sarao 2010: 65), Nangaraka(M.ii.119. Identified by Cunningham with thetown of Nagara or Nagarakhas situated on theeastern bank of the Chando Tel, near riverKohana, a tributary of the Rapti. See Sarao 2010:82), Khomadussa (S.i.184; SA.I.266),Medatalumpa/Ulumpa (M.ii.118; J.iv.151), andSakkhara (A.ii.24; S.v.2). The Sakyas discussedtheir administrative and judicial affairs in theirsanthagara either at Kapilavatthu (D.i.91) orCatuma (M.i.457). Apparently, the Sakyaspractised endogamy which earned them the ire

of the Koliyans who accused them of behavinglike ìlike dogs, jackals, and such like beasts,cohabiting with their own sistersî (SnA.i.357;J.v.412). Dispute relating to sharing the watersof the river Rohini was a cause of constantfriction between the Sakyas and the Koliyas tothe extent that once the Buddha had to interveneto pacify the two sides (J.v.412f). It appears thatafter the massacre by Vidudhaba, the Sakyasvirtually disappeared from the historical sceneboth as a political power and an ethnic group,only perhaps a few individual families surviving.

KOLIYAS OF RAMAGAMA

The Koliyas, with their capital at Ramagama(identified by Cunningham with Deokali. SeeSarao 2010: 92-93), were a republican state(D.ii.165). The river Rohini divided the Koliyanterritory from that of the Sakyas in the north-west (J.v.412), and in the south-west it probablybordered Kosala, to their east lay the territory ofthe Moriyas of Pipphalivana, to the north-eastwere the Mallas of Kusinara, and to the northlay the Himalayan hills (J.P. Sharma, 1968: 213).Both the Sakyan and the Koliyan khattiyasintermarried and claimed relationship with theBuddha. Thus, after the death of the Buddha,the Koliyans claimed a share in the relics of theBuddha and after obtained one-eighth share builta stupa over them (D.ii.167). Though closelyrelated to the Sakyas, the Koliyas looked downupon the former for their practice of endogamy(SnA.i.357; J.v.412) and the two tribes also oftenquarrelled over sharing the waters of the riverRohini (J.v.412f). The Koliyan state had a specialbody of officials who wore a special headgearwith a drooping crest (Lambaculakabhata) andwere notorious for indulging in violence andextortion (S.iv.341). Apart from the nagaras(cities) of Ramagama and Uttara (S.iv.340), atleast four nigamas (market towns) of the

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Koliyans are mentioned in the early Pali texts,viz. Haliddavasana (M.i.387; S.v.115),Kakkarapatta (A.iv.281), Sapuga (A.ii.194),Sajjanela (A.ii.62). Most probably the state of theKoliyas was ultimately annexed by Kosala,though the possibility of Ajatasattu havingdirectly conquered them after his victory overthe Licchavis cannot be overlooked (J.P. Sharma,1968: 216).

MORIYAS OF PIPPHALIVANA

Moriyas, situated to the west of the Koliyas andtheir close neighbours, were a small community.To the south-west the river Anoma (Rapti)divided them from Kosala, the Mallas lay to theireast, and to their south flew the river Ghagra(J.P. Sharma, 1968: 221). Being khattiyas and theBuddhaís kinsmen, they claimed a share of theBuddhaís relics but being late had to be satisfiedwith a share of the ashes only (D.ii.166). It isimportant to notice that Vidudabhaís onslaughtwas directed besides others against the Moriyas.Therefore, there is a possibility that the Moriyas,who were the Buddhaís kinsmen, are the onesrepresented by the Piprahwa Vase Inscription.The settlement has been variously identified withBhadara and Nyagarodhavana (Banyan Grove).But the choice of Piprahwa itself, due to thesimilarity of two names and its geographicalposition, cannot be ruled out; especially ifKapilavatthu is represented by Tilaurakot (seeSarao 2010: 86).

KALAMAS OF KESAPUTTA

The Kalamas were a republican clan of thekhattiya caste (AA.i.418). Their capital, a nigama(market town) is mentioned in the texts as fallingwithin Kosala (A.i.188). It has been identifiedby Cunningham with the Kesariya moundmeasuring about 7.2 acres (see Sarao 2010: 74).

Cunningham located the Kalamas to the southof the Mallas, below the river Ghagra to the northof the Ganga and northeast of Baranasi (see Sarao2010: 74). It would place them just on theborders of the other republican communities,which seem to have occupied a large territory,bounded on the west by the directly governedpart of the Kosalan kingdom.

BULIS OF ALLAKAPPA

The Bulis of Allakappa were a republicankhattiya clan who claimed a share in theBuddhaís relics and having obtained them, builta stupa over them (D.ii.165-167; Bu.xxviii.2).According to the Dhammapada Commentary,Allakappa was ten yojanas in extent and its kingwas on friendly terms with the chief ofVethadipa, a brahmana village (DhA.i.161)generally identified with Betiya (see Sarao 2010:107-08). The republican Bulis do not appear tohave survived politically for much time.Cunningham identifies Allakappa withNavandgarh/Nandangarh situated fifteen milesto the north-north-west of Betiya and ten milesfrom the nearest point of the Gandak River (seeSarao 2010: 59).

BHAGGAS OF SUMSUMARAGIRI

The tribal republic of the Bhaggas, with itscapital at Sumsumaragiri, appears to have beenunder the control of Vamsa mahajanapada asthe Vamsa prince Bodhi, son of king Udena, ismentioned as residing in a palace atSumsumaragiri (Vin.ii.127; M.ii.94; J.iii.157ff)(J.P. Sharma, 1968: 229). As A. Ghosh identifiedSumsumaragiri with Chunar in Mirzapur districtof Uttar Pradesh (see B.C. Law 1954: 129), theBhaggas appear to have been located south ofthe Ganga in and around Mirzapur district.

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NAYA

The republic of the Nayas, often referred to asthe Naya-khattiyas or Jnata-ksatriyas, was a closeassociate of the Licchavis and a member of theVajjian confederacy (Kalpa.21-26). It occupieda small region located to the northeast of Vesaliand had its capital at Kundapura (Kalpa.21;AS.ii.15, 22). Mahaviraís father was the chief ofthis republic and was most probably assisted bya small council in running the affairs of therepublic. With the exception of some internalauthority, matters of the republic were mostprobably looked after by the Vajjian council (seeJ.P. Sharma, 1968: 164-66).

Apart from the above stated states, in thepre-Mauryan period, states mushroomed all overIndia. For instance, in southern India we havereferences to states such as the the kingdom ofthe Andhakas located on the banks of riverGodavari (Sn.977), Esikarattha with its capital atPannakata (Palakkad in Kerala, See Sarao 2010:82), and Malaya (J.iv.327) find mention in Palitexts. Similarly, Sovira (Eder region of Gujarat,at the head of the Gulf of Khambata. Majumdar2002: 569f) (D.ii.235; J.iii.470;), Sunaparantawith its port at Supparaka (M.iii.268; S.iv.61f),and Surattha (Pv.iv.3; Ap.ii.359; J.iii.463)

(identified with modern Kathiawad) existed inwestern India. Sumbha rattha (Suhma of theMahabharata) where in the market town(nigama) of Desaka/Sedaka the Buddhapreached the Udaya Sutta (S.v.89, 168) as wellas the Telapatta Jataka (J.i.393) appears to havebeen the first state to have come into existencein Bengal. Sumbha rattha, possibly with itscapital at Tamralipti (Tamluk) (Chakrabarti,2007: 196), has been identified with variousareas of Bengal including ancient Radha, thepresent Hoogly district, and the area around bothbanks of the river Ajoy (see Sarao 2010: 111).Samatata too existed as a state in Bengl as earlyas c. 500 BC most probably with its capital at afortified city at the present day site of Wari-Bateshwar in Bangladesh in c. 500 BC

(Chakrabarti, 2007: 193-194). Pundravardhanawith its capital at Pundranagara (Mahasthangarh)(Chakrabarti, 2007: 194-195), Vanga perhapswith its capital at Chandraketugarh (Chakrabarti,2007: 195), North Radha with its capital atMangalkot (Bardhaman), and South Radhawith its capital at Pokharna (Chakrabarti, 2007:197) also appear to have come intoexistence in Bengal during the mahajanapadaperiod.

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