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8/14/2019 James Grubbs - Fall 2009 - Climbing Communication Essay
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Means & Methods of Communication
Within the Rock Climbing Community
By James Grubbs
COMM 445-02
Dr. Morganstern
Fall 2009
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INTRODUCTION
A Short History Lesson, a Look at the Development of
Climbing as a Phenomenon, and a Look into the Future
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The relationship between Man and mountain is a deeply intertwined re-occurrence
of symbols and legend that have shaped our patterns of thought, and by that, our societies
and beliefs. Legends and primeval imagination place mountains squarely at the crux of
epic adventures, religious events, and personal journeys into the unknown regions of the
Earth and ones self. Many tribes around the world embraced the mountains as their
home, including the Anasazi of what is now the American Southwest.1 Others would
rather have their palace or house of worship there; whatever the intention, the idea is still
the same: the mountain is a location between heaven and earth, a vertical nexus point
where communion with something much greater than desire is possible.
In the 1700s, mountain climbing had become a sport of true adventurers, stout of
heart and loud of mouth; even Earnest Hemingway declared climbing to be one of the
three true sports on Earth. Climbers in Italy, Britain, and Germany began making ascents
in the mountains they called home, and claimed their marks on each others territory,
sparking heated debates and alpine rivalries. Each summit was claimed as a harder and
more treacherous one than the last, and reputations hung in the balance.2
A Swiss aristocrat by the name of Horace-Bndict de Saussure was also a
climber of mountains, but one summit he could not attain. He therefore put the word out
that there was a reward for whomever could claim that summit. Twenty-six years later,
on August 8th, 1786, two French climbers, Dr Michel Paccard and Jacques Balmat
claimed Mont Blancs summit and the reward.3 This, curiously enough, marks the
beginning of modern mountaineering.
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The offer of reward and establishing ones name in the annals of climbing history
took what was once a prospect of outsiders, and thrust it into an international spotlight.
From here, a specialized language was built to suit the needs of the climbers. Advances in
technology changed the way they thought and climbed, and this in turn, splintered the
language into even more specialized forms. The equipment involved and the use thereof,
codes of conduct, the use of imagery and symbols, and how climbers analyze their world
is spread and manipulated through the use of the communication channels that have been
constructed within their society.
It could be said that mountain climbing is driven largely by ego. Mainly what has
been the fire behind its development is the need for conquest and personal satisfaction
that each subsequent summit represents. There are those who profess to climb for the
essence, or soul of climbing itself, but even they cannot help but heap fuel on the
debate on ethics and ratings. This will be a recurring theme throughout much of climbing,
especially in the past sixty years.
Coalitions such as the UIAA and the Sierra Club were formed to determine a
consensus system of how to grade the climbs that they encounter, and to be an ethical
reference point while for the younger form of rock-wrestling known as Bouldering, the
grades were made with no high intentions, and happened rather off-handedly. In both
these examples, subjective perception of the difficulty of a climb that one has completed
may lead to another climber reading it as an objective rating. In turn, the climber
establishes a route or problem, then spreads the news and of course, a rating. This kind of
flexibility and self-involvement provided an opportunity for any climber to contribute
and possibly change the culture within a single effort of physical and verbal exertion.
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Because of the informal accessibility of climbing, it has grown into a multi-
million dollar business and a sport that has people of all ages pulling down on rock, or
plastic indoor holds. It is taught in schools across America, many national, state, and
private park lands have opened access to climbers, and indoor climbing gyms are
growing in popularity each year. Despite all this attention and participation, the language,
references, and symbols used by the climbing community remain somewhat of an arcane
issue to most of the public.
Unfortunately, climbing hasnt yet found its niche as a sport as easily marketed as
say, basketball, where the entertainment value is broad and terminology and basic
concepts thereof are known to many who have never played. Moreover, those who are
not directly involved in climbing often have no way to understand or categorize the
jargon or value systems for the sole reason that much of it is purely experiential.
While there is a wide gap in conceptualizing climbing itself, the linguistic
patterns that are used in communication between climbers are not unique to their culture.
These are the same methods and means that we employ so much they are often forgotten
in the environment. External value systems based upon attainment and their attendant
honor systems, norms and mores created by committee as well as community become
interwoven, the (un?)conscious use of physical language to create imagery, as well as the
emergence of viral behavior in language and world-view are but a precious few factors
that shape us; but by these, we can identify and conceptualize some of the ways that
climbers interact with each other and gain a foothold as it were, into a sometimes alien
culture.
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In this paper, I would like to introduce the non-climber to the language and world
of climbing through these shared methods of communication. In the first section, some of
the ways that climbers communicate will be compared; specific verbal patterns of speech
will be analyzed, and applied to descriptive and technical jargon. Various forms of silent
communication will be explored, as well as physical communication that tells a story
where words and pictures would fail. Climbing also has its forms of sign communication
that constantly stirs controversy over who gets to establish a route, and topography gets a
new treatment when the aim of negotiating an area is not to go through, but up.
The second part will deal with how a single unit of culture mutates because it is
simple enough to be immediately used and passed on; and by its very transmission, the
unit gains new meaning. This cycle is the basis for the pervasive issue of ratings in
climbing. We will see the origins of two prominent rating systems in the U.S., and
explore a bit of how Dawkins concept of viral memetics take action and cause the sport
to explode. To shed light on the creation of ratings and the effects they eventually have
on the sport of climbing, John Sherman, the creator of the ubiquitous V-Scale rating
system for Bouldering weighs in and answers some questions raised by the study.
Through this paper, I aim to introduce a culture that is all but alien to most of
civilized society, yet taps into a primal root of self-expression and an intimate connection
to ones natural surroundings. Despite this apparent disconnection, anyone is able to
understand an outsider culture such as climbing through common elements that we all
share.
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PART ONE
Ways that Climbers Communicate through Verbal
Transmission, Signs, as well as Physical and Silent Means
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Verbal Communication
Like all cultures, transmissions such as recent news, directions and instruction are
passed on by word of mouth, and within their words and arrangement of information, lay
a key into how the culture behaves and what they value.
One thing every climber values most, and is most spoken of in any account of
climbing is the expression of motion. Some examples are of the moves and body
positions that were involved, how a particular position or action felt in the process; the
majority of the content of these accounts though, concerns only the very tips of their
fingers and toes.
One essential feature out of all this is that these reports are entirely subjective and
are drawn from first-hand experience. In the issue of climbing any particular Route (A
climbing course that ascends a cliff face), or Problem (One that ascends a smaller
boulder), there are no universal agreements on how any of them are felt or negotiated.
Although helpful information on key points of contact is related, everyone essentially
climbs by their own fashion.
To convey motion, no manner of theory or equation is involved, but the minds
imagery is paramount. In doing so, climbing has adopted more of a Satellite-Framed
Language to its purposes. Satellite-framed languages, or S-Language, are in which
location or movement is encoded by an element associated with the verb 1. Here, the
addition of adjectival elements into an account of motion allows for more flourish and
expression, definitely two components that are vital to talking a good game or giving a bit
of warning to those who havent done a particular problem.
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Because of this, a manner of lexicalization also arises to more accurately express
the experiences during a climb. Figures of speech such as crimp, sloper, and jug
arise when the task of describing a particular hand-hold and its recommended hand
position; The terms beached whale, layback, and controlling your swing are used
to describe ways of decoding a climbs sequence, and moving in the most efficient
combination of positions. Drop knee, lock-off and gaston indicate what particular
technique the climber used to send (ascend) the route.
Beta is a term reported to have been likely coined by the late slang (and
Gunks) master Jack Mileski, Beta comes from Betamax, a now-extinct Sony videotape
format from the 1980s. To get the Beta was to soak up a move-by-move replay of a given
route, which Mileski often provided with great color..."2 A vital part of good beta is
including the manner in which an action is performed, one in which tactile sensation as
well as expressions of effort .
Certain terms such as crimp are an
expression of motion and structure with a
recommended manner of interaction to the
referent. A crimp involves contact with only
the very tips of the fingers, hands shaped into
a hook usually with the thumb wrapped over
the fore and middle finger; this lends much
stability but is also very delicate and
strenuous. Despite the loaded language, an issue is how to fit this element into the larger
scheme of beta, and make it all relevant to ones self and climbing projects. To do this,
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were going to jump right into the fire and take apart a sample sentence and get some
visual cues, as well.
For example, a sample sentence of beta would be: Once you start at the sit,
really match on the two-pad ledge on the right, bump right to the half-moon, now the
sweet spot is the kind of slopey full-palmer on the top, mash it and flag the foot. With
that you can crank with your heel to the high left, from there, its jug city! Here, terms
concerning direction, rate and dynamics of force are used, but are naught but vague hints
without knowledge of the lexicon employed.
Direct demonstration would be used to illustrate these terms in conversation, as
some of the terms used require a visual aid to more adequately explain them. A Sit is
short for sit-start, where the climber begins ascending from that position.
To match is to place both hands on the
same hand-hold in order to maximize power
or control an axis of movement, but in the
manner described, it would be implicated that
the hold is either perceived as being small, or
perhaps power should be focused on the point
in question.
To Bump is to make consecutive
moves on the same arm, as in to grab a hold
with the right hand, then move the same hand
to the next hold, the half moon below.
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The half moon is an example of
how the terminology changes with the
conditions, a process already well familiar to
anyone who has seen a face in the clouds.
The kind-of slopey full-palmer
would refer to a rounded surface with little to
no purchase for fingers, save for sheer
friction. Think of slopey that it points
somewhat downward, so that a full-palmer
grasp would be recommended.
Cranking with ones heel means to use their heel as a fulcrum
and leg as a lever to bring their body upright, usually using a foot-hold that is higher than
the waist.
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3
The reverse of the Heelhook is of course, the ToeHook, whereas the ankle is turned
outward, and friction is usually gained on the top of the foot.
The Jugs in question refer to large
holds that the entire hand can grasp and
usually requires little delicacy, as would a
crimp, where only the merest fingertips
grasp the feature. Sometimes jugs are also
referred to as OTG, or Oh Thank God!
holds.
With these definitions, review the sentence of beta and notice if a sequence of
images with your self squarely in them and not so much intellectual abstractions are
employed. Now a sequence that can be visualized and refined as beta is a very accessible
and constantly mutating method of communicating experiences. Through this relay of
information, the sport is propagated through mixing intuitive instruction and a database
of loosely defined common terms.
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Another effect of beta is that it informs or at least indicates to the climber of what
sort of equipment to bring, the weather conditions on which it is best to climb, the style
of climbing, and where there places to rest or even sleep on a suspended hammock, 500
feet off the ground.
Guidebooks are especially helpful in this respect, whereas in the same fashion as
one for tourists in a given city, particular areas and routes/problems are named, rated,
and given slight instruction to each of the climbs, but always leaving room for
interpretation. In all cases, the authors of a given guide have climbed (or at least
attempted) the entire described destination, and as such, each will have its own sort of
legend to interpret the map. We will return to guidebooks later, as a restructuring of
topography is also involved.
As these descriptions are also disseminated in magazines, and days at the crag,
climbers learn of potential projects, and aid each other in unlocking a sequence that had
thus far eluded them. There is an informal type of beta that is gained, more so in
frequented areas or with a group, and that is called Tick Marks. This is where
sequences are delineated either through the direct application of chalk on key holds, or by
the mark of a climbers chalk-covered hands.*
There are, though, exceptions. If one should onsight a particular climb, it means
to do the route or problem without any prior information, on the first attempt. Of course,
news of somebody onsighting a famous climb or competition sequence is also not
without its merit as it tends to garner more magazine coverage, sponsorships, and often
money from competitions.
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Also, as times and people change, as does the beta. New techniques and a wider
variety of climbers are attempting the classic routes and problems and starting where
their predecessors left off. In the videoFriction Addiction, a climber used different beta
to send a problem he established years earlier. When asked about this, he replied: There
aint no right way to climb a rock!
* Climbers earlier on took a cue from gymnasts and weight-trainers to use chalk
in order to absorb and dissipate sweat and moisture from the hands. Above is an example
of tick marks. Notice the high and low routes available to solve the problem, leading to a
common finish. Of course, physical build and skill levels would determine which is
taken, but both are equally valid, especially in this case when the one who establishes the
problem leaves it open. Other problems and routes are more demanding and precise,
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reflected in the mindset of the first-ascentionist and community that may hold to a
particular interpretation.
Physical Language
Another important component of conversation between climbers is that of body
language; more specifically the positions and contortions displayed when somebody
wants to more fully articulate their story or translate beta through direct example.
To do so in conversation, one would maybe put their hand into the air, forming a
crimp position, pinkie finger off, as there was no room for it on the hold being described.
The other arm reaches straight up and clutches an effervescent angle with the whole
palm, and shifts their body to the side in order to execute an air pull-up. All this while
giving the beta in the most expressive terms, especially when the imagination has been
particularly struck by a sequence.
Although this sometimes slow, then explosive dance does not have a common
term for it, I refer to these improvised demonstrations as a Mime, in reference to
constructing an experience out of nothing at hand. These Mimes work along a three
dimensional axis of sorts. On one plane, there is the manner in which the hands and feet
are positioned. The second would be the position of the body in relation to the position
required in the climb described. The third would consist of the manner of motion,
suggesting information on how a particular move felt, and translated into the next.
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For the audience, this gives the same kind of visual element that pictures provide,
but within a dynamic form that adds another facet of information that words cannot
adequately contain. A sense of spatial relation is encoded in the motion and positions
provided which, in a way, is also a form of beta in itself.
Within these planes are the positions that suggest the size, shape, and suggested
technique regarding a particular hold or move; each in a dynamic and spatial relation to
each other that can be easily translated, once on the rock.
Although the motions used in the conversations are arbitrary, they do display a
refined set of conventional shapes and referents. Through this, the Mime shares a few
elements and principles that are also used in American Sign Language. The first linking
concept is that of Richly Grounded Symbols (RGS); these are symbols whose meanings
have a cognitively natural link to the symbol 4. In the case of illustrating a climb, these
would be the position and motion of the feet and hands, referring to a refined set of
shapes, referring directly to an object. Once again, a common quality that is at the core of
conveying the experience in a more articulate and detailed manner than using only words.
Lets have, for example, a climber who wants to demonstrate a climb, but is
behind a soundproof pane of glass. In order to communicate, the climber would use these
RGSs, in that they are easily relayed, can be modified, and can be retained without a
spoken component.
Before we continue, I would like to introduce a set of hand positions that will be
used as reference points. These are the Crimp, Sloper, and Jug. Each element that
is introduced can be observed in the shape and application of the hands, as well as the
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topography of the holds. Each serve to translate the physical beta into a common set of
symbols that are easily absorbed and set into sequence in the receivers mind.
One element of RGS is Readily Inferable Meaning or RIM (4). In the same
manner that an arrow pointing to your right is more efficient means than the phrase Turn
right, the arrow does not rely on linguistic skills in order to be interpreted. The arrow
itself is also available to be used in a variety of ways to fit a specific motion, but it still
informs through a basic visualization of space.
In this case, lets replace the arrow on a traffic sign with a gesture resembling a
Crimp, a commonly known technique in nearly all disciplines of climbing. The direct
example informs the recipient of the size, shape and relative position around the body; as
well as the angles involved. The Mime delivers these aspects in an almost universally-
understood alphabet that communicates intent through its direct means.
There is also the element of Easily Remembered Meaning or ERM, [whereas]
once [one] was told of the object; they would find it easy to remember 5. Terms such as
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Jugs or Buckets reflect this in that the symbol reflects a common shape that relates to
objects apart from the rock, and can be more easily identified when a demonstrated image
and referent couple during the identification of a hold or position.
These references may slightly change though, as climbs become more difficult.
To this end, it has been noted that Buckets on a 5.5 are much bigger than buckets on a
5.12 5. When one has never been on a 5.12-grade climb, a variation is assumed and
connected with the grade, albeit then a purely conceptual one. Later on, experience will
hopefully give better examples on which to base the concept.
A third aspect, that of Internally Modifiable Meaning or IMM 4, comes into
play here, for instance, concerning the proper way to negotiate a Sloper. Being a nearly
smooth surface, there are countless ways to use one, and minor variations and levels of
severity are often expressed. As from personal experience, it is an often frustrating shape.
Take for example the arrow on a street sign has changed from a gentle curve into
a hairpin turn, which hints at certain precautions and suggestions on how to manage the
road. An example of beta would be when a sloper is said to allow only a full-palm grasp
or if there is a sweet spot that should be focused on. The hands, of course, approximate
the images that are being constructed, and much like ASL, a signifying variant on a
single concept can provide a more acute insight.
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Overall, these gestures are also icons, as in A sign or representation that stands
for its object by virtue of a resemblance or analogy to it.6 They are icons are such
because they resemble what they are intended to signify, another facet that words cannot
fulfill, as they are bound to abstract concepts rather than a visual or tangible example.
The most accessible component of these physical symbols and the Mime
sequencing is that it requires no technology or participation beyond ones self in order to
decode a climbs sequence. This has its best example when a lone climber is affecting a
sequence, waving their arms at the rock before their next attempt.
Sign Communication
Dual-Representation Languages are those that combined RGSs, and ACSs, or
Arbitrarily Conventional Symbols in order to conceptualize a message. ACSs are those
that represent a common concept, and that a certain reaction is warranted. The difference
is that a general agreement is established on what to do and where to go.
One ubiquitous example is that of beta in the form of simplified topography, with
emphasis on key points of interest. The elements of map beta are not unique, as key
features as fallen trees, swamps, and the like are outlined, but so are the locations of say,
boulder climbs in the area.
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Another form of sign communication that is not without a certain measure of
controversy, is that of Redtagging, where as a new climb is being developed, red tags
are tied to the first bolt on the projected route. The tag is removed when the person
developing the climb has completed the sequence.
The argument lies in who should receive credit for a first ascent: the person who
found and bolted the climb, or the one who actually did it first? Tom Goss, guidebook
author and guide says If I develop a crag, I should have as much time as I need for the
[first ascent].7 Perhaps wise words from someone who has bagged over 400 first ascents
in the past 10 years.
7
A younger climber by the name of David Graham saw the situation in a more
opportunistic light when he made the first ascent of Gosss project, Breaking the Law7
and gave it a grade of 5.14b, which hovers in a mythical level for about 95% of climbers.
Jorge Visser weighs in with a more community-minded approach: Red-tagging makes
sense on sketchy, loose projects that need cleaning; otherwise its selfish..7 In either
case, since there is no manner of enforcement either way, there will always be those who
follow this minor law, and the rest who think that certain minor laws could stand to be
broken.
Silent Communication
Communication by unspoken means also extends into how equipment is
manipulated, especially when two or more partners are climbing simultaneously.
Instructional books on mountaineering describe ways to communicate with a partner who
is just out of sight or earshot, usually by shifting the rope in a certain way.
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Silent communication through rope management involves familiarity with the
partners climbing style and rhythms of movement, combined with an intuition that
comes with experience. In his column, Tech Tips, Topher Donahue offers this advice:
Notice how the rope moves during the different phases of the climb. It will move
differently when the climber is leading, with irregular speed and periods of no movement
that are unlike the rhythmic tugging of a belay.8
Once these patterns are recognized, messages can be sent like bursts of cohesive
information through a field of noise. An example of which is the use of timing and three
sharp tugs on the rope. In sequence, the three pulls would indicate simple commands like
On Belay (the partner is attached to the rope), or Off Belay(the partner is not
attached to the rope, allowing one to attend to their own matters).
On What Not to Do
As patrons of several national and state parks, as well as private lands, climbers
are usually observant of their surroundings and try to leave only chalk marks. Still, there
are a few practices that are almost universally frowned upon.
What deals specifically with climbing is that of Chipping and Gluing. This used to
be a common practice that whenever a passage seemed impossible, artificial holds would
either be chiseled out or fixed with epoxy onto the rock. This, even in my opinion, is just
bad form. The general argument against these practices is that the climb should stay
pure, and if its not within ones ability, the rock should not be altered for it.
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This similar policy is echoed in state parks and private preserves such as the
Mohonk Preserve in Gardiner, New York. In this climbing mecca that attracts visitors
worldwide, permanent fixtures such as bolts and anchors are forbidden. Meanwhile, the
nearby Peterskill Preserve allows for permanent bolt anchors to be affixed at the top of
the climbs, leaving the climb pure.
Sometimes relationships break down and some climbing areas become closed. On
most occasions, this is due to environmental factors. In bouldering areas such as Hueco
Tanks in Texas, soil erosion and wildlife disturbance are constant concerns, and these
two effects are concentrated when a particular boulder is frequented throughout the
season, each visitor leaving their effect upon the area.
To help remedy situations such as these, lobbying groups such as Access Fund,
who work nationwide, and local groups like the Climbers of Hueco Tanks Coalition work
to establish better relations and keep open if not expand climbing access in the areas.9
On When to Just Stay Quiet
How do you know? Who told you? I had barely met this woman through a
friend, and I had already managed to tick her off - being a stranger admitting prior
knowledge of a new and secret destination. Climbing spots are sometimes jealously
guarded by those who have discovered or are developing the area; and red tags cant be
placed on a boulder, so a code of silence is often imposed.
I backpedaled, saying that someone had just mentioned the new bouldering spot,
and I was unknowing of any other details. Eventually, I was allowed to join the party to
the new climbing area, but received a valuable reminder: the first rule of bouldering is we
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do not talk about the new spot. The second rule of bouldering is: we DO NOT TALK
about the new spot!
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PART TWO
Ratings Systems and Viral Memetics ~
Subjectivity Becomes Objectivity
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The culture surrounding Climbing has changed a lot in the past fifty years. From
only being a pastime for the rich and adventurous, to becoming an emerging part of pop
culture, park management issues, school gyms, and of course, commerce. Climbing has
become many times more accessible within the past twenty years, during which
climbing-specific gyms had started to spread across the country, bringing the sport and
lifestyle to the attention of millions of suburbanites and city-dwellers.
In building a culture, though, the people need building blocks by which to
construct their roles, ethics, and other psychosocial facets in order to plot themselves in a
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given framework such as climbing. These bricks that build our world are referred to as
Memes; in a way like the aforementioned Mime, which would then be a string of
memes illustrating a sequence.
Richard Dawkins, who coined the phrase Meme, defines it as: a unit of
cultural transmission.1 These units could be any concept that could be brought to mind
and automatically plotted within the framework of ones own culture. The manner in
which the unit is defined is particular to the culture because it is also ingrained within the
culture, and used as a basis to define and categorize other transmissions.
Now a meme can be anything, from a local custom to a corporate logo; in the case
of climbing, the meme that will be focused on is that of Ratings. Various systems and
scales of rating the perceived severity of a climb has evolved worldwide, and are often
adhered to when rating a newly established route or problem; the focus here will be on
two systems widely used in the U.S.: YDS the Yosemite Decimal System for climbs
that (usually) require rope and equipment, and the V-Scale for rating boulder problems.
The true power of a Memetic entity such as a ratings scale comes about when it
goes viral. This happens when a meme is accessible and recognizable enough to be easily
absorbed into ones framework, and if permitting, shaped into ones own fashion. An
example of this would be of a memorable phrase from a movie; it tends to get repeated in
conversation according to the original context, and also fit in other scenarios for a certain
effect. As it is repeated, the phrase then is transmitted to others who may not have ever
seen the movie, but now claim the phrase for their own interpretation.
When the matter of rating a climb is concerned, the phrase is replaced by a
loosely based, highly subjective system of numeric intervals of difficulty. When
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considering the difficulty of a climb, a few common factors arise: The angle and shape of
the rock, the shapes and positions of the holds, and the commitment necessary. Often
times reveal that these are lumped in a mental soup of just how it feltto climb the rock,
and a personal reflection concerning the climb.
Most often when a climber establishes a climbing sequence, they name it
according to the same fuzzy formula, but then the dirty business of giving the climb a
number arises. There were a few early ratings systems, but they had a fatal flaw. One
example is that of the B-Scale developed by John Gill.2
How the B-Scale was constructed is based primarily on perceived danger. B1
referred to a climb that was equal to the highest grade in roped climbing. B2 was
reserved for falls that might result in injury, while B3 describes a climb requiring
maximum commitment and deep concentration to avoid a surely fatal mistake. B3 was
also used for climbs that have not been repeated, and this is one of the variables that blow
apart the whole equation.
Once a B3 climb had been repeated by later climbers, that particular climb would
get downgraded to B2. The same shift occurred when B2 climbs became commonplace,
and thereby took B1 status. Where this obviously leads to is a wide base of novice-level
climbs, with a miniscule parapet of elite B2 with an even smaller tip representing B3.
B-Scale didnt work on two levels: Primarily, number-chasers had to constantly
strive to not have their accomplishments downgraded, and did not have the potential to
expand the scales breadth. For its time, the B-Scale worked, because then only a few
strong boulderers employed it, even then strictly within the confines of their social circle;
But as egos got slaughtered by a scale that flowed backwards, I believe the popularity
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also fell because it also lacked the adaptability, especially among novice and intermediate
levels, to carve ones own niche among others according to similar ability, not the
frequency that a climb had been sent.
Concurrent and later systems reflected these user-friendly qualities in that they
had the ability to be taken and expanded. Right off, this works well for climbing in two
ways: Value-minded people can establish higher and sometimes new grades, and this in
turn pushes the sport as the climbs that would have been shifted backwards enjoy a
usually steady marker on an increasing spectrum, establishing a framework by which to
consider rated climbs and also to quantify an experience, compressing it into a number.
The flipside of all this is that the rating is still a subjective consideration, a
momentary inspiration after doing battle with gravity. As far as that climber is concerned,
the given rating is a tactile and emotional reference point, a memory classified as per
experience; when this arbitrary number is spread to others, assigned to a particular climb,
the rating becomes something else. What this something is, is a building block, a Meme.
When news of a particular rating spreads, several results occur. When the rating is
learned, the climb is set in its proper position according to personal ability. For example,
if a climb has a higher rating than ones ability it might become an inspiration; otherwise
it might make a decent warm-up or a nice place to sit.
Any applicable sponsors of the climber would capitalize upon the achievement
and align themselves with the number grade. Their equipment and clothing is also
associated with the grade, providing a sort of relation between overpriced t-shirts and
elite athletic ability. Of course, this process is nothing new, as it has sold many sneakers
and boxes of cereal in the past.
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The overall point is that once the subjective number gets out, it becomes an
objective phenomenon or at least is treated like one, as the meme becomes subjective
once it is received. The memetic entity known as the ratings number is utilized as a
yardstick by which climbing areas, climbing ability, and often social standing are
determined.
One persistent example is when one climber asks another of their ability. In some
cases, the respondent will reply with something to the effect of: Oh, Id say V7, 5.12.
These two expressions are indicative of skill levels, the first of the V-Scale for
bouldering, then the YDS rating, and this if they choose to use these scales.
In England, a scale that combines technical level with adjectival level is used. For
example, alphanumeric assignments such as 4a to the current limit of 8b to rate the
skill level, while the feel is categorized into a set list of descriptions going from Very
Difficult (VD) to the elite Extremely Severe, or E grade.3 Combined, a YDS grade of
5.9 would roughly equate to an English rating of 5a, HVS (Hard Very Severe).
Keep in mind that ratings also draw from skill with the type of rock, and
atmospheric conditions. Many places have formations and rock types that are rare if not
missing from the domestic U.S. landscape; a climber used to the sandstone terrain of the
southwest United States would not be particularly suited to the moist atmosphere and
grit-stone of Englands Stanage Edge cliffs. Nonetheless, the southwestern climber would
(at first) have to take the local grading system as solid, objective grades for the
topography.
When bouldering abroad, to have a manner of converting grades would make an
easier time of planning the trip, and can always make for better relations with the locals,
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especially when exclusive spots are being visited. This guideline also applies
domestically, as a rating system developed for a particular area is often applied to one
with another kind of rock and local criteria. Sometimes the rating is based on the whole
sequence or the feel of moving through the hardest part of the climb, or the Crux.
Other times, this cross-application results in Downgrading. Downgrading occurs
when Climber B completes Climber As original sequence in a more efficient style, and
believes the rating to be inflated. Climber B could then re-grade and re-name the climb,
and thereby alter the reference point along the scales spectrum; this can also happen in
the case of Sandbagging.
Sandbagging is a term referring to giving a climb a lower grade then what is
generally agreed to; though usually done in jest to ensnare brave souls into an Epic
adventure that either proves ones mettle or the knowledge of ones limits. Downgrading
happens more often in the case of a climb given an overstated grade than what is the later
re-declared difficulty.
There are those that totally eschew grading a climb that they have established.
Professional climber Chris Sharma has stated on many occasions that he does not see the
purpose of personally giving a climb a number. In an interview with Mens Journal he
stated that: Theres a whole process behind rating these climbs. It is kind of a consensus
after other climbers try a route. Its hard to say it definitely is the most difficult climb in
the world. This is the hardest climb Ive ever tried. I know my limitations pretty well, and
Ive never seen something thats been done thats harder than this .4 This was his attitude
after establishing Jumbo Love, a completely overhanging, 250-foot route that was later
agreed on as the hardest climb in the world at the hyper-elite grade of 5.15b.
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Perhaps he has taken to heart the fact that new and younger climbers are springing
up worldwide, accomplishing by the age of ten what had tormented adults in earlier
years. This fact also means that the grades that were once held in high esteem could
become stepping stones in the future to extremes that the founders of climbing had never
conceived when bouldering was an amusement, rather than a sport in its own right.
As time passes, the change in ratings changes the sport as a whole. Dietary and
training regimens are altered; the new climbs lead to further development in the area
provoking more climbers to etch their name in the local and nationally distributed
guidebooks that perhaps attract visitors from across the globe to see how their skill level
matches up to the local terrain and terminology. To get a better idea of how these
frameworks are constructed and used, let us now look at the YDS and V-Scale systems.
YDS, or the Yosemite Decimal System was developed in the 1930s by the Rock
Climbing section of the Angeles Chapter of the Sierra Club, in order to classify ascents in
the Sierra Nevada region of California and Nevada.7 It was devised to guide hikers who
do not already know of a particular terrain or area to properly choose and equip them for
the venture. Again, even though a numerical scheme is used to quantify a hike or climb, it
is still ultimately based on how it felt.5
Before the matter of vertical climbing is begun, there are first four stages of
ascents that increase with the conditions. Again, perceived danger comes into primary
consideration when rating the hikes. First there is Class 1: Walking with a low chance of
injury, a trail for the family. Class 2 is simple scrambling, with the possibility of
occasional use of the hands. More like a difficult hike. Class 3 involves scrambling
with increased exposure. One could use a rope but here is a chance for injury. Class 4 is
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usually simple climbing, with exposure on a sharply inclined slab. A rope is often used;
spots for removable protection can be easily found and falls without it may well be fatal.
In general though, the YDS ratings were meant to be based on the hardest moves
of the ascent. For example, if one is on a trail that is generally considered Class 2, and a
particular point involves negotiating a high and exposed ledge. At this point, the risk for
injury is increased to where it fits the loose criteria for a Class 3 ascent. At this point, the
climber or hiker may report back to the Sierra Club and guidebook writers of their
discovery and opinion.
Of course, the ratings themselves here are not subdivided into large blocks, but
are set in intervals between the classes. In YDS, the first four classes are broad
categories, but once one enters the fifth class, something quite different occurs.
The first fifth-class climb was established at Idyllwild, Californias Tahquitz
Rock in August of 1936 by Jim Smith, Bob Brinton, and Z. Jasaitis. Dubbed The
Trough.6 The route was given a rating of 5.0, as it was the first to require free
climbing (without the use of permanent hardware in the rock) necessarily connected by a
rope, and requiring fall-retention equipment, for any unplanned descent would be fatal
without it.
Once a basis had been founded, the successive grades of 5.1 through 5.9 were
based upon ten noted climbs; with 5.9 as the limit of human ability. 7 This limit was
known as Open Book, established by Royal Robbins in 1952. Once this ten-grade scale
had been established, it was passed on simply by word of mouth and the subsequent
adaptation in guidebooks. By the 1960s, YDS had enjoyed a healthy run of viral
duplication and had become the standard in the U.S. 6
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As with biological viruses, the meme-structure known as YDS was bound for
mutation once conditions forced it to adapt. The evolutionary impetus came from the
current trendsetter, Royal Robbins, and strongman Dave Rearick. In 1974 the team
established the East Chimney of Rixons Pinnacle, the first 5.10.8
Later, in 1965, Pat Ament pushed the system even further with El Dorado
Canyons Supremacy Crack, the worlds 5.11.8 Chris Sharma has been a longtime
spearhead of the game, recently with Realization, the first 5.15a climb; then continued
the informal tradition of splintering the decimal grades into grades A-D, establishing
Jumbo Love at 5.15b.
9
There are as well, YDS addendum scales; one adopted the MPAA ratings system
for motion pictures to describe the availability of gear use on a climb, from G, which is
plentiful, to X that is for the hard and/or crazy. This scale is used in nearly every
guidebook, as it gives clues to the equipment and the kind of experience that may be
needed for a climb, according to the guidebook authors information.
There is also one that from grades I-VII that considers length of time needed for
an ascent ranging from two hours to two weeks. Again because it is (a) closed, and (b)
limited only to mountaineering, this scale isnt as widely used due to lack of relevance.
Also mountaineering isnt as sexy as it used to be, I imagine.
Throughout this abridged history of climbing we have seen the power of an idea,
a meme such as a single grade used as a basis then constructing a skeleton on which grew
Traditional climbing that uses removable gear, and Sport climbing, which uses fixed
anchors along a route.
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Much like a body, the grade system constitutes more than the sum of its parts.
These subjectively assigned numbers become objective intervals once observed by
particularly driven climbers, and may be an inspiration for their progress; an insubstantial
marker that defines their position and role in the climbing community. These grades
define an area and the climbers who go there, sometimes leading to manufacturing holds
in order to bolster a climbs rating.
Now that we have seen how a single meme, created by committee and spread
through colloquial channels, can mutate and blossom into something of a cultural basis;
there is the matter of a system that was created rather informally, and passed on through
magazine articles and a seminal guidebook. This is the V-Scale, conceptualized by
John Sherman and his climbing partners in Hueco Tanks, Texas.
The V-Scale shares a common facet with YDS in that the scale was based on a
single boulder climb, Centre El Murray, and set the groundwork for another open-
ended system of climbing. This is one that eschewed protection gear for a pad to fall on,
and graced nearly every inch of available rock on Earth; Bouldering.
It could be said that Bouldering is climbings black sheep in that it is not
concerned much with the height of a climb, and the vital piece of protection is left on the
ground; two principles that would be quite uncommon elsewhere. It could also be said
that Bouldering is, in a sense, the distilled essence of climbing, whereas the focus is on
the difficulty of the moves and the overall feel, perhaps flow, of a sequence. Some
boulderers do look out for higher ascents. This kind of boulder problem is called a
Highball, usually reserved for climbs with a potential fall of over fifteen feet.
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Climbers had been bouldering decades before the sport had come into its own; in
the 1890s, Oscar Eckenstein had advocated the sport using the British-coined words
Bouldering and Problem for what was then considered as a warm-up or fun with
training for their otherwise epic ascents.10 Soon, the sport of Bouldering took form in \
Fontainebleaus boulder fields in France, and spread via the exploits of Pierre Allain and
John Gill.11
Already we see memes at work, creating accessible and specific referents such as
Problem when only speaking of a climb on a boulder, instead of vague expressions
such as scrambling, or training outside. Thus, Bouldering had been born in a
collective mind that orbits around it. Now it would have a lesson in experiential
mathematics in the crags of Hueco Tanks, where V-Scale would be made to mark how
big it has grown.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Hueco Tanks was a potent, but relatively
isolated bouldering field and community. The state park then had an open policy towards
climbing, so the few and psyched had free reign over every inch of the abundant
formations including the often-closed Mushroom boulder, and Centre El Murray.
At the time, John Gills B-Scale was
used on some of the climbs, but by large there
wasnt much of a divide between the lines at
Hueco. It wasnt until 1991, when John
Sherman (at left), first released the guidebook
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Hueco Tanks, that a new meme was spread into the minds and tick-lists of boulderers
throughout the states.
12
What V-Scale offered was a method of quantifying and categorizing boulder
climbs in much the same manner as YDS, but with far fewer addendums and divisions;
reducing ratings to its essence.
The V-Scale has as its basis, the climb known as El Centre Murray, in Hueco
Tanks, Texas. This climb had been originally established V1, and from there, the rest
of the state parks known bouldering had this criteria appended onto each of the
descriptions in the Hueco Tanks guidebook. The scale now ranges from V0, which could
loosely translate to 5.8 / 5.10 (YDS), to (currently) V16; this climb, Wheel of Life had
been established by Koyamada Dai in Australia13, and is the current limit. Of course, this
remains to be seen as Chris Webb Parsons has already made the second ascent14. No
longer are climbers in an age where much of anything goes unrepeated.
Apparently there arent any sacred cows, either, as El Centre Murrays rating was
boosted to V6, then to V7. Perhaps this is according to the mathematics of a new school
of climbers that Sherman has referred to in disdain concerning their apparent dependence
on safety measures and less on limit-pushing.
For a more personal insight into V-Scale, John Sherman, the author of Hueco
Tanks, allowed for an interview to expand on the origins of the ratings system and his
views on what it has become and subsequently created once the memes took root. Along
the way, examples of how status memes and value frameworks, once passed on through
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mass media, generate and appear to support a widespread value system such as ratings
system serves to help construct a culture.
John Sherman: the Interview
James Grubbs: What was the situation, as in, what kind of methods was used
then that graded bouldering?
John Sherman: First we were using John Gills B-scale of rating, where there
was B1, where it was a repeatable climb. B2 was for when the climb was much harder,
and that the odds of repetition were far less. B3 came up when the climb was considered
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unrepeatable. The thing was that as more climbs were established and repeated, the
previous climbs would be slid back into B2 and B1 categories.
It was totally your own game back then. It kinda couldnt last long seeing as how
it would lead to [John Gills] climbs being repeated, it didnt take into account ones ego.
(laughs) As far as longevity for what he did, his open-ended system seemed doomed.
JG: So it was really more subjective as in you couldnt really tell somebody
across the nation that So & So climb was this difficult or great because it would
always be wholly subjective to everybody.
JS: In terms of people using the system, there werent that many people climbing
or bouldering that hard, and because there were only three grades, and basically B3 was a
mythical grade, applied to So & So problems, then you have Hard and Real Damn Hard.
We would use that, just throw that out there if we were dealing with a hard boulder
problem, like harder than what wed ever do when we were tied into a rope, let alone B1.
Then there would be B2, which we would reserve for the elite problems. The
problem was, as more and more people did B2s, theoretically, they should be
downgraded to B1s; and nobody wants to downgrade the problems, seeing how grade
inflation goes these days, nobody wants to go around saying theyre harder than they are.
That wasnt a system that wasnt going to work well for a sport thats so ego-driven as
climbing is.
JG: So, out of this, how did the V-Scale come about?
JS: Well I wasnt too keen on bouldering ratings, and I was down in Hueco
Tanks, and we were fooling around, saying: Oh, thats a B2 and others would be a
harder B2, so does that mean that the other B2s are downgraded or whatever; so myself
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and Chris Hill and some others were goofing around with some other numbers, but I
didnt want to put it into a guidebook. The first Hueco guidebook that I wrote didnt have
any grades in it and it almost made it to the printer that way, then the publisher got cold
feet saying Oh, well never sell this without any grades in it, then we had to go back and
redo it and grade everything; because I did all the problems, every one except for one I
did, and I like to joke that the definition of a V-Grade is what I say it is (laughs) nobody
can tell me Im wrong!
That really is the definition, and some people think the cracks are underrated or
the crimps are overrated, well I was a better crack climber than I was a face climber,
and I got big fingers that dont crimp.
So people with smaller fingers are going to think that the crimps are easy for the grade,
but the original ones are still based on how I climbed. Im the one who had to create the
problems in the book, you know?
After that its kinda settled down to where its kind of a consensus thing among
the bouldering community as to what they think a certain problem is (graded), I dont
necessarily agree with that, so it doesnt agree with my definition of what a V-Grade
should be.
JG: So a V-Grade is not so much as set criteria, but more like: I did this,
and this is how it feels to me, this is the V-essence of it.
JS: Yeah, it was more like how hard it was for me to do it. Lets say Ill do
something and get it done the first try on the second day I was working on it, so thats a
V8 or something like that, then Ill take other climbs that took me that amount of effort
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and Ill throw them in the same category. Maybe Ill do something on the first or second
try, or maybe it felt really hard, then Id give it a V5 or V6.
Nowadays it doesnt sound like very big numbers, but back then they were now
you hear people talking about oh, thats an Old School V8 because it feels a bit easier,
theres a substantial amount of grade inflation out there.
JG: What kind of social impact have you seen resulting from these estimated
V-Grades, has climbing turned into a sort of ego-driven affair, or has bouldering
advanced in a way now that it has a sort of framework?
JS: I would say that it invited in the number-chasers into bouldering, today sport
climbing is very number-driven. Also a lot of sport climbers werent interested in
bouldering when there was just B1 and B2, to say to their buddies look how hard I
climb. Then they had this ego yardstick, as any grading system is, all of a sudden that
helped propel the popularity of bouldering within people who are numbers-oriented. Then
the other thing that pushed the spot was the advent of bouldering pads
JG: Which you formally invented as well
JS: Sometimes I think that if we didnt have bouldering pads, the numbers would
only go so far to popularizing the sport, because youd be hitting the ground every time!
But it was the combination of the two that really pushed it forward and honestly, at first I
never saw V-grades going outside of Hueco, abut theyre gone all over the world now.
JG: I see a kind of positive end result to where it has expanded to people who
now want to push the open end of the grades instead of having to slide everything
back, or saying something is B3, being that particular persons project, and hasnt
seen anybody else do it.
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JS: Well, the B-system was only applied to a few dozen boulderers at any given
time, if it was used as it was originally conceived, it would be a very elitist, whereas V
grades Ive been accused of V1 being too hard. The time was that bouldering was
supposed to be difficult, supposed to be doing hard moves, so I started at V1 as ok, that
was strenuous back in the day. Some are slicing the grades thinner, to get more grades
in there, but from V1 to V9, each grade represented about ten years of bouldering
advancement.
I can also see the speed [of grade creation] increasing a bit since the popular
weight of bouldering because you got more people doing it. You have pads now making
it easier to take falls when youre trying something hard, before that you only fell so
many times before you were shot for the day. But I see the distance between elite grades
like V12 and V13 much less than between V4 and V5.
All this has contributed as a function to use ratings as a means to promote
yourself and make some money off the sport, its always tempting to say youre doing the
harder number out there, or say youve introduced a new grade, better yet. One of the
things that V grades made possible is for climbers to pursue the sub-sport of bouldering
as a way and means to make money at climbing.
JG: Do you think that the V-grades attributed to the legitimacy of
bouldering, more so than a warm-up for alpinists, and become something in its own
right because of that grading backbone?
JS: I dont buy that well, maybe in some peoples minds it does, but I would
like to think more that is was that I wrote a lot about bouldering in the 80s, and climbing
magazines never really covered bouldering, they maybe had one boulderer on the cover
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in ten years. I was then promoting bouldering strongly because thats what I like doing,
and I was writings for the magazines for a living; and a lot of them didnt even have V-
grades at first, because we didnt have that system yet. When the magazines are featuring
bouldering on the pages, though, every once in a while on the cover, and now all the time
on the cover, thats whats driving peoples ideas of legitimacy if the magazine will put
it on the cover, then it must be legitimate.
JG: An opinion formed by constant exposure?
JS: I also think [John Shermans book] Stone Crusade helped, because bouldering
then hada book. It was just about bouldering and the history of bouldering, and
somebody felt that it was important enough for a publisher to go ahead and release this
book, and that helped as well.
Also people would talk to you saying that because [Chris] Sharma dropped out of
the competition scene and was pursuing bouldering heavily, and because he was such a
marketable climber, I doubt that since he turned 16 there has been an issue of a climbing
magazine without his name in it somewhere, you probably cant find an issue that
doesnt. Of course he was seen bouldering all the time, like nobody shot a climbing video
without him in all those ten years.
JG: So when you first started out, it was first just to say: Heres an area,
heres what Im developing, but also heres what I think about it, and people took
it and ran, making it their own?
JS: Originally V grades were meant to direct people to climbs of a certain
difficulty that they would find enjoyable, challenging, whatever they were looking for.
Actually, the real story is that when we were playing with them, before we had to put the
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grades in the guidebook, the original V1 was (a climb called) the Center El Murray,
which then became the standard for V6. Later it got changed to V7, and Im thinking
how can you take the standard for V6 and make it harder? I mean, by definition, this is
the problem which the others are compared to! Its taken on a life of its own; sometimes I
feel like Dr. Frankenstein, where the intentions were fine, but he creates this troubled
monster that he has no control over. Now what happens with this monster is not so much
my doing now, but of the community that has raised it.
JG: Is there a lasting point that you would like to make about your creation
and whats happening now?
JS: I just hope that people climb for the love of bouldering and realize numbers
are just numbers; theyre not the soul or the essence of the sport. If they are climbing for
the numbers, thats fine for them, but theres a lot more to it and when they discover that,
then the numbers will just go back to being a guide to what they might want to climb that
day.
Analysis & Conclusions
As memes and transmitters go, the V-Scale enjoyed a fabulous ride into the ethos
of modern bouldering; Through the Hueco Tanks guidebook, V-Scale had many factors
explaining it. Factors such as: a starting referent (El Centre Murray V1), to give an idea
of whatshouldfeelas the base of the scale. Also, expanded examples of the system had
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been provided by subsequent climbs in the guidebook, giving a quick reference to those
who climb at a higher skill level.
These two provided niches for a wider assortment of climbers and was thus
universally adaptable; the scales open-ended design made it possible for talented
climbers to create their own niche.
The introduction of new technology also made a considerable effect upon
bouldering. The invention and commercial adaptation of crash pads allowed for: a) more
climbs to be established in sketchier terrain, this spreading the V-meme across multiple
areas worldwide. It also b) allowed for difficult climbs to be repeated, thereby
re-enforcing the feel and experience to construct the V-meme in the minds of anyone
who considers the scale. The advent of the crash pad also had a third effect: it allowed for
more climbers who may be wary of their ankles on a 10-foot climb to pursue bouldering;
and facilitates Highballing, as enough pads could be stacked to catch a fall.
This one bit of technology that came about out of necessity and a rating system
that saw its origins change pushed the sport of bouldering from a pass-time to an
international phenomenon. Shermans contributions to the collective consciousness was
not limited to a numerical gradient; as when an article of his had been printed in climbing
magazines, John himself became a particle of cultural transmission that carried the
connotation of the V-meme.
Constant re-introduction through a variety of media provides more opportunities
for an observer to identify themselves within the framework. Books such as Stone
Crusade and Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills provide a reference point to some
and an inspiration to others when considering rock climbing.
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Climbing videos shot by independent producers such as Josh Lowell and Peter
Mortimer continue to receive worldwide acclaim, and identify the climbing culture to
broader audiences. The meme multiplies exponentially every time a video clip is posted
on a website and spread with every download; and climbers work with television
producers to feature climbing on mainstream channels.
The example of the ever-younger climbers now making headlines from all over
the world are in itself a testament to how well ingrained Climbing has become, and that
practically anyone has access to it. All that Rock Climbing needed was something to
build upon, a concept and a framework by which climbers created in their own image.
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References & Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
(1)
cliff dwelling. (2009). InEncyclopdia Britannica.
Retrieved October 20, 2009, from Encyclopdia Britannica Online:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/121493/cliff-dwelling
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(3)Horace Bndict de Saussure. (2009). InEncyclopdia Britannica.
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PART ONE
(1)
Slobin, Dan I.
What makes manner of motion salient? Explorations in linguistic typology, discourse,
and cognitionSpace in Languages: Linguistic Systems and Cognitive Categories, (pp. 59-81)
2006, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia
(2)
Roth, Justin and Samet. Matt
Ten Things You Didn't Know About Climber Slang
Climbing Magazine, Number 258 ,p. 46
2007, Skram Media, New York, NY
(3)
Bertles, Joe
Heelhook
Retrieved 10/25/09, from Spadout.com
http://www.spadout.com/wiki/index.php/Heel_Hook
(4)
Macken, E., Perry, J. and Haas
Sign Language Studies :Richly Grounding Symbols in ASL
1993, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
(5)
Unknown Editor
Camp 4 : Rock Climbing Lingo
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Schmidt, Dave
Saint Who?Retrieved 09/14/09, from Climbing .com
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(8)
Donahue, Topher
Silent Communication Rope Commands when youre Out of Earshot
Retrieved 09/14/09 from Climbing.comhttp://www.climbing.com/print/techtips/tttrad218/
(9)
Suchma, MartinImprovements at Hueco Tanks
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PART TWO
(1)
Dawkins, Richard
The Selfish Gene 2nd Edition
1989, Oxford University Press, Oxford
(2)
Grade (Bouldering)
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(4)
Thompson, Dacus
Chris Sharma, the Real Spiderman
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http://www.mensjournal.com/the-real-spidey
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Roper, Steve
Climbers Guide to the High Sierra
1976, Sierra Club Books, CA
(6)
Vogel, Randy & Gaines, Robert
Tahquitz and Suicide
2001, Chockstone Press, Evergreen, CO
(7)The Mountaineers, Cox, Steven & Fulsass , Kris
Mountaineering: Freedom of the Hills
2003, Mountaineers Books, Seattle, WA
(8)
Ament, Pat
Wizards of Rock: A History of Free Climbing in America
2002, Wilderness Press, Berkeley, CA
(9)Cahall, Fitz
The King of Kings
Retrieved 11/25/09 from Climbing.comhttp://www.climbing.com/exclusive/features/threedegrees/
(10)
Gill, John
Oscar Eckenstein...The First Documented Advocate of Bouldering
Retrieved 11/29/09 from Johngill.nethttp://www128.pair.com/r3d4k7/Bouldering_History1.01.html
(11)
Gill, John
The Art of Bouldering
1969, The Journal of the American Alpine Club
(12)
Photographer Unknown
John Sherman Ascending Lord of the Rings(5.13)
Retrieved 11/29/09 from Chesslerbooks.com
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(13)
MacDonald, Dougald
Koyamada Completes V16
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(14)
Parsons, Chris Webb
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http://www.chriswebbparsons.com/bio.php
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