SCIENCE AND THE EDUCATION OF

TEACHERS

James M. KauffmanJames M. KauffmanUniversity of VirginiaUniversity of Virginia

TeTeachers at the Crossroads:achers at the Crossroads:

The State of Teacher PreparationThe State of Teacher Preparation

THE PROBLEM

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Three “Take-Away” Points

1. Some things just aren’t possible, and we should 1. Some things just aren’t possible, and we should recognize them. Some things are inevitable, and recognize them. Some things are inevitable, and we should get used to them. Both kinds are just we should get used to them. Both kinds are just functions of basic math and science.functions of basic math and science.

2. To make education a science, we have to 2. To make education a science, we have to understand what science is and isn’t.understand what science is and isn’t.

3. If education becomes an applied science, then 3. If education becomes an applied science, then we’ll have manuals and checklists, and we we’ll have manuals and checklists, and we ought to start working on them.ought to start working on them.

IMPOSSIBILITIES Measurement without a distributionMeasurement without a distribution A distribution without “moments” A distribution without “moments”

(e.g., mean, standard deviation, (e.g., mean, standard deviation, skew, kurtosis)skew, kurtosis)

Elite education for everyone (unless Elite education for everyone (unless “elite” doesn’t mean elite)“elite” doesn’t mean elite)

All students becoming proficient All students becoming proficient (unless “all” excludes those who (unless “all” excludes those who don’t)don’t)

INEVITABILITIES Prevention resulting in identification of Prevention resulting in identification of

more individuals and a higher risk of more individuals and a higher risk of false positivesfalse positives

A line (criterion, qualification) required A line (criterion, qualification) required for selection for a special programfor selection for a special program

Margins of a line (false positives and Margins of a line (false positives and false negatives) resulting in ambiguities false negatives) resulting in ambiguities and errorsand errors

Prevention A v. Prevention B for Reading

Failure

Prevention A, B, & C for EBD

COMMON MISUNDERSTANDINGS

OF SCIENCE

Judgment versus Certainty

Direct Instruction (DI) may be selected Direct Instruction (DI) may be selected or embraced as an approach to reading or embraced as an approach to reading because it has more research support because it has more research support than whole language, not because than whole language, not because scientific support for DI is scientific support for DI is unassailable. unassailable.

Disproof versus Proof

For example, the technique known For example, the technique known as as fafacilitated communication (FC) cilitated communication (FC) might be disproved as a means of might be disproved as a means of communication more readily than it communication more readily than it can be proven to work. can be proven to work.

Contingent versus Noncontingent Statements

The claim that rewarding The claim that rewarding consequences work has to be consequences work has to be qualified. qualified.

Replication versus Idiosyncratic Data

Finding an effect that can be Finding an effect that can be replicated by other teachers in replicated by other teachers in other locations is particularly other locations is particularly important. important.

Observation, Measurement, Reason, and Experiment

versus Philosophy or IdeologyConsider this: “We must Consider this: “We must understand that ‘ready means understand that ‘ready means never.’ If we wait until students never.’ If we wait until students are ready to work on challenging are ready to work on challenging standards by virtue of having standards by virtue of having mastered basic skills, they will mastered basic skills, they will never work on challenging never work on challenging standards.”standards.”

Gradual Change versus Paradigm Shift

Many education reformers are Many education reformers are particularly fond of the particularly fond of the “br“break the eak the moldmold”” or or “br“breakthrougheakthrough”” idea of idea of educational reform. However, in educational reform. However, in education as in other scientific education as in other scientific endeavors, paradigm shifts are endeavors, paradigm shifts are extremelyextremely rare. rare.

Theory versus Fact

““ThTheoryeory”” in education must in education must become what it is in better-become what it is in better-established sciences, not a established sciences, not a euphemism for ideology or mere euphemism for ideology or mere guesswork.guesswork.

PREPARING TEACHERS TO USE A SCIENCE OF

EDUCATION∫∫Requires a science of Requires a science of

educationeducation

∫∫Common suggestions of Common suggestions of questionable merit:questionable merit:

* Get smarter teachers!* Get smarter teachers!

* Teachers must know * Teachers must know their their subject!subject!

Essential characteristics of good teachers?

How intelligent?How intelligent? Subject-matter knowledge?Subject-matter knowledge? Knowledge of child development?Knowledge of child development? Skill in pedagogy (instruction)?Skill in pedagogy (instruction)? Skill in behavior management?Skill in behavior management?

Philosophy v. Science Look at other professions.Look at other professions. Other professions apply science:Other professions apply science:

Prepare manuals--step-by-step Prepare manuals--step-by-step instructions on how to do it, based on instructions on how to do it, based on field trialsfield trials

Use checklists that help practitioners Use checklists that help practitioners remember, avoiding errorsremember, avoiding errors

The more complex the task, the The more complex the task, the greater the need for a manual and a greater the need for a manual and a checklist.checklist.

We don’t need teachers who “wing” it!We don’t need teachers who “wing” it!

Will a Checklist Work?√√ Checklist must be linked to specific outcomes.Checklist must be linked to specific outcomes.

√√ Checklist requires that we know whether Checklist requires that we know whether what’s checked off has been done.what’s checked off has been done.

√√ Checklist allows art and craft; just prevents Checklist allows art and craft; just prevents stupid mistakes.stupid mistakes.

√√ Checklist must be simple and straightforward; Checklist must be simple and straightforward; must focus on big mistakes that most must focus on big mistakes that most commonly cause failure; should mean, “If you commonly cause failure; should mean, “If you don’t do this, then you’re running the risk of don’t do this, then you’re running the risk of failing because you forgot something.” failing because you forgot something.”

√√ Checklist should distribute power and increase Checklist should distribute power and increase communication among team members.communication among team members.

Why people may hate manuals and checklists

Checklists are painstaking.Checklists are painstaking. Checklists seem beneath our Checklists seem beneath our

dignity, to force rigidity, to dignity, to force rigidity, to make us automatons.make us automatons.

We want to believe we can handle We want to believe we can handle situations of high stakes and situations of high stakes and complexity. complexity.

We want to be among the truly We want to be among the truly great, who are daring and creative, great, who are daring and creative, who improvise and don’t follow who improvise and don’t follow protocols and checklists. protocols and checklists.

Best Example of Manual in Education

Direct Instruction Direct Instruction ReadingReading

We need manuals in We need manuals in many or all aspects of many or all aspects of teaching.teaching.

Example of Possible Checklist in Teaching

For giving instructions For giving instructions (after Kauffman, Pullen, (after Kauffman, Pullen, Mostert, & Trent, 2011):Mostert, & Trent, 2011):

When giving instructions, be sure to:�[] Make the instruction as simple and clear as possible. [] Give the instruction in a clear, firm, nontentative,

but polite and nonangry way. [] Obtain students’ full attention before giving the

instruction. [] Be careful not to give too many different

instructions.[] Give one instruction at a time. [] Wait a reasonable time for compliance. [] Monitor compliance. [] Provide appropriate consequences for compliance

or noncompliance.