J. Res. ANGRAU Vol. XLI No.3 pp 1-144, July-Sep., 20133)2013final.pdf · 2 + 5% CO 2 or 3% O 2 + 10% CO 2 or 5% O 2 + 5% CO 2 or 5% O 2 + 10% CO 2 or air) on shelf life and quality

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J. Res. ANGRAU Vol. XLI No.3 pp 1-144, July-Sep., 2013

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The Journal of Research ANGRAU(Published quarterly in March, June, September and December)

Dr. T. PradeepPrincipal Scientist(Breeding),Maize Research Station,ARI Campus, Rajendranagar,Hyderabad.

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Effect of polypropylene packaging on shelf life and quality of custard appleAnnona squamosa L. cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oCA. Venkatram, A. Bhagwan and M. Pratap 1

Seasonal Incidence of Iinseed insect pests and their natural enemiesHarshwardhan Gupta and B. P. Katlam 7

Components of genetic variation for macrophomina phaseolona resistance in maizeK.Murali Krishna, G.K Chikkappa and G. Manjulatha 12

Summer season survey for incidence of Maruca vitrata (g.) (pyralidae: lepidoptera) and itsnatural enemies on greengram and other alternative hosts in main pulse growing tracts ofKhammam District, Andhra pradeshCh. Sandhya Rani , G. Ramachandra Rao, MSV Chalam, Patibanda Anil Kumar and V Srinivasa Rao 16

Nature of Gene action in new cms and restorer lines of rice (oryza sativa l.)Zakir Hussain and Narendra Kulkarni 21

Evaluation of changes in soil quality under different land use environs of chanvelly village,Rangareddy District of Andhra Pradesh- a case studyM. Ram Prasad and V.Govardhan 25

Genetic variability, correlation and path coefficient analysis for yield and yield componentsin mungbean Vigna radiata l. WilczekM. Jyothsna and and CH. Anuradha 31

Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on shelf life and quality of custard appleannona squamosa L. cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oCA. Venkatram, A. Bhagwan and M. Pratap 40

Production potential and economic viability of food – forage based cropping systems inSouthern Telangana Region of Andhra PradeshV.Chandrika, R. Balaji Naik, K.B. Suneetha Devi and M. Shanti 47

PART II : SOCIAL SCIENCE

Attitude of farmers and extension officers towards Agricultural Technology Management Agency(ATMA) & suggestions for effective functioningM. Rama Devy, M. Surya Mani and N. Shandhya Shenoy 53

Knowledge and extent of adoption of improved practices of chickpea through KVK interventionsP.Ganesh Kumar, M.K. Jyosthna and P.Lakshmi Reddy 58

A study on purpose of using ICT tools among farming communityK. P. Raghuprasad, S.C. Devaraja and Y.M Gopala 64

Problems faced by women entrepreneurs and suggestions for production & marketing of ProductsG.Padmini Devi, P. Rameshkumar Reddy and Ch. Venugopal Reddy 70

A study on growth, performance and impact of Kisan Credit Cards on farmer’s income inRajasthan – An Economic ApproachS. S. Meena and Dr. G. P. Reddy 75

CONTENTSPART I : PLANT SCIENCE

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PART III : HOME SCIENCE

Utility of herbal products in antimicrobial finishing of cotton fabricsD.Anitha, S.Dhana Laxmi and D.Mahesh 82

Impact of personal variables on work related musculoskeletal symptoms among womenworking in packing units of pharmaceutical industryV. Prasuna, T. Neeraja, P. Radha Rani and A. Sharada devi 88

PART IV : RESEARCH NOTE

Cooling effect of body on milk production and feed consumption in the cross bred cowsSuresh Rathod, M.Kishan Kumar and Ch.Sreedhar 94

PART V : RESEARCH NOTE

Farmers’ suggestions for better participatory management of tank irrigation systemKadiri Mohan1 and P.Rameshkumar Reddy 97

Character association and path coefficient analysis for seed yield in quality proteinmaize (zea mays L.)K. Vijay Kumar, M. R. Sudarshan, Kuldeep Singh Dangi and S. Madhusudan Reddy 100

Effect of gamma radiation on germination parameters in promising rice cultivarsduring long term storageL.Vidya Kumari, M. Sreedhar, S.Vanisree and K. Keshavulu 105

Influence of Nutritional Information on food labels on consumer buyingSwetha Kodali, Neeraja Telaprolu and P. Radha Rani 110

Variability in yield and its component traits in quality protein maize genotypes (zea mays l.)K. Vijay Kumar, M. R. Sudarshan, Kuldeep Singh Dangi and S. Madhusudan Reddy 113

Correlation and path analysis in greengram (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek)Srikanth Thippani, K. B. Eswari and M. V. Brahmeswar Rao 120

Influence of row spacing and phosphorus levels on seed production of dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata)B. Venkanna, B. Joseph, K.B. Suneetha Devi and A. Siva Shankar 124

Scale construction for measuring the attitude towards pursuing self employment in agricultureKadiri Mohan1 and P.Ramesh Kumar Reddy 127

Response of safflower (carthamus tinctorius l.) genotypes to plant density on yieldcomponents, yield and economics under rainfed conditionsP. Satish, C. Sudhakar and C. Sudharani 130

Sensory properties of guar-gum incorporated tomato sauceE. Sharath and K. Uma Maheswari 132

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Custard apple Annona squamosa L. belongsto family annonaceae is an arid zone fruit grown inIndia. Out of 100 species of Annona only custardapple, cherimoya, soursop, bullock’s heart andatemoya are of major commercial importance. Ofthese, custard apple (synonyms: Sithaphal, Sharifa,Sugar apple, Sweetsop) is the most popular andwidely used dessert fruit having the maximumproduction efficiency. The plants are hardy, droughtresistant and can thrive well on marginal andneglected soils with minimum inputs (Rajput, 1985).Custard apple is the delicious table fruit and is valuedmainly for its sweet, mild flavored pulp. The fruit isbotanically referred as syncarpium and aggregate offruitlets, each pocessing edible fleshy mass of soft,juicy and granular textured pulp. It is a climactericfruit, ripening starts soon after detached from the tree(Wills et al., 2001). It is highly perishable fruit withshort shelf life of 1-2 days after ripening. The lack ofinformation on the post harvest handling of this highlyperishable fruit has resulted in huge losses.Extension of storage life in custard apple even for aday or two will go a long way in increasing the shelflife, making it much easier to handle the fruit. VishnuPrasanna et al. (2000) reported that the safe rangeof storage temperature of custard apple was foundto be 15-20 oC, with maximum shelf life at 15 oC.

Modified atmosphere package (MAP) is intended tocreate an appropriate gaseous atmosphere around acommodity packed in film packages to enhance shelf

EFFECT OF POLYPROPYLENE PACKAGING ON SHELF LIFE ANDQUALITY OF CUSTARD APPLE Annona squamosa L. cv.

BALANAGAR FRUITS STORED AT 15±1oCA. VENKATRAM, A. BHAGWAN and M. PRATAP

Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak (District) – 502 110

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted at fruit research station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak(district) during 2009-11 to know the effect of polypropylene package (fruits packed in polypropylene bags with 3%O2 + 5% CO2 or 3% O2 + 10% CO2 or 5% O2 + 5% CO2 or 5% O2 + 10% CO2 or air) on shelf life and quality of custardapple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 175±1oC. The study established the fact that various physico-chemical parametersviz., days taken for ripening, shelf life, total soluble solids, acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars (reducing, total and non-reducing) and ascorbic acid of the fruit studied at an interval of 2 days during storage were significantly improved bypolypropylene bag flushed with different concentration of O2 + CO2 gasses (modified atmosphere package).Comparatively higher shelf life of fruits i.e. 12.28 days with fruits packed in polypropylene bags flushed with air.

life and conserve the quality of packed produce(Deepak Raj Rai et al., 2002). Active MA can be doneby pulling a slight vacuum and replacing the packageatmosphere with the desirable gas mixture (Kader etal., 1986). Low O2 and or high CO2 gas mixtures inthe package atmosphere has been shown to reducethe ethylene production rates, retard softening oftissue and slow down various compositional changesassociated with ripening resulting in reducedrespiration there by delay the fruit ripening processof many tropical and subtropical fruits (Ranganna etal., 2009). Hence, the present investigation wascarried out to study the effect of polypropylenepackaging for enhancing shelf life and quality ofcustard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was carried out during theyear 2009-11 at Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy,Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak district.Custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits were harvestedwhen fruit is in light green colour, yellowish whitecolour between the carpels and initiation of crackingof the skin between the carpels. Matured fruits ofuniform size, firm, free from disease and injuries weredirectly picked from orchard and brought to thelaboratory. The fruits were cleaned with running tapwater to remove the adherent dirt material and thenallowed to dry in shade. The fruits were surfacedisinfected with 0.1% (w/v) carbendazim solution for2 minutes. The fruits were then packed in

email: [email protected]

Date of Receipt : 05-06-2013 Date of Acceptance : 24.08.13

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 1-6, 2013

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polypropylene bags (PPB) with the following amountof CO2 and O2 gases flushed with MAP machine: T1-PPB with 3% O2 + 5% CO2, T2- PPB with 3% O2 +10% CO2, T3- PPB with 5% O2 + 5% CO2, T4- PPBwith 5% O2 + 10% CO2, T5- PPB with Air, T6- Control(no packing). The packed fruits were then stored at15±1oC temperature in horizontal racks. The physico-chemical parameters like days taken for ripening,shelf life, TSS, acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars(reducing and total) and ascorbic acid were estimatedat an interval of 2 days during storage.

The stage wherein more than 50% of thestored fruits became ripen was considered as end ofdays taken for ripening. The stage wherein more than50% of the stored fruits became unfit for consumptionwas considered as end of shelf life and expressedas mean number of days. The total soluble solids(TSS, oBrix) and titrable acidity (%) were determinedby using ERMA hand refractometer and titrationmethod, respectively (Ranganna, 1986). Brix-Acidratio was calculated by dividing the TSS value bythe acid value. The sugars (reducing and total %)present in the custard apple pulp were determinedby the method of Lane and Eyon. The non-reducingsugars (%) were determined by subtracting reducingsugars from total sugars. Ascorbic acid content (mg/100 g of pulp) was determined by 2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol titration method (Ranganna, 1986). Theexperiment was conducted in completely randomizeddesign with factorial concept and each treatmentreplicated thrice.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Days taken for ripening

Days taken for ripening (Table 1) amongdifferent treatments differed significantly, days takenfor ripening were maximum (10.43 days) with fruitspacked in PPB flushed with 5% O2 + 10% CO2 or 5%O2 + 5% CO2 or 3% O2 + 10% CO2 and minimum incontrol (7.60 days). The days taken for ripening offruits packed in PPB with 3% O2 + 5% CO2 were atpar with PPB with air. Lowering of storagetemperature from ambient (27ÚC) to 15 oC andtreatment of fruits to fungicide or waxol and modifiedatmosphere package is may be due to reduction inethylene synthesis thereby lowered the rate ofdeteriorative physiological, biological and biochemicalactivities in ripening thereby resulted in extending

the days taken for ripening of custard apple fruits(Kamble and Chavan, 2005). Similar results on usingmodified atmosphere package as also reported byYonemoto et al. (2002) in cherimoya and Bolivar-Fernandez et al. (2009) in custard apple fruits.

Shelf life (days)

The shelf life (Table 1) of custard apple fruitsdiffered significantly among different treatments withmaximum shelf life of 12.28 days (44.47% increaseover control) recorded in fruits packed in PPB withair, which was on par with PPB flushed with 3% O2 +5% CO2 and minimum in control (8.50 days). Theextended shelf life of fruits is due to reduction inethylene production attributed to modified atmospherecreated by accumulation of CO2 and depletion of O2

and maintenance of high humidity inside thepolypropylene bags (Magdaline et al., 2001). Theseresults are in conformation with the findings of VishnuPrasanna et al. (2000) in custard apple.

TSS (oBrix)

Significant differences were observed in TSS(Table 2) for the stored fruits. At initial stage ofstorage TSS was minimal (18.50oBrix), whichincreased gradually with advancement in storage.Highest TSS content was documented at 12 daysafter storage (23.61oBrix). In packaging treatments,the annona fruits packed in PPB flushed with differentconcentration of O2 and CO2 extended their influencein recording lower TSS than the control. Theinteraction effect between the treatments and storageperiod were also significant, which showed a steepincrease in the TSS with progressive ripening of thefruits, as a fact the soluble solids rise concomitantlywith the respiratory increase in annonaceous fruitsand reach a maximum after the onset of secondrespiratory rise (Martinez et al., 1993). Similar resultalso observed by Alique (1995) in cherimoya andChunprasert et al. (2006) ‘Neang’ sugar apple fruits.

Titrable acidity (%)

The titrable acidity of stored custard applefruits subjected to different treatments is presentedin table 2. At initial stage of storage, acidity wasminimal (0.16%), which increased gradually withadvancement in storage. Highest acidity content wasdocumented at 12 days after storage (0.44%). Withregard to packaging treatments, the annona fruits

VENKATRAM et al

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packed in PPB flushed with different concentrationof O2 and CO2 extended their improvement inrecording higher acidity than the control. Theinteraction effect between the treatments and storageperiod were not significant. The increase in aciditycan be ascribed to the production of organic acidsduring ripening as reported by Gutierrez et al. (1994).These results are in conformation with the findingsof Paull et al. (1983) in cherimoya fruits.

Brix-acid ratio

Significant differences were observed in brix-acid ratio (Table 2) for the stored fruits. At initial stageof storage brix-acid ratio was maximal (115.60), whichdecreased gradually with advancement in storage.Lowest brix-acid ratio was documented at 10 daysafter storage (53.55). With regard to packagingtreatments, the annona fruits packed in PPB flushedwith different concentration of O2 and CO2 extendedtheir improvement in recording lower brix-acid ratiothan the control. The interaction effects between thetreatments and storage period were also significant,which showed a steep increase in the brix-acid ratiowith progressive ripening of the fruits. Though bothTSS and acidity had shown initial increase followedby decrease, but an increase in acidity is very less,therefore, the brix-acid ratio increased initially anddecreased later indicating that the magnitude ofincrease or decrease in TSS is more as compared toacidity during storage. The fruits packed in PPBflushed with different concentration of O2 and CO2

recorded lower brix-acid ratio and it may be due tolower TSS and higher acidity (Kramchote et al., 2008).

Sugars (%)

Significant differences were observed insugars (reducing, total and non-reducing) (Table 3)for the stored fruits for days, treatments and theirinteractions. At initial stage of storage reducingsugars was minimal (11.90%), which increasedgradually with advancement in storage. Highestpercent of reducing sugars was documented at 12days after storage (16.83%). With regard to packagingtreatments, the annona fruits packed in PPB flushedwith different concentration of O2 and CO2 extendedtheir improvement in recording lower reducing sugarsthan the control. At initial stage of storage, totalsugars was minimal (13.15%), which increasedgradually with advancement in storage and total

sugars content of the fruit was highest at 12 daysafter storage (18.43%). With regard to packagingtreatments, the annona fruits packed in PPB flushedwith different concentration of O2 and CO2 exhibitedtheir effect in recording lower total sugars than thecontrol. At initial stage of storage, non-reducingsugars was minimal (1.25%), which increasedgradually with advancement in storage. Highest non-reducing sugars was documented at 12 days afterstorage (1.60%). With regard to packaging treatments,the annona fruits packed in PPB flushed with differentconcentration of O2 and CO2 extended theirimprovement in recording lower non-reducing sugarsthan the control.

The sugars increased gradually withadvancement in storage due to the starch declineddrastically and there was also a coincidence in theincrease of sugars and the decline of starch content,indicating a hydrolysis of starch into its constituentsugars during fruit ripening and the onset of ethyleneemission coincided with an increase in the respiration(Martinez et al., 1993). Lowest sugars wasdocumented in annona fruits packed in PPB flushedwith different concentration of O2 and CO2 is may bedue to slow ripening process in the modifiedatmosphere packaging which leads to slow build upof the sugars as reported by Johnson and Ertorn(1983). These results are in conformation with thefindings of Alique (1995) and Sanchez et al. (1998)in cherimoya fruits.

Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g)

Significant differences were observed inascorbic acid (Table 3) for the stored fruits. At initialstage of storage, ascorbic acid content was minimal(41.30 mg/100 g) and maximum at 6 days after storage(49.39 mg/100 g). The ascorbic acid of annonaincreased from 0 to 6th day and then declined by 31.48mg/100g on 12 days after storage. With regard topackaging treatments, the annona fruits packed inPPB flushed with different concentration of O2 andCO2 extended their improvement in recording highascorbic acid content than the control. The interactioneffect between the treatments and storage period werenon-significant. Increase in ascorbic acid content ofcustard apple fruit reached a maximum at theclimacteric, after which the amount decreased. Thedecline in ascorbic acid in later stage may beattributed to conversion of ascorbic acid intodehydroascorbic acid. Similar result also observedby Paull (1983) in soursop fruits.

EFFECT OF POLYPROPYLENE PACKAGING ON SHELF LIFE

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Treatments Days taken for ripening

Delayed ripening over control (%)

Shelf life (days)

Increased shelf life over control (%)

PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 9.00b 18.42 12.00a 41.17 PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 10.43a 37.23 11.33c 33.29 PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 10.43a 37.23 11.33c 33.29 PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 10.43a 37.23 11.33c 33.29 PPB with air 8.75b 15.13 12.28a 44.47 Control 7.60c - 8.50d - CD at 5% 0.37 0.58

Table 1. Effect of polypropylene package on days taken for ripening and shelf life (days) of custardapple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1 oC

Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly (p=0.05)

Table 2. Effect of polypropylene package on TSS (oBrix), titrable acidity (%), and brix-acid ratio ofcustard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC

Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly (p=0.05); NS- Non significant

Treatments Days after storage

Mean 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 TSS (oBrix)

PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 18.50 18.70 18.75 19.40 20.20 20.30 23.30 19.87c

PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 18.50 18.65 18.65 19.10 19.70 20.30 23.10 19.70c

PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 18.50 18.65 18.65 19.20 19.60 20.35 23.20 19.72c

PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 18.50 18.65 18.65 19.30 19.50 20.40 23.10 19.73c

PPB with air 18.50 18.85 19.40 20.80 21.70 22.95 24.20 20.90b

Control 18.50 19.20 20.20 22.50 23.10 25.00 24.80 22.18a

Mean 18.50g 18.78f 19.05e 20.05d 20.63c 21.55b 23.61a Treatments Titrable acidity (%) Mean PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.41 0.46 0.27a

PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.41 0.46 0.27a

PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.41 0.46 0.27a

PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.41 0.46 0.27a

PPB with air 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.41 0.46 0.27a

Control 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.36 0.36 0.23b

Mean 0.16f 0.16f 0.17e 0.23d 0.30c 0.40b 0.44a Treatments Brix-acid ratio Mean PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 115.6 116.8 104.1 80.83 63.12 50.00 50.65 82.38c

PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 115.6 116.5 103.6 80.41 60.93 46.75 50.21 82.00c

PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 115.6 116.5 103.6 80.00 61.25 49.63 50.43 82.37c

PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 115.6 116.5 103.6 79.58 61.56 49.51 50.21 82.38c

PPB with air 115.6 117.8 107.7 86.66 67.81 55.97 52.60 86.31b

Control 115.6 120.0 118.8 112.5 92.40 69.44 68.88 99.66a

Mean 115.6b 117.3a 106.9c 86.66d 67.84e 53.55f 53.83f CD at 5 % TSS Titrable acidity Brix-acid ratio For days (D) 0.154 0.016 0.95 For treatments (T) 0.220 0.013 0.77 For D × T 0.378 NS 2.32

VENKATRAM et al

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Mean 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Reducing sugars PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 11.90 11.90 12.10 12.10 13.20 14.40 16.20 13.10c

PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 11.90 11.90 12.10 12.10 13.20 14.30 16.10 13.08c

PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 11.90 11.90 12.10 12.10 13.20 14.40 16.20 13.10c

PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 11.90 11.90 12.10 12.10 13.20 14.40 16.20 13.10c

PPB with air 11.90 11.90 12.30 12.50 14.00 15.80 17.20 13.64b

Control 11.90 12.00 12.90 13.50 15.50 18.10 19.10 15.48a Mean 11.90f 11.91f 12.26e 12.40d 13.71c 15.23b 16.83a

Treatments Non-reducing sugars Mean PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.30 1.41 1.41 1.57 1.34c

PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.30 1.41 1.41 1.57 1.34c

PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.30 1.41 1.41 1.57 1.34c

PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.30 1.41 1.41 1.57 1.34c

PPB with air 1.25 1.25 1.35 1.43 1.48 1.53 1.62 1.40b

Control 1.25 1.25 1.47 1.55 1.65 1.75 1.71 1.51a

Mean 1.25e 1.25e 1.30d 1.36c 1.46b 1.48b 1.60a Treatments Total sugars Mean

PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 13.15 13.15 13.35 13.40 14.61 15.81 17.77 14.40c

PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 13.15 13.15 13.35 13.40 14.61 15.71 17.67 14.39c

PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 13.15 13.15 13.35 13.40 14.61 15.81 17.77 14.40c

PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 13.15 13.15 13.35 13.40 14.61 15.81 17.77 14.40c

PPB with air 13.15 13.15 13.65 13.93 15.48 17.33 18.82 15.06b

Control 13.15 13.25 14.37 15.05 17.15 19.85 20.81 16.22a Mean 13.15f 13.16f 13.57e 13.76d 15.17c 16.72b 18.43a

Treatments Ascorbic acid Mean PPB with 3%O2+5%CO2 41.30 41.30 41.30 50.20 45.10 43.60 32.50 42.17a

PPB with 3%O2+10%CO2 41.30 41.30 41.30 50.20 45.10 43.60 32.50 42.17a

PPB with 5%O2+5%CO2 41.30 41.30 41.30 50.20 45.10 43.60 32.50 42.17a

PPB with 5%O2+10%CO2 41.30 41.30 41.30 50.16 45.10 43.60 32.50 42.17a

PPB with air 41.30 41.30 41.30 48.40 44.40 40.75 30.22 41.07a

Control 41.30 41.30 41.5 47.20 42.25 38.55 28.66 40.10b

Mean 41.30c 41.30c 41.33c 49.39a 44.50b 42.28c 31.48d CD at 5 % Reducing sugars Non-reducing sugars Total sugars Ascorbic acid For days (D) 0.118 0.042 0.071 1.650 For treatments (T) 0.096 0.034 0.058 1.350 For D T 0.289 0.104 0.175 NS

Table 3. Effect of polypropylene package on reducing sugars (%), non-reducing sugars (%), totalsugars (%) and ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at15±1oC

Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly (p=0.05); NS- Non significant

EFFECT OF POLYPROPYLENE PACKAGING ON SHELF LIFE

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Johnson, D.S and Ertron, U. 1983. Interaction oftemperature and oxygen levels on therespiration rate and storage quality of Indaredapple. J. Hort. Sci. 58: 527-533.

Kader, A.A. 1986. Biochemical and physiologicalbasis for effects of controlled and modifiedatmospheres on fruits and vegetables. Fd.Technol. 40 (5): 99.

Kamble, P.B and Chavan, J.K. 2005. Effects of postharvest treatments and storage temperatureon shelf life of custard apple fruits. J. Fd. Sci.Technol. 42 (3): 253-255.

Kramchote, S., Jirapong, C and Wong-Agree, C.2008. Effect of 1-MCP and controlledatmosphere storage on fruit quality and volatileemission of ‘Nam Dak Mai’ mango. Acta Hort.804: 485-491.

Magdaline, E.E., Sreenarayanana, V.V and Parvath,R. 2001. Physico-chemical response of sapotapacked under modified atmosphere. MadrasAgri. Journal. 88 (4-6): 271-273.

Martinez, G., Serrano, M., Pretel, M.T., Riqueleme,F and Romojaro, F.1993. Ethylenebiosynthesis and physico-chemical changesduring fruit ripening of cherimoya Annonacherimola Mill. J. Hort. Sci. 68 (4): 477-483.

Paull, R.E., Deputy, J and Chen, N.Z. 1983. Changesin organic acids, sugars and head spacevolatiles during fruit ripening of soursopAnnona muricata L. J. Fd. Sci. Technol. 21(3): 123-127.

Rajput, C.B.S. 1985. Custard apple, In: Fruits of India-Tropical and subtropical, Ed. T.K. Bose, Nayaprakash publications, Calcutta, India, pp 479-486.

Ranganna, S. 1986. Hand book of analysis and qualitycontrol for fruits and vegetable products. TataMc Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi, India.

Ranganna, B., Munishamanna, K.B and Subramanya,S. 2009. Development of modified atmospherepackaging for guava fruits for long distancetransportation. Mysore J. Agri. Sci. 43 (4): 749-753.

Sanchez, J.A., Zamorano, J.P., Hernandez, T andAlique, R. 1998. Enzymatic activities relatedto cherimoya fruit softening and sugarmetabolism during short-term controlled-atmosphere treatments. A Fd. Res. Technol.207 (3): 244-248.

Vishnu Prasanna, K.N., Sudhakar Rao, D.V andShantha Krishnamurthy 2000. Effect ofstorage temperatrure on ripening and qualityof custard apple Annona squamosa L. fruits.J. Hort. Sci. and Biotechnol. 75 (5): 546-550.

Wills, R.B.H., Warton, M.A., Mussa, D.M.D.N andChew, L.P. 2001. Ripening of climacteric fruitsinitiated at low ethylene levels. Aust. J. Expt.Agr. 41 (1): 89-92.

Yonemoto, Y., Higuchi, H and Kitano, Y. 2002. Effectsof storage temperature and wax coating onethylene production, respiration and shelf lifein cherimoya fruit. J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 71:643-650.

VENKATRAM et al

11

Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) is an oilseedcrop of rabi season and attacked by number of insectpests at various phases of its growth and amongthem bud fly, Dasyneura lini (Barnes) is the one thatcause enormous yield losses (particularly in CentralIndia and Northern India and damaged up to 50-80percent) followed by Plusia orichalsia (Fabr.)Caliothrips indicus (Barnall) and Spodoptera exigua(Hub.) (Mukherji et al.1999, Malik et al., 2000).

The present study was aimed to point outSeasonal incidence of different insect pests of linseedand their natural enemies at Raipur region ofChhattisgarh.


The study was carried with two susceptiblevarieties, Neelum and Kiran during the year 2011-12at IGKV, Raipur. Crop was sown on last week ofNovember 2011 with plot size of 5 row X 3 meterlength & replicated three times.

The incidence of different insect pests oflinseed was observed at weekly interval on fiverandomly selected plants at each plot. The incidenceof bud fly & other lepidopteron was estimated bymaking count on the basis of number of damagedbud per plants and total number of healthy buds (percent bud infestation was estimated) and the suckingpests population was recorded by counting thenumber of leaf hoppers & Thrips by shaking in whitesheet per plant. Similarly the natural enemies viz.,lady bird beetle and Spider were estimated by takingobservation on number of predators on 5 selectedplants per plot. The mean insect pests and naturalenemies’ population were, subjected to simple

SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF LINSEED INSECT PESTS ANDTHEIR NATURAL ENEMIES

HARSHWARDHAN GUPTA and B. P. KATLAMDepartment of Entomology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur 492012

ABSTRACT

Linseed bud fly, Dasyneura lini Barnes and thrips were recorded as major pests in Neelum and Kiranvarieties. Three natural enemies viz., two species of lady bird beetle C. septumpunctata and M. sexmaculata andpredatory spider, Lynx sp.were noticed as potential predators of these pests. Bud fly infestation was positivelycorrelated with minimum temperature, rainfall and evening relative humidity.


Date of Receipt : 25-05-2013 Date of Acceptance : 15-07-2013

correlation with temperature, humidity and rainfallrecorded at standard weekly intervals


The linseed bud fly appeared in the 2nd

standard week in Neelum and 3rd week in Kiran varietywith per cent bud damage of 1.4 and 2.26,respectively. The maximum cumulative damage bybud fly was recorded in 10th standard week with buddamage of 34.16 % in Neelum and 22.09% in Kiran.whereas fresh bud damage was noticed maximumduring last week of Feb. and 1st week of March withbud damage of 7.06 and 5.93 per cent. The bud flyincidence was found continued till 10th standard weekin both the varieties.

Thrips were recorded during the vegetativeto maturity stage of the crop on the leaves as well asinside the flowers. First appearance of thripspopulation was recorded in 51st standard week withaverage population of 2.0 and 3.87 thrips/plant invariety Neelum and Kiran. Maximum thrips populationwas recorded in 10th standard week in both the varieties(54.06 and 81.1 thrips/plant ). These observationsare in confirmation with Sahu (1999) and Patel andThakur (2005).

Jassid population was noticed from 0.46 to2.8 in Neelum variety whereas in case of Kiran 0.96to 1.86 number of jassid per plant was found. Inrelation to the population of linseed caterpillar averagepopulation was less than 1 insect per plant wasnoticed which is not influenced for yield loss. Jassid& linseed caterpillar was minor pest of linseed andappeared on 51st meteorological week and its peakpopulation period was 7th to 9th standard week. For

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 7-11, 2013

12

Tabl

e 1.

Sea

sona

l inc

iden

ce o

f maj

or in

sect

pes

ts o

f lin

seed

and

thei

r nat

ural

ene

mie

sGUPTA & KATLAM

13

Tabl

e 2.

Cor

rela

tion

coef

ficie

nt b

etw

een

inci

denc

e of

inse

ct-p

ests

, nat

ural

ene

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s an

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er p

aram

eter

*

S

igni

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vel o

f sig

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*

* H

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f sig

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ance

SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF LINSEED INSECT PESTS AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES

14

the incidence of linseed caterpillar similar time periodwas confirmed by Sahu (1999) and Patel and Thakur(2005) , Mamtarani (2007), Katlam et al. 2012. Andthey also reported that all three pests were exhibitedwith fluctuation of their population and it might bedue to climate change or affected by biotic and abioticfactors.

Two species of lady bird beetle Menochilussexmaculata and Coccinella septumpunctata wererecorded and ranged between 0.06 to 0.086 predators.In present investigation the activity of predaceousSpiders (Lynx sp.) was quite active during 51st to 9th

standard weeks on both the varieties. Its populationwas exhibited ranged between 0.06 to 0.74 and 0.06to 0.73 in Neelam and 0.06 to 0.74 in Kiran variety.

In the present study, both species of Ladybird beetle were seen as preyed upon Caliothripsindicus and played important role to suppress thepopulation of their pests. Similar predators were alsonoticed by Patel and Thakur (2005) as well asMamtarani (2007) and(AICRP, 2010). Present resultis also similar to past finding by Daharia 2010-11that spider might play an important role to managethe small insect pest population.

The statistically analyzed data revealed thatbud-fly incidence had positively higher significantcorrelation with minimum temperature was found inNeelum (r= 0.840**) and Kiran (r= 0.857**). On theother hand, and positively significant correlation withbud-fly infestation in maximum temperature withNeelum (0.865**) and Kiran (0.895**) and minimumtemperature Neelum (0.914**) and Kiran (0.890**)and negative non significant correction in rainfall,relative humidity morning and evening. Present studyagreed with the result of earlier finding reported byKumar et al. (2008).

Depicted from Table 2 that in case ofCaliothrips indicus (Bangall) there was highly

significant correlation of maximum temperature(r=0.886**) and minimum temperature (r= 0.840**) invariety Neelum. On the other hand there was highlysignificant correlation of Kiran (r= 0.792**) at minimumtemperature and (r= 0.857**) at maximumtemperature. Similarly, there was significantcorrelation of relative humidity of morning and noeffect of evening relative humidity. Similarobservations have also been reported by Sahu(1999).

Apart from Thrips, Jassids, linseed caterpillarand spider showed negative and non-significantcorrelation with maximum and minimum temperature,rainfall and relative humidity (Morning and Evening)in both varieties. On the basis of result, it was clearthat environmental factor was least effective with thepopulation of these pests.

Based on the present invest igation,maximum temperature between 24.3 -35 (°C) andminimum temperature between 7.3-19.2 °C andevening relative humidity (between 24-51 per cent)were found congenial for pest multiplication onlinseed. Similar findings have also been documentedby Patel and Thakur (2005).

The present study indicated that in theagro-climatic condition of Raipur linseed suffered withmany insect pest species, out of which linseed budfly Dasyneura lini (Barnes) is major one which causedsevere damage to the floral buds and categorisedunder key pest of linseed. Present investigations arein confirmation with Sahu (1999), Patel and Thakur(2005) Mamtarani (2007), Daharia(2011) and Katlamet al. (2012) who also worked on linseed at Raipur onthe same varieties.

On the other hand, similar findings werereported by Gupta (1995) and Prasad (2004) that D.lini as only the major pest at Ranchi and Faizabad(U.P.) by Kumar et al., 2008.

REFERENCES

AICRP 2010-11. (Linseed). All India CoordinatedResearch Project on Linseed ProjectCoordinating Unit, Linseed, Kanpur.pp:159-177

Daharia,S.K., 2011. Studies on the populationdynamics, screening of germplasm against

linseed bud fly, Dasyneura lini (Barnes) andits management by newer insecticides, inM.Sc. (Ag.) thesis submitted to IGKV, Raipur(C.G.) p: 48

Gupta, R.L. 1995. Linseed gall fly, Dasyneura liniBarnes and its control. Proceedings of the

GUPTA & KATLAM

15

Indian Science Congress Association. 42 (3):294-381.

Katlam, B.P., Deole, S and Sonboir, H.L. 2012.Population dynamics of major insect pests oflinseed. National Conference on DemonstratedOpt ions for Improved Livel ihood inDisadvantaged Areas of India.pp:306-308

Kumar, M., Ali, S. and Mishra, M. K. 2008. Populationdynamics of l inseed insect-pests andmanagement of Dasyneura lini Barnes. AnnalsPlant prot. Sci. 16 (2): 289-293.

Malik, Y. P., Hussain, K., Singh, S.V. and Srivastava,R.L. 2000. Development of managementmodule for bud fly, Dasyneura lini in linseed .Indian. J. Ent. 62 (3): 260-269.

Mamtarani. 2007. Management of linseed bud fly(Dasyneura lini Barnes) using IPM techniques,in M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis submitted to IGKV,Raipur (C.G.). pp. 73-74.

Mukharji, K.G., Dubey, O.P. and Upadhyaya, R.

1999. Insect pests of linseed, IPM system in

Agriculture Oilseed crops. 5: 250-263.

Patel, R. K and Thakur, B. S. 2005. Screening of

different cultivars of linseed against the bud

fly Dasyneura lini Barnes. J. Plant Prot. Env.

2(2): 99-101.

Prasad, D and Prasad, R. 2004. Succession and

incidence of major insect pests infesting

different genotypes of linseed. Annals. Plant

Prot. Sci. 12 (2): 279-282.

Sahu, K.R. 1999. Insect pest succession on linseed

and management of bud fly, Dasyneura lini

Barnes and thrips, Caliothrips indicus Bagnall.

M.Sc. (Ag) thesis submitted to IGKV, Raipur

(C.G.) p. 62.

SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF LINSEED INSECT PESTS AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES

16

Post flowering stalk rots, popularly knownas charcoal rot is the most serious, destructive andwidespread disease in maize. Most of thecommercially grown cultivars have shown a high levelof disease incidence during grain filling stage. Thisdisease is prevalent in most of the maize growingareas of India particularly where there is scarcity ofirrigation especially at post flowering stage of the cropgrowth. Even though significant improvements inmanagement have been made, stalk rots continueto be a serious problem (Kaiser, 1979; White, 1999).In recent years, this disease has gained considerableimportance mainly because number of pathogenswhich were associated with the disease known as“post flowering stalk rot complex” and is responsiblefor reduction in grain yield and decreases fodderquality (Sangit Kumar and Meena Shekar, 2005). Themajor pathogen responsible for the disease isMacrophomina phaseolina.

The extent of loss in grain yield ranged from25-32.2 % and along with decrease in fodder quality(Mukesh kumar et al, 1996). Increasing seriousnessof PFSR and resultant yield reduction emphasizedthe need for identification of resistant sources andunderlying genetics of resistance. Since developmentand use of resistant varieties / hybrids is the bestmean of obtaining practical control, geneticinformation relating to resistance would provide morerelevant basis for making breeding decisions. Hence,attempts were made to study the gene action for


Date of Receipt :24-05-2013 Date of Acceptance : 26-07-2013

COMPONENTS OF GENETIC VARIATION FORMACROPHOMINA PHASEOLONA RESISTANCE IN MAIZE

K.MURALI KRISHNA, G.K CHIKKAPPA and G. MANJULATHAMaize Research Centre, ARI, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030

ABSTRACT

Among the diseases that are limiting the production of maize, post flowering stalk rot (PFSR) was recognizedas a problem especially in south India as early as 1970’s. Resistance to PFSR was studied in ten selected maizeparental lines comprising six resistant and four susceptible in a diallele fashion during rabi, 2009-10. Significantgenotypic differences were observed for PFSR. Additive (D) as well as dominance (H) components were foundimportant in the inheritance of this character with higher proportion to dominance component. All the resistantparents had relatively more number of dominant genes while the susceptible parents had excess of recessivegenes. In light of these findings suitable breeding method has been suggested.

PFSR which would enable breeders to formulatesound basis for future breeding programmes. Since,significant progress could not be made either todevelop stalk rot resistant hybrids/varieties or tounderstand the nature of disease inheritance; thepresent study was under taken to understand thegenetics of host plant resistance in maize to pathogenM. phaseolina.


Present investigation was carried out withan objective to study the genetics of PFSRresistance. The experiment was evaluated underartificial epiphytotic conditions at Maize ResearchCentre, A.R.I, Rajendranagar for post flowering stalkrot resistance during rabi 2009-10. High diseasepressure was achieved through artificial inoculationsof Macrophomina phaseolina inoculam.

Experimental genetic material

The present study comprises of 10 parentallines of which six lines viz., BML- 6, BML-7, BML-10, BML-13, CM-119 and BPPTI -34 were charcoalrot disease resistant and four lines viz., CM-131,BPPTI-38, BPPTI-35 and BPPTI-44 weresusceptible.

During rabi 2008, these selected lines werecrossed in a diallel fashion and obtained 45 F1 straightcrosses. The ten parental lines were also artificiallyinoculated with charcoal rot disease material andconfirmed their reaction to the disease.

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 12-15, 2013

17

Field plot technique

The parents and 45 crosses were sown atMaize Research Centre, A.R.I, Rajendranagar on 20-12-2009 in a complete randomized block design withtwo replications.

Agronomic practices were followed as perthe recommended package of practice. Charcoal rotdisease causing pathogen viz., Macrophominaphaseolina was artificially inoculated following toothpick method as described by Young (1943). Theinoculations were done to all individual plants at thetime of flowering with insertion of the tooth pick inthe second internode as recommended by Koehler

(1960). Irrigation was withheld for 8 days to createtemporarily a congenial atmosphere of water stressfor early establishment of infection. Classification forthe reaction to the pathogen was taken on anindividual plant basis by splitt ing the stalklongitudinally and recorded disease score in 1 to 9scale as suggested by Payak and Sharma (1983).

Post-flowering stalk rot (PFSR) disease score

Disease score was recorded after splitting of thestalks longitudinally in all inoculated plants by using1-9 index scale (1=immune reaction; 9=susceptiblereaction; <5=resistant reaction) suggested by Payakand Sharma (1983).

Charcoal rot disease scale from 1.00 to 9.0

S. No Disease reaction Scale Reaction 1 25% of the inoculated internode discoloured 1 R 2 26-50% of the inoculated internode discoloured 2 R 3 51-75% of the inoculated internode discoloured 3 R 4 76-100% of the inoculated internode discoloured 4 R 5 Discoloration of lees than 50% of adjacent internodes 5 R 6 Discoloration of more than 50% of adjacent internodes 6 S 7 Discoloration of more than three internodes 7 S 8 Discoloration of more than four internodes 8 S 9 Discoloration of more than five internodes and plants prematurely

killed 9 S

R=Resistant S=Susceptible

Statistical analysis

The data were analysed for genetic components andtheir Parameters following Hayman (1954a and1954b). It is a graphical approach which involves Vr-Wr graph and provides information about sixcomponents

D= additive genetic variance

H1= dominance variance

H2= H1[1-(u-v)2] where u and v are proportions ofpositive and negative genes, respectivly, in theparents.

E = expected environmental component of variance.

F = mean of Fr over the array, where Fr is thecovariance of additive and dominant effects in a singlearray.

h2 = dominance effects, as algebraic sum over allthe loci in heterozygous phase in all the crosses

H2/4H1 = proportion of genes with positive andnegative effects

KD/Kr = indicative of excess of dominance

h2/H2 = number of gene groups which controls thecharacter


An estimate of additive and non additivecomponents were significant for PFSR disease score(Table.1). Therefore, both additive and non additivegene action were equally important in the inheritanceof PFSR disease. Under such circumstancesbreeding for a homozygous line by simple pedigreemethod will exploit only additive genetic variance.Hence, inter crossing selects in early segregating

COMPONENTS OF GENETIC VARIATION FOR MACROPHOMINA PHASEOLONA RESISTANCE

18

generations would be the most desirable procedurefor exploiting simultaneously additive and non additivegene effects. Similar results were reported by N.Kulkarni and V.K. Shinde ( 1987) in breeding linesfor resistance to different sources of striga.The magnitude of dominance (H1 and H2) was of higherproportion indicating that the primary gene action wasnon additive. This was also confirmed by degree ofdominance which was 1.45. The estimate of F waspositive and significant indicating the predominanceof dominant alleles. The KD/Kr ratio, which was morethan one was also indicative of excess of dominance.VrWr graph indicated over dominance for the diseasescore since regression line intercepts Y axis belowthe centre of origin (Fig.1). The ratio of h2/H2 was

1.66 which indicates that at least one to two genepairs are controlling the disease out of all the genescontrolling the disease score. The estimate of averagenegative vs positive alleles (h2/4H1) was estimatedto be 0.21 and this reveals equal distribution ofpositive and negative alleles. All the resistant parentsviz., BML-6, BML-7, BML-10, BML-13, CM-119 andBPPTI-34 with preponderance of dominant allelesshowed a low array variance and covariance locatedat the beginning of the regression line. They recordedlow per se for the disease and turned out to be goodcombiners with significant negative gca effectsindicating resistance to post flowering stalk rotdisease. These parents can be used as potentialdonars in breeding programmes aimed at developing

Table 1. Estimates of genetic components and other parameters for PFSR disease at Rajendranagar.

PFSR Disease score D (Addit ive Effect) 1.23*

H1(Dominance Effect) 2.61*

H2 2.22*

h2 0.56*

E (Environ. Comp.) 0.37

F (Mean Fr over arrays) 2.83*

Mean Degree of Dominance 1.45

H2/4H1 0.21

KD/Kr 8.54

h2/H2 1.66

Fig 1. Vr vs Wr graph for PFSR disease at rajendrangar

MURALI et al

19

PFSR varieties/ hybrids as they contributed maximumfavorable genes for resistance. On contrary CM-131,BPPTI -38, BPPTI -35 and BPPTI -44 showed a largearray variance and co variance and were far awayfrom centre of origin with excess of recessive genesindicating susceptibility. Under such circumstances,

it is suggested to produce composities and inter-

mating among selected lines to pool the genes for

resistance.This information would be of use to the

breeders in formulating suitable breeding techniques

in the development of PFSR resistant hybrids.

REFERENCES

Hayman, B.I.1954a. The theory and analysis of diallelcrosses.Genetics.39;789-809

Hayman, B.I.1954b. The analysis of variance of dialleltables.Biometrics. 10; 235-244

Kaiser, S.A.K.M and Mukherjee, N. 1979. Stalk rotcomplex of maize in West Bengal and theirmanagement. Indian J. Mycol. Res. 17(2):77-83.

Koehler, B. 1960. Corn stalk rot in Illions. Ill AgricExp Stn Bull. 658. pp 90.

Kulkarni, N and Shinde, V.K 1987. Components ofGenetic variation for Low Stimulant Productionand Field resistance of Sorghum to Striga. J.Maharastra Agric. Univ. 12(1) 39-41.

Mukesh-Kumar Lal, H .C and Jha, M.M. 1996.Assessment of yield loss due to post-floweringstalk rot in maize. Journal of Applied Biology.8(1): 90-92.

Payak, M.M., and Sharma, R.C. 1983. Disease ratingscales in maize in India. In techniques ofscoring for resistance to important diseasesof maize. ICAR, New Delhi pp. 1-4.

Sangit Kumar and Meena Shekar, 2005. Postflowering stalk rots of maize and theirmanagement in Stresses on maize in tropicsedited by P.H.Zaidi and N.N singh,, Directorateof Maize, Maize Research, Pusa Campus,New Delhi, India.

White D.J. 1999. Fungal stalk rots. Compendium ofcorn diseases. 3rd Edition. D.G. White ed. APSPress, St. Paul, M.N.

Young, H.C. 1943. The toothpick method ofinoculating corn for ear and stalk rot.Phytopathology. 33:16.

COMPONENTS OF GENETIC VARIATION FOR MACROPHOMINA PHASEOLONA RESISTANCE

20

INTRODUCTION

Pulses are well known as cheap & excellentsource of dietary proteins of Indian sub-continent,feed and fodder for animals and also soil fertilityrestorers. Among the pulses, mung bean or greengram(Vigna radiata L.) is the important pulse crop of Indiaand it occupies an area of about 3 m.ha with aproduction of 0.25 m.t and 425 kg ha-1 productivity(NAIP report submitted by CRIDA, 2012). AndhraPradesh is the 4th major state of India contributingabout 15.5% of the national production of greengramwith 351kg/ha average productivity. Khammam isthe important district occupying the 3rd place inproductivity, but 5th place in area & production of greengram. During summer, it is grown as a sole crop withadequate irrigation facilities. With the introductionof Bt cotton, most of the farmers are preferringgreengram after completion of Bt cotton crop(February - April) by virtue of its short duration &drought tolerance in summer.Among the pod borers,legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata (G.) is thedevastating pest of pulses. It is widely distributed inAsia, Africa, Australia & America. It feeds on plantspecies belonging to 20 genera & 6 families, the

SUMMER SEASON SURVEY FOR INCIDENCE OF MARUCA VITRATA (G.)(Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) AND ITS NATURAL ENEMIES ON GREENGRAM AND

OTHER ALTERNATIVE HOSTS IN MAIN PULSE GROWING TRACTS OFKHAMMAM DISTRICT 20

CH. SANDHYA RANI , G RAMACHANDRA RAO, MSV CHALAM,ANIL KUMAR PATIBANDA and V SRINIVASA RAO

Agricultural Research Station, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,Madhira, Khammam District- 507 203


Date of Receipt : 15-02-2013 Date of Acceptance : 24-08-2013ABSTRACT

The survey, conducted for two consecutive years (2009-10 and 2010-11) in the twelve major greengramgrowing mandals of Khammam district during summer, at different growth stages of pulses from randomly selectedfive farmer’s fields revealed that theM. vitrata larval incidence ranged from 05–15 larvae per twenty five plants inbud initiation, flowering and podding stages. The flower infestation ranged from 11.5-29% whereas pod damageranged from 18–27.5%. Among the surveyed mandals, Thirumalayapalem (27.5%), Khammam Urban (24%) andPenubally (23%) recorded the highest pod damage, whereas Madhira (18%) & Bonakal(19.5%)recorded the lowestpod damage. Among the coccinellids, Chilomenussexmaculata species only observed in Pulses ecosystem.Amongspiders, ground spiders viz., Urocteid species, Sparassus pseudolamarckii, Lycosids, Arctosamulani (Dyal);Hippasaspp., Salticiusspp.in blackgram & greengram ecosystems. Other spiders,Argiopesp.,Oxyopessp.,Thomisussp., Chrysillasp.,Tetragnathasp., Neosconatheisi, Telemoniadimidata,Curbasp.Peucetiaviridana,A.diadematusA. anasuja (Thorell) were noticed in pulses ecosystems. Predation or parasitism was not observed inthe field conditions. Physalis minima, Abutilon sp. and Tephrosia sp. (Weeds), greengram, blackgram, cowpea,pigeonpea & Groundnut (Legumes), daincha and sunhemp (green-manuring crops) were found as alternativehosts for Maruca vitrata. Identification of Physalis minima and Abutilon sp., non-Leguminous plants as alternativehosts for Maruca in A.P is the first report.

majority of which belonging to Papilionaceae and isa major pest of cowpea, pigeonpea, mungbean,snapbean, common bean, soya bean, lima bean, fababean, hyacinth bean & adzukibean. It infestspigeonpea, cowpea, mungbean, urd bean & field beanin southern zone of A.P (Sharmaet al.,2000). Inrecent decades, it infested groundnut also (Babu etal., 2006). Because of its extensive host range &destructiveness, it became a persistent pest in pulsesin A.P particularly on greengram, as it is cultivatedthroughout the year in dif ferent seasons /situations.In view of the scope for increase in summergreengram area, it is necessary to conduct thesurveys on the Maruca occurrence, its natural enemyfauna and alternative hosts in summer season forpreparing forewarning systems & managementtactics against Maruca.


The survey was conducted in 12 mandals,to record the natural enemies viz., number ofcoccinellids, spiders, preying mantids on twenty fiverandomly selected Maruca infested plants at weeklyinterval in randomly selected five farmer’s fields of

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 16-20, 2013

21

Khammam district and also to record alternative hostsfor Maruca at Agricultural Research Station (A.R.S)Farm & farmers’ fields. Observations were made byconducting destructive sampling on larval incidence,flower infestation and pod damage from the pulsecrops(Greengram, blackgram, cowpea, pigeonpea(redgram) and green-manuring crops (namely dainchaand sunhemp) grown in surroundings. For naturalenemy population, by visual sampling, counted thenumber of natural enemies on twenty- five randomlyselected Maruca infested plants. Visual sampling wasdone from weed plants available nearby/within thegreengram fields in the A.R.S., Farm and farmers’fields at flowering stage. To record other naturalenemies, Maruca larvae were collected from differentfarmers’ fields and kept in separate jars for monitoringthe presence of larval parasitoids.


Survey for M. vitrata incidence

During summer, the survey was made in fiverandomly selected farmers’ fields at different growthstages in twelve major greengram growing mandalsin 2009-10 & 2010-11 based on the greengramcropped area. The summer survey report revealedthat the M. vitrata larval incidence ranged from 5 –20 larvae per twenty- five plants in different growthstages, i.e. bud initiation, flowering and poddingstages. The flower infestation ranged from 10-30%& 10-28%, whereas pod damage ranged from 16–30& 15–25 per cent in 2009-10 & 2010-11 respectively.Maruca vitrata infestation was noticed in all surveyedmandals. Maruca vitrata infestation starts from budinitiation stage in hidden nature.

Generally farmers are going for greengramcultivation in isolated areas with irrigation facilitiesduring summer season. The Economic Thresholdlevel for Maruca is one percent infestation at budinitiation stage /one larva per plant. Larval incidencerecorded is lower in summer. Farmers are identifyingthe Maruca damage late due to its hidden nature andadapting to sprays after its damage. This might bethe reason for Maruca population prevailing evenunder sprayed conditions and low productivity ofgreengram. Hence, it is necessary to forewarn aboutthe Maruca management in greengram, a non-commercial, very short duration food crop.

Survey for Natural Enemies

In summer during surveys, except spidersand coccinellids, no other predators or parasitoids orentomopathogens were recorded from the Marucainfested plants in pulses ecosystem.The data onnumber of coccinellids and spiders per twenty- fiveMaruca infested plants was recorded on randomlyselected Maruca infested plants from the farmer’sfields ranged from 3.0 - 14.0 and 1.5 - 4.0 in 2009-10and 4.0-10.0 and 1.0–3.0 in 2010-11 respectively.Few Coccinellids & Spiders were recorded in Marucainfested plants. The hidden behaviour of Maruca inwebs (formed by leaves / bud / flowers & pods) mightbe the reason for lesser exposure to the naturalenemies. One larva is enough to cause damage toone cluster by webbing 4-6 pods. Pod damage rangedfrom 18 – 27.5%.

Among the natural enemies, number ofcoccinellids and spiders from randomly selectedMaruca infested pulse crops from the farmer’s fieldsranged from 4.5-12.0 and 1.75 - 3.25 respectively.Among the coccinellids, Chilomenus sexmaculata isthe only species observed in Pulses ecosystem.Among spiders, especially ground spiders viz.,Urocteid species, Sparassus pseudolamarckii,Lycosids, Arctosamulani (Dyal); Hippasa spp.,Salticius spp. were noticed in blackgram &greengram ecosystems. Other spiders includedArgiope sp., Oxyopes sp., Thomisussp., Chrysillasp.,Tetragnatha sp., Neoscona theisi, TelemoniadimidataCurba sp. Peucetiaviridana, A. diadematus A.anasuja (Thorell).These findings are in conformity withthe findings of Sudha (2008), who conducted a fieldsurvey for natural enemies of M. testulalis andreported that spiders viz., Oxyopes shweta, Thomisuskatrajghatus, Thomisus sp., Antilochus coquebertii,Salticus sp. and Hippasa were the predominantpredators. Predation or parasitism was not observedunder both the field conditions in A.R.S Farm as wellas in the farmers’ fields. Durga Rao (2010)investigated the field efficacy of Trichogramma eggparasitoid on Maruca in rice fallow blackgram andreported that at seven days after sixth release ofTrichogramma chilonis that there was only numericaldifference, however, statistically there was non-significant difference between treated plot & controlplot. As was survey conducted in the farmers’ fields,

SUMMER SEASON SURVEY FOR INCIDENCE OF MARUCA VITRATA

22

Tabl

e 1.

Man

dal (

Blo

ck) w

ise

gree

ngra

m a

rea

surv

ey o

nNat

ural

Ene

mie

s on

M. v

itrat

a in

fest

ed p

ulse

s (S

umm

er, 2

009-

10 &

201

0-11

) in

Kha

mm

amD

istr

ict B

lock

SANDHYA et al

23

insecticide sprays influence the Maruca& naturalenemy population. Very few natural enemies wereencountered in survey during summer, an off-seasonand Maruca vitrata’s hidden nature also might be oneof the reasons for escaping from natural enemiesunder field conditions.

Survey for Alternative Hosts of M. vitrata

During the summer season survey, it wasfound that blackgram, pigeonpea (redgram) (Kharif&Rabi), cowpea, daincha and sunhemp were thecultivated hosts and beans were found as alternativehosts. These observations are in agreement with thereports of Ingram (1998) who reported that Sesbania(Daincha) was one of the alternative host for Maruca.Huang (2004) surveyed Sesbania plants and reportedthat among the twenty- one species of insect pestsattacked Sesbania, the bean pod borer, Maruca wasrecognized as the major serious pest. Sharma et al.(2000), Chandrayudu et al. (2006) and Kamakshi etal. (2008) reported that dolichos bean was the mostpreferred host for Maruca.

Among the various weeds in pulsesecosystem, three weeds namely, Physalis minima(Solanaceae), Abutilon sp. (Malvaceae), andTephrosia sp. (Papilionaceae) were found asalternative hosts, as they are hosting early instarlarvae at flowering stage. Arodokoun et al. (2003)reported that Lonchocarpus spp. and Tephrosiaplatycarpa serve as essential relay hosts for Maruca.

Conclusion

The two summer seasons survey pooled data showedthat the pod damage ranged from 18.0 – 27.5 percent (Table 1). Maruca vitrata infestation was noticedin all most all pulse crops in the surveyed mandals.Among the 12 surveyed mandals, Thirumalayapalem(27.5%), Khammam Urban (24.0%) and Penuballi(23.0%) recorded highest pod damage, whereasMadhira (18.0%) & Bonakal (19.5%)recorded thelowest pod damage by M. vitrata.

Among the coccinell ids, Chilomenussexmaculata is the only species observed in Pulsesecosystem. Among spiders, especially groundspiders viz. , Urocteid species, Sparassuspseudolamarckii, Lycosids, Arctosamulani (Dyal);Hippasa spp., Salticius spp. were noticed inblackgram & greengram ecosystems. Other spidersnamely, Argiope sp., Oxyopes sp., Thomisus sp.,Chrysilla sp., Tetragnatha sp., Neoscona theisi,Telemoniadimidata, Curba sp. Peucetiaviridana, A.diadematus A. anasuja (Thorell).

Greengram, blackgram, cowpea,pigeonpea (redgram) and green-manuring cropsnamely daincha and sunhemp were the cultivatedhosts and three weeds namely,Physalis minima,Abutilon sp. and Tephrosia sp. (Papilionaceae) werefound as alternative hosts. Physalis minima andAbutilon sp., the non-papilionaceous weeds identifiedas alternative hosts for Maruca and first time reportedin A.P.

REFERENCES

Arodokoun, D.Y., Tamo, M., Cloutier, C and Adeoti,

R. 2003. Importance of alternative host plants

for the annual cycle of the legume pod borer,

Maruca vitrata (Fabricius) ( L ep i d o p t e r a ,

Pyralidae ) in Southern & Central Benin. Insect

Science and its Application. 23 (2): 103-113.

Babu, B.R., Rajasekhar, P and RamachandraRao,

G. 2006.Ecology and management of

Marucavitrata(Geyer) on groundnut.Journal of

Economic Entomological Research. 30 (4):

329-332.

Chandrayudu, E., Srinivasan, S and Rao, N.V.

2006.Evaluation of certain new insecticides

against spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata

(Geyer) in cowpea. Indian Journal of Plant

Protection. 34 (1): 118-119.

Durgarao, G. 2010. Seasonal incidence and pest

management strategies against spotted pod

borer, Marucavitrata (Geyer) in rice fallow

Blackgram. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis. submitted to

Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.

SUMMER SEASON SURVEY FOR INCIDENCE OF MARUCA VITRATA

24

Huang, C.C. 2004. Seasonality of insect pests on

Sesbania cannabina fields located in

Taiwan. Plant Protection Bulletin, Taipei. 46

(1): 81-91.

Ingram, B.F. 1998. Possible alternative host plants

for some major pod sucking bug pests of

pulse crops in the south Burnett region of

Queensland. General and Applied Entomology.

28: 101-108.

Kamakshi, N., Srinivasan, S and Muralikrishna, T.

2008. Influence of biochemical constituents

on incidence of Pod borer complex in selected

field bean genotypes. Annals of Plant

Protection Science. 16 (2): 302-305.

National Agricultural Innovation Project report,2012.Submitted by Central Research Institutefor Dry land Agriculture.

Sharma KK, Yadav HS and Amarchandra 2000.Anote on seasonal activity of pod borer complexon dolichos bean.JNKVV Research Journal33(1/2) 74-77

Sudha V 2008.Predatory Arthropod diversity inPulses Ecosystem.M. Sc (Ag). Thesissubmitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University, Coimbattore.

SANDHYA et al

25

Declining trend of land and water andplateuing in the yield of high yielding varieties madeit difficult to increase the rice production.Successfulinvention and utilization of hybrid rice technology inChina has generated interest in Indian rice breeders.Many hybrids have been released for generalcultivation. Most of these hybrids have IR 58025Aas female parent. Hybridson this female line havelight scent, poor quality and hence development ofalternate lines were suggested (Paroda, 1998).Therefore, four new CMS lines were developed byback cross method and were crossed with newrestorers to understand nature of gene action for theirfuture use in rice breeding.


The material comprised of four new CMSlines developed by back cross method and 11restorers by pedigree method at RJ Biotech LimitedR&D farm. They were crossed in Line x Tester matingdesign during kharif 2011. Resultant 44 hybrids weregrown in Randomised block design with two repeatsin 2011-2012 rabi season. All the package ofpractices recommended for hybrid rice cultivationwere followed. Data was collected on day to 50 %flowering, plant height(cm), number of productivetillers, panicle length(cm) and grain yield on tenrandomly selected plants in each replication. The datawas analyzed following kempthorne(1957).

NATURE OF GENE ACTION IN NEW CMS AND RESTORER LINES OF RICE(Oryza sativa L.)

ZAKIR HUSSAIN and NARENDRA KULKARNIR&D FARM, RJ BIOTECH LIMITED, AUSHAPUR, RANGAREDDY DISTRICT- 501 301

ABSTRACT

Four newly developed male sterile lines were crossed with eleven restorers in line x Tester matingdesign and genetic information was derived. The genotypic differences among the 44 hybrids were significantfor all the characters. Female x Male interaction was also significant indicating the role of non-additive geneaction for all the characters. Among the CMS lines MS-4 was good combiner for early flowering and MS-1formore productive tillers while MS-2 was for panicle length. For grain yield MS-3, MS-4 were good combiners.Among the restorers R-8, R-9, R-11, and R-12 contributed favorable genes for grain yield and productivetillers except R-8. Fifteen hybrids possessed significant SCA effects for grain yield. The hybrids MS-3/R-8,MS-2/R-8, MS-2/R-11 and MS2/R-12 were best specific cross combination for grain yield.



RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION

Analysis of variance (Table-1) indicatedexistence of significant variation among the hybridsfor yield and yield contributing characters. Furtherpartitioning of genotypes into female and malesexhibited variation among themselves. Thecontribution by females was of higher magnitude fordays to flowering and plant height and for othercharacters by males. The female x male interactionwas significant for all characters indicating the roleof non-additive gene action in governing thesecharacters. This was further confirmed by ratio ofGCA to SCA variance which is less than unity,emphasizing predominant role of non-additive geneaction. Anand et al (1999) and Selvamani andRangaswami (1999) also observed non-additivity forgrain yield.

With respect to days to flowering the parentallines MS-4, R-7, R-9 and R-12 exhibited negative SCAeffects (Table2) and are considered best combinersas they contribute favorable genes for earliness andwill be useful in breeding for earliness which requiresless water and that too for short period. Dwarf statureof hybrids is an important character in order towithstand lodging. The parental lines R-4, R-7, R-9,and R-16 possessed low per se values and turnedout to be good combiners for dwarfness.

MS-1, R-9, R-11, R-12, R-14, and R-21 hadmore number of productive tillers and were best

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 21-24, 2013

26

Source D F Days to

Flowering

Plant Height (cm)

No. of productive Tillers/Hill

Panic Length

(cm)

Grain Yield

Replications 1 2.126 11.134 0.011 0.098 0.0004 Crosses 43 95.46** 95** 18.051** 3.532** 0.01884** Females 3 252.89* 389.10** 3.15 4.68* 0.003 Males 10 139.336* 196.98** 153.61** 6.94** 0.0490** Femalex Male 30 65.09** 51.10** 20.65** 2.28* 0.0103** Error 43 0.71 6.11 1.66 0.96 0.00024 2GCA (Females) 8.54 15.36 -0.79 0.11 -0.00033

2GCA (Males) 9.28 18.23 16.62 0.58 0.0048

2GCA 4.06 11.63 9.40 0.49 0.0011 2SCA 32.19 22.50 10.32 0.66 0.0101

2GCA/ 2SCA

0.13 0.52 0.87 0.74 0.101

Table 1. ANOVA for Line x Tester

**,*= Significant at 1 & 5 percent

Table 2. General combining ability effects for grain yield And its components

Females Days to Flowering

Plant Height(cm)

No. of Tillers/Hill

Panicle Length(cm) Grain Yield

MS-1 2.568** -0.011 0.534* -0.023 -0.176*

MS-2 2.387** 0.329 -1.506** 0.658** -0.0002

MS-3 -0.249 -0.148 0.125 -0.296 0.0071*

MS-4 -4.702** -0.169 0.398 -0.337 0.0102**

SE ± 0.179 0.52 0.270 0.209 0.0007

Males

R-2 1.887** -1.045 -2.231** 0.136 -0.013*

R-4 0.137 -10.045** -4.431** -1.989** -0.116**

R-5 -0.363 0.454 -1.056* 0.886* -0.068**

R-7 -8.113** -2.920** -0.056 -0.239 -0.009

R-8 1.137** 4.329** -1.181* 1.386** 0.1046**

R-9 -5.163** -5.045** 2.068** -0.114 0.0757**

R-11 7.137** 3.579** 3.194** 0.261 0.088**

R-12 -1.113** 5.579** 1.563** 0.386 0.0795**

R-14 -0.113 3.454** 1.443* 0.386 -0.0517**

R-16 0.637* -3.295** -1.306** -1.239** -0.0967**

R-21 4.387** 4.454** 2.700** 0.136 0.0071

SE ± 0.297 0.873 0.455 0.347 0.0019

**,* = Significant at 1 & 5 percent

HUSSAIN and KULKARNI

27

combiners in contributing favorable genes for thischaracter. These lines can be used in improvingproductive tillers. For panicle length MS-2, R-8, werebest general combiners with higher mean values.Sharma et al (1996) indicated additive gene actionfor this character. Hence, these lines can be usedas donors for improving panicle length.

Based on GCA effects among females MS-3, MS-4 and among males R-8, R-9, R-11 and R-12were good combiners for grain yield. They were alsogood general combiners for some yield contributingcharacters. Therefore, it is suggested that populationinvolving these parents in multiple crossingprogramme may lead in isolating high yielding purelines. The good combining restorers viz. R-8, R-9,

Table 3. Specific combining ability effects of desirable crosses for yield and its attributes

S.No Cross Days to flowering

Plant Height (cm)

No. of Productive

tillers

Panicle Length

(cm)

Grain Yield/ha

1 MS 1/R-2 0.06 2.04 1.34 1.27 0.053**

2 MS 1/R-4 1.68** 9.04**0 0.84 -1.89** 0.027**

3 MS 1/R8 2.68** -4.33* -0.41 0.52 0.032*

4 MS 1/R-11 0.68 -0.08 0.21 0.65 0.61**

5 MS 1/R 16 -5.81** -1.70 -1.28 -1.35 0.036**

6 MS 2/R-4 -13.13** -0.27 1.43 -1.28 0.008

7 MS 2/R-7 5.11** 4.10* 2.56** 1.96** -0.074**

8 MS 2/R-11 0.86 3.60* 0.81 -0.660 0.122**

9 MS 2/R-12 -6.88** -1.39 0.93 -0.66 0.108**

10 MS 2/R-14 -3.88** -9.27** 2.56** 0.34 0.024

11 MS 3/R-4 -1.5 -14.99** -0.75 0.17 -0.036**

12 MS 3A/R-8 -2.5** 1.62 -.500.29 0.290 0.136**

13 MS 3A/R-9 -1.75** 6.12** -0.75 0.79 0.060**

14 MS 3A/R-16 -2.0** 2.25 10.62** 0.40 -0.028**

18 MS 3A/R-21 -0.75 4.00* 0.12 0.05 0.058**

19 MS 4A/R-2 -6.79** -5.27** -2.02* 0.08 0.08**

20 MS 4A/R-9 -6.29** -2.14 0.98 -0.16 -0.024*

21 MS 4A/R-11 -3.04 -4.89** -0.65 0.46 -0.061**

22 MS 4A/R-16 2.45 5.48** -0.15 0.46 0.034**

23 MS 4A/R-21 -1.29 -4.27* 2.85** 0.08 0.034**

S.E.± 0.59 1.74 0.91 0.69 0.011

*,**=Significant at 5 & 1 percent

NATURE OF GENE ACTION IN NEW CMS AND RESTORER LINES OF RICE

28

REFERENCES

Anand, G., Amruthadevarathanam and EdwinRogbell, J. 1999.Combining ability andheterosis for cold tolerance in rice. Oryza 36(2):114-117.

Ganeshan, K., Wilfred Manuel W, Vivekanandan andArmugam PM 1997.Combing ability heterosisand inbreeding depression for quantitative traitsin rice. Oryza 34:13-18.

Kempthorne, D.1957. An introduction to geneticstat istics. John Wiley and sons. Inc.,Newyork.

Paroda 1998. Rice research and development statusand future direction XXXIII. All India rice

R-11 and R-12 may be inter-crossed to improverestorers by selection from segregating generations.MS-3 and MS-4 are new CMS lines with goodagronomic background without scent which is adesirable character and good combiners to replaceIR58025A as Paroda(1998) emphasized need toreplace for some of its short comings.

Study of SCA effects has been useful toidentify best specific crosses for different characters.The cross combinations MS-2/R-4, MS-2-R-12, MS-4/R-2 were best specific crosses for early floweringand MS-3/R-4, MS-2/R-14, MS-4/R-2 for plant height(table – 3). In respect of productive tillers MS-3/R-16, MS-4/R-21, MS-2/R-7andMS-2/R-14 had higherper se with significant SCA effects.All these crossesare derived from low x low or good x low combiningparents. Among the 44 crosses only one cross viz.MS-2/R-7 has recorded significant SCA effect forpanicle length. Eleven crosses had significant SCAeffects for grain yield. The crosses MS-2/R-11, MS-2/R-12, MS-4/R-2 and MS-1/R-11 were best specificcrosses involving only one parent as good combiner.

The higher yield in these crosses isattributed tonon-additive gene action and can profitably used forcommercialization of these hybrids. The cross M-3/R-8 and MS-3/R-9 have both the parent as goodcombiners and gene action is additive x additiveinteraction which is fixable in nature. Such crossesare expected to throw useful transgressive sergeantsin later generations through pedigree method ofselection. Among other crosses MS-1/R-2 and MS-1/R-16 have both parents as poor combiners. Highyield in these crosses is attributed to interactionbetween positive alleles from one parent and negativealleles from other parent. Yaung (1987) also indicatedthat majority of crosses from high SCA effects forgrain yield were attributed to dominance and epistaticeffects. Considering hybrid rice as viable technologyto enhance the yield levels, these high yieldinghybrids can be made use for heterosis breeding.Further testing of MS-3, and MS-4 which are newCMS lines and good combiners for grain yield withgood agronomic back ground will be worthwhile inhybrid rice programmes.

research group meeting held at PAU on 16-4-98.

Selvani, A and Rangaswamy P 1999. Combing abilityanalysis in rice Oryza 36(2): 151-153.

Sharma, R.K., Koranne K.D, and Dube, S D1996.Combining ability analysis for yield andyield components in rice. Oryza 33: 18-20.

Yaung, J .B 1987. Heterosis and combing ability overenvironments in relation to hybrid rice breedingPh.D. Thesis submitted to University of thePhilippines, Los Banos, Philippines.

HUSSAIN and KULKARNI

29

The term “soil quality” is gaining popularityin the agricultural sector, especially as farmers arestriving hard to sustain the crop production andmaintain soil health (Smith et al 1994). Owing toimproper land use and management, soil erosion,alkalinity, nutrient depletion, pollution and othernatural resource problems, it is urgent to improvesoil quality by maintaining sustainable agriculturalland use and management practices (Rozanov 1990).This task is seen as one of the important projects formodern soil science (Lal 1993, Wang and Gong 1996).

The agricultural soils in the world particularly in thetropics and sub humid regions are major carbon sinksand with suitable management practices and croppingsystems their carbon sequestration potential can beharnessed (Bhattacharyya et al. 2007b, Wani etal.2003).It is argued that increase in soil organiccarbon pool favorably influences the soil quality(Johnston, 1986; Wani et al.2003; Emerson 1995;Pathak et al. 2005).

The soils around the Hyderabad are mostlymedium in texture and alkaline in nature. As thechange in land use over a period of time andintensifying cropping in these areas resulting in lotof changes in organic matter and nutrients of thesoils. There is a big gap between nutrient lost fromthe soil and the nutrient addition. It was estimatedthat about 242.8, 61.7 and 169.3 thousand tonnes of

EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN SOIL QUALITY UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USEENVIRONS OF CHANVELLY VILLAGE, RANGAREDDY DISTRICT OF ANDHRA

PRADESH- A CASE STUDYM. RAM PRASAD and V.GOVARDHAN

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar,Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad-500030

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted to assess the effect of changing land use on soil quality over time in Chanvellyvillage of Rangareddy district of Andhra Pradesh. A comparision between different physiographic units and differentland use conditions was also made. Changes in soil quality were evaluated based on the changes in relative soilquality index (RSQI). Soil quality in uplands was increased by 5 units, midlands was increased by 10 units, where aslowland was increased by 9 units over a period of 28 years. The soil quality in terms of CEC, organic carbon, N, P,K increased slightly in uplands, where as in midlands and lowlands these quality indicators increased moderately.Soil quality in uplands was increased by 5 units, midlands was increased by 10 units, where as lowland wasincreased by 9 units over a period of 28 years. The soil quality classes changed from IV to III in upland area and IIIto II in midland and lowland area. This indicates that the intensive cropping, cropping systems and suitablemanagement practices played a significant role in improving the soil quality.



nitrogen, phosphate and potash respectively, werelost annually where as gains were only 67.4, 17.8,and 49.8 thousand tonnes (Sharma 1998) with cleardeficit of about 175.4, 43.9 and 119.5 thousand tonnesof N, P, and K respectively. Such situations demandfor adoption of specific land use and managementpractices which may bring about positive change insoil quality together with better nutrient supply forthe crop growth. The objective of this study was toevaluate the soil quality changes over time at farmsituations taking into account all soil and cropmanagement factors together.


Survey was conducted on farmer’s fields inChanvelly village (located between 17o. 05' and 17o.16' North latitude and 79o. 05' and 77o. 06' Eastlongitudes) in Ranga Reddy district of AndhraPradesh. Soil and land resources of Chanvelly villageare diversified in nature and characteristics insupplying nutrients and providing necessaryanchorage for the crop growth and development. Thisstudy area forms a part of Deccan plateau. Thechanges in land use pattern in Chanvelly village overtime scale (Table 1) illustrated that large area wasunder forest, barren and uncultivable, pasture andother grazing; cultivable waste lands, fallow lands,current fallow lands during 1980-81. But successivelyover decades, the cultivation intensity changed the

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 25-30, 2013

30

land use pattern. Essentially a quantitative changehas been taken place in various categories of landuse and as a result net sown area and total croppedarea increased. Further, conventional croppingsystems were replaced by many commercial cropsand the new cropping systems and got stabilized.

The general slope of the land is from north to south.Based on variation in relief factor, lands were

characterized in to uplands, midlands and lowlands.In the study areas farmers were growing jowar, bajra,groundnut under rain fed condition in early days1980’s. Presently farmers are mainly practicing fourcropping systems under well irrigated conditions i.e.cotton-red gram in upland areas, green chilies-cabbage-tomato, carrot-cabbage-tomato in midlandareas, and rice-rice-black gram in low land areas(Table. 2).

S.No Classification/year 1980-81 (ha )

2000-01 (ha)

2008-09 (ha )

1 Geographical area 872 872 872

2 Reporting area 860 860 860

i) Forests 140.04 80.15 20.28

ii) Area under non-agricultural use 12.24 15.67 24.08

iii) Barren and uncultivable lands 72.2 24.58 8.24

iv) pasture and other grazing lands 20.04 8.16 4.32

v) land under misslenious tress 8.24 3.36 1.44

vi) Cultivable waste lands 21.16 6.48 0.64

vii) Fallow lands 70.72 42.69 5.04

viii) Current fallows 72.12 34.66 4.72

ix) Net sown area 443.24 644.25 791.24

x) Total cropped area 552 702 804

xi) Cropping intensity 44.44 77.88 93.28

3 Net irrigated area 109.448 286.12 355.62

Table 1. Land use pattern in Chanvelly village over time scale

Source: Cadastral map (1: 1000) of Chanvelly village – 1980-81 & 2008-09 Agricultural source books, Dept.of. Agriculture, Chavella mandal.

Table 2. Diversification in land use pattern over last 28 years in Chanvelly village

1 Major cropping systems Jowar Cotton-red gram Jowar-jowar Green chilies- cabbage-tomato

Jowar-bajra Rice-rice-black gram

Jowar-ground nut Carrot-cabbage-tomato

2 Major source of irrigation Rain fall Bore wells and canals

3 use of machinery

little (mostly bullock drown implements)

intensive (complete mechanization with high equipped implements)

3 use of machinery

In the present study soil samples were collected fromeach cropping system based on soil physiography.Samples were analyzed as per the standard

procedures for quality assessment. These qualityparameters were matched with earlier data for possiblechange in soil quality.

PRASAD and GOVARDHAN

31

Soil Quality Evaluation

There are different approaches that can beused to quantify soil quality. Doran and Parkin (1996)proposed a minimum data set called indicators forcharacterizing and monitoring soil quality. Theminimum data set includes soil attributes and

properties such as, texture, soil and rooting depth,bulk density, inf iltration, water retent ioncharacteristics, soil organic matter, electricalconductivity, available N. P and K, microbial bio-massand soil respiration.

Table 3. Soil quality indicators and their weights and classes for the evaluation of soil quality

Indicators Weights Class I Class II Class III Class IV Soil depth (cm) 13 >100 80-100 50-80 <50

Texture 11 Loam Clay or Sandy loam Clay or Sand Grit Slope (%) 13 0-5 5-10 10-20 >20 Organic matter (g kg-1) 13 >30 20-30 10 to 20 <10 Avail N ( kg ha-1) 12 >400 300-400 200-300 <200 Avail P ( kg ha-1) 12 >15 10 to 15 5 to 10 <5

Avail K ( kg ha-1) 11 >250 200-250 100-200 <100 CEC (c mol (p+)/kg ) 10 >15 10 to 15 5 to 10 <5 pH 5 5.5-7.0 5.0-5.5 4.5 - 5.0 <4.5

Marks 100 4 3 2 1

Soil quality evaluation was done asdescribed by Pierce and Larson (1993). In this study,9 soil quality indicators were used. These includesoil depth, texture, slope, organic matter, availableN, available P, available K, Cation ExchangeCapacity (CEC) and soil pH. Soil depth and soiltexture reflect the suitability of soil physicalconditions for plant growth. Slope and texture arerelated to resistance to erosion. Organic matter, CECand pH influence the habitat for soil organisms. Soiltexture, slope, depth and organic matter relate toplant available water. These factors have thereforebeen adopted to reflect the various aspects of soilquality in relation to plant growth.

Changes in indicators values reflect thecombined effects of land use. If the changes in soilquality indicators are positive and higher, then it isof better quality and soil can be regarded asaggregated in quality.

Weights of the indicators: The contribution of eachindicator towards soil quality is usually different andcan be indicated by a weighing coefficient. Thereare many ways to assign the weights for eachindicator. In this study, the weight for each indicator(Table 3) was assigned on the basis of existing soil

conditions, cropping pattern and agro-climaticconditions of Ranga Reddy district. The sum of allweights is normalized to 100% (Smith et al. 1994).

Subdivision of the indicators: Each of the indicatorswas divided in to four classes (I, II, III, and IV).

Class I, is the most suitable for plant growth,

Class II, is suitable for plant growth with slightlimitations,

Class III, with more serious limitations than class II,and

Class IV, has severe limitations to plant growth.

Marks of 4, 3, 2 and 1 were given to class I, II, IIIand IV, respectively. The range for each class isshown in Table 3.

Quantitative Evaluation of Changes in SoilQuality: By introducing the concept (Karlen and Stott1994) of Relative soil quality index (RSQI), the 9indicators were combined into an RSQI.

RSQI = (SQI/SQIm) x 100

Where,

SQI = Soil quality index

SQIm = Maximum values of SQI.

EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN SOIL QUALITY UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE ENVIRONS

32

The maximum values of SQI for soil are 400and the minimum value is 100 (Wang and Gong 1996).

SQI is calculated from the equation:

SQI = “ Wi Ii

Where,

Wi = Weights of indicators

Ii = the marks of the indicators classes

SQI of every indicator was calculatedseparately by multiplying weight of indicators andmarks allotted to each class (Table.3).

For example, if the texture of the soil issandy loam, it belongs to class II. As the weight fortexture is 11, and the marks for class II is 3, thenthe

SQI (texture) = 11 X 3 = 33

In this way, SQI for every indicator wascalculated. Summing up of all nine indicatorsproduced the SQI value for a soil under study.

An optimum soil in any region will have anormalized RSQI of 100, but real soils will have lowervalues which directly indicate their distance from theoptimal soil. According to the RSQI values, soils wereclassified in to 5 classes from best to worst,represented as follows by I, II, III, IV and Vrespectively.

Classes RSQI Value I 90-100

II 80-90 III 70-80 IV 60-70 V <60

By computing RSQI values, soil quality in

different regions can be compared even if they areevaluated with different evaluation systems,

weightings, and classes. Similarly, the (“RSQI) was

grouped in to six classes differentiated as follows:

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The soil quality changes were evaluated quantitatively

for three physiographic units over a period 28 years.

In early days in these soils, jowar, bajra and ground

nut were grown and due to change in food habits,

irrigation facilities and market potentials, presently

rice, cotton, chilies, carrot, cabbage, tomato, red

gram and black gram are being cultivated. The data

on selected soil indicators of study area are

presented in table 4. Results of soil analysis data

clearly indicate a moderate increase in pH, organic

carbon, CEC, available nitrogen, phosphorous and

potash in a span of 28 years. These parameters were

used for calculation of soil quality changes.

Soil quality evaluations using survey data

of 1980-81 and 2008-09 showed improvement in soil

quality over a period of time due to intensive cropping

(Table 5). Based on the changes in relative soil quality

index (RSQI), soil quality changes were evaluated.

Soil quality in uplands was increased by 5 units,

midlands was increased by 10 units, where as lowland

was increased by 9 units over a period of 28 years.

Due to high diversification in land use and intensive

cropping the soil quality classes changed from IV to

III in upland area and III to II in midland and lowland

area. This indicates that the intensive cropping,

cropping systems and suitable management practices

played a significant role in improving the soil quality.

The soil quality in terms of fertility status,

organic carbon increased up to 60%. The combination

of a soil change database has proved an effective

method for evaluating changes in soil quality at small

scales. The method can also be helpful for studying

soil changes, soil degradation and evaluation of soil

quality changes and sustainability at regional levels

if we consider some more indicators like subsoil

attributes, soil respiration, microbial biomass, etc and

other soil functions.

Change classes ?RSQI Great increase > 10

Moderate increase 10 to 5 Slight increase 5 to 10 slight decrease 0 to -5 Moderate decrease -5 to -10 Great decrease < -10

∆


33

Table 4. Soil properties of different physiographic units of study area

soil parameter Upland Mid land Low land

1980 2009 1980 2009 1980 2009

Soil depth (cm) 50-80 50-80 80-100 80-100 >100 >100

Texture Sandy loam Sandy loam Sandy clay

loam Sandy clay

loam Clay Clay

Slope (%) 5-10 5-10 0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5

Organic matter (g kg-1) 60 67 62 70 73 80

Avail N ( kg ha-1) 151 150 159 213 161 297

Avail P ( kg ha-1) 10.6 18.7 13.7 22.2 14.1 28.4 Avail K ( kg ha-1) 196 203 202 285 206 369

CEC (c mol (p+)/kg ) 11.1 16.1 11.8 20.8 12.6 24.6

pH 7 7.3 7.2 7.8 7.3 8.2

Parameters Upland Mid land Low land

1980 2009 1980 2009 1980 2009

SQI 270 290 307 347 320 355

RSQI 67 72 77 87 80 89

Class IV III III II III II ∆ RSQI

5

10

9

Remarks Slight increase Moderate increase Moderate increase

Table 5. General soil quality changes over a period of time

REFERENCES

Bhattacharyya, T., Chandran, P., Ray, S.K., Pal,D.K., Venugopalan, M.V., Mandal, C., Wani.S.P., Manna, M.C and Remesh, V. 2007.Carbon sequestration in red and black soils.III. Identifying systems through carbon stockand bulk density of soils. Agropedology 17 :26-34.

Doran, J.W and Parkin, T.B. 1996. Quantitativeindicators of soil quality: A minimum data set.In: methods for assessment of soil quality(J.W. Doran and A.J. Jones, Eds). SSSAspecial publication No. 49, Soil ScienceSociety of America, Madison, WI.

Emerson, W.W. 1995. Water retention, organic carbonand soil texture. Australian Journal of SoilResearch 3: 241-251.

Johnston, A. E. 1986. Soil organic matter: effectson soils and crops. Soil Use and Management2: 97-105.

Karlen, D.L and Stott. 1994. A frame work forevaluating physical and chemical indicatorsof soil quality. In: Defining soil quality forsustainable environment (Doran, J.W.,Coleman, D.C and Stewart, B.A. Eds). pp. 37-51. SSSA Special publication No. 35. SoilScience Society of America, AmericanSociiety of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

Lal, R. 1993. Tillage effects on soil degradation, soilresilience, soil quality, and sustainability. Soiland Tillage Research 27: 1-8.

Pathak, P., Sahrawat, K.L., Rego, T.J and Wani,S.P. 2005. Measurable biophysical indicatorsfor impact assessment: changes in soil quality.In Natural Resource Management inAgriculture: Methods for Assessing Economicand Environmental Impacts ( B. Shiferaw andS.M. Swinton, Eds.), Wallingford, UK: CABInternational. pp. 75-96.

EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN SOIL QUALITY UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE ENVIRONS

34

Pierce, F.J and Larson, W.E. 1993. Developingcriteria to evaluate sustainable landmanagement. In: Proceedings of The 8th

International Soil Management Workshop:Utilisation of Soil Survey Information ForSustainable Land Use (J.M. Kimble, Ed). pp.7-14. USDA Soil Conservation Service,National Soil Survey Centre, Lincon, NE.

Rozanov, B.G. 1990. Human impacts on theevolution of soils under various ecologicalconditions of world. In: Transactions of 14th

ICSS, Plenary lecture. International society ofsoil science, Kyoto, Japan pp. 53-62.

Sharma, U.C. 1998. Fertilizer consumption in India.Fertilizer News 43(8): 27-35.

Smith, J.L., Halvaorson, J.J and Papendick, R.I.1994. Using multiple-variable indicator krigingfor evaluating soil quality. Soil Science Societyof America Journal 57: 743-743.

Wang, X and Gong, Z. 1996. Assessmentandanalysis of soil quality changes aftereleven years of reclamation in subtropicalChina. Geoderma 81: 339-335.

Wani, S.P., Pathak, P., Janagawad, L.S., Eswaran,H and Singh, P. 2003. Improved managementof Vertisols in the semi-arid tropics forincreased productivity and soil carbonsequestration. Soil Use and Management 19:217-222.


35

Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is animportant grain legume in Asia. It is one of the thirteenfood legumes grown in India and third most importantpulse crop of India after chickpea and pigeonpea. Itis rich in essential amino acids specially lysine,which is deficient in most of the cereal grains. InIndia, mungbean is grown on an area of 34.4 lakh ha,with a production of 14 lakh tons with a productivityof 406.98 kg/ha ( 2011). In Andhra Pradesh, mungbean is grown on an area of 4.40 lakh ha, with aproduction of 2.17 lakh tons and productivity of 493.18kg/ha (2011).

Genetic variability parameter is important incrop improvement. Heritability, which measuresphenotypic variance and is attributable to geneticcauses, is another important consideration for asuccessful breeding program. Genetic variability,heritability along with genetic advance of traits, theirassociation and direct and indirect effects on yieldare essential for crop improvement. Correlationcoefficient analysis is a handy technique, whichelaborates the degree and extent of relationshipamong important plant characters and it providesbasic criteria for selection and leads to directional

ABSTRACT

Genetic variability, heritability along with genetic advance of traits, trait correlation, path analysis on yieldare essential for crop improvement. The genetic diversity studies were carried out during rabi 2012-2013 atexperimental field of college farm in Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU), with 50 genotypes toelicit the information. The genotypic coefficients of variation for all the characters studied were lesser than thephenotypic coefficients of variation indicating the modifying effects of the environment in association with thecharacters at genotypic level. High PCV and GCV estimates were observed for number of pods per plant, seed yieldper plant. High heritability along with high genetic advance as per cent of mean was observed for number of podsper plant, number of seeds per pod, seed yield per plant indicating the role of additive genes in governing theinheritance of these traits and could be improved through selection.The correlation studies indicated that days toinitial flowering, days to 50% flowering, no. of branches per plant, no. of pods per plant, no. of seeds per plant, daysto full maturity, 100 seed weight (g), pod length (cm) and 50% podding are positively and non significantly correlatedwith seed yield and simultaneous improvement of these characters along with seed yield is possible. The pathanalysis for seed yield revealed that number of seeds per pod, pod length, 50% podding and 100-seed weight hashigh positive direct effects and they would directly increase seed yield.

GENETIC VARIABILITY, CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSISFOR YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS IN MUNGBEAN Vigna radiata L. Wilczek

M. JYOTHSNA NAND and CH. ANURADHAInstitute of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture,

Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500030


Date of Receipt :19-06-2013 Date of Acceptance : 31-08-2013

model based on yield and its components in the fieldexperiments. Yet, the information it supplies aboutthe nature of association is often incomplete. Pathcoefficient analysis, on the other hand, is an efficientstatistical technique specially designed to quantifythe interrelationship of different components and theirdirect and indirect effects on seed yield. Informationregarding inheritance of grain yield and its closelyrelated components is essential to efficiently exploitthe available genetic diversity in mungbean for seedyield (Khattak et al., 2004). The seed qualityparameters viz., germination, vigour and sizeinfluence the yield, by altering plant populationdensity, spatial arrangements and crop duration. Thegenetic study on seedling vigour is speciallypromising, since the heritability for these charactersis often high.


Fifty germplasm lines collected from differentsources were planted and evaluated during Rabi2012-2013, in a Randomized Block Design with tworeplications at ANGRAU. Each genotype wasrepresented by row length of 4m in each replication

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 31-39, 2013

36

with a uniform spacing of 30 cm between rows and

15 cm between plants. The crop was provided with

fertilizer to supply 20 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 per hectare.

All the other recommended packages of

practices were adopted in respect of plant protection,

cultural practices and protective irrigations were given

as and when needed. Data on five randomly tagged

plants of each genotype per replication were recorded

on number of primary branches per plant, number of

pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, days to full

maturity, 100 seed weight(gm), seed yield per plant

(gm), pod length, 50% podding and percentage of

disease incidence. The data on days to initial

flowering, days to 50% flowering and days to maturity

was recorded on plot basis. Coefficients of variations

(Burton, 1952), heritability in broad sense and genetic

advance (Johnson et al.,1955) were estimated.


Phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of

variation (PCV and GCV), heritability and genetic

advance over mean, Phenotypic and genotypic

correlation coefficients and Path coefficient analysis

for the 11 characters were studied in the selected

genotypes are presented in Table 1, 2 and 3

respectively.

The genotypes showed significant

differences in respect of all the characters studied.In

the present study high PCV and GCV estimates were

observed for number of pods per plant (38.06, 33.22),

seed yield per plant (34.31, 20.17) and Percentage

of disease incidence ((162.23, 175.93). Lowest PCV

and GCV estimates were recorded for days to initial

flowering(6.08, 3.42), days to 50% flowering (7.44,

3.99), days to maturity (5.75, 3.26) and 50% podding

(9.21, 4.92). Lowest GCV estimate is also observed

in 100 seed weight (7.06) and pod length (8.42).

Moderate values were recorded for the remaining

traits. Similar results were found with Manivannan

(2000), Razia Sultana et al. (2001), Varma and Garg

(2003), Bupesh Kumar and Mishra (2004), Priyanka

Bhareti et al. (2011).

Heritability estimates give the best picture of

the extent of advance to be expected by selection.

High heritability is observed in days to initial flowering,

number of branches per plant, number of pods per

plant, number of seeds per pod, days to full maturity,

seed yield per plant, percentage of disease incidence.

Moderate heritability was observed in days to 50%

flowering, 100 seed weight, pod length and 50%

podding. Similar results reported by Natarajan et al.

(1988), Sexena and Singh (2002). For reliable

selection high heritability of a character needs to be

accompanied by high genetic advance (Johnson et

al. 1955) because such characters are mostly

controlled by additive gene action. The genetic

advance as per cent of mean was high for number of

pods per plant (59.73), number of seeds per pod

(23.30), seed yield per plant (24.43). Lowest genetic

advance as per cent of mean is observed for days to

initial flowering (3.96), days to 50% flowering (4.41),

days to full maturity (3.82), 100 seed weight (7.74),

pod length (8.48), 50% podding (5.41). Similar results

were observed by Manivannan (1996), Pandiyan et

al. (2006).

High heritability along with high genetic

advance as per cent of mean was observed for

number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod,

seed yield per plant. The association of high

heritability with genetic advance for these traits was

indicative of additive effects. High heritability with

moderate genetic advance was observed for number

of branches per plant. High heritability with low

genetic advance was observed for days to initial

flowering, days to full maturity which indicates non

additive gene action. From this aspect it could be

inferred that simple selection will be effective for these

characters. From the present study it is evident that

the genotypes had wide range of variability for

different traits coupled with high heritabilty and high

genetic advance for important yield traits, hence

selection is effective for these traits. Early vigour

may be used as one of the selection criterion in

breeding programmes for yield improvement.

JYOTHSNA and ANURADHA

37

S.No. Characters PCV GCV Heritability(%) GA (%)

1 Days to initial flowering 6.08 3.42 31.6 3.96

2 Days to 50% flowering 7.44 3.99 28.8 4.41

3 No. of branches per plant 19.11 10.57 30.6 12.05

4 No. of pods per plant. 38.06 33.22 76.1 59.73

5 No. of seeds per pod 20.11 15.08 56.2 23.3

6 Days to full maturity. 5.75 3.26 32.2 3.82

7 Hundred seed weight (g). 13.27 7.06 28.3 7.74

8 Seed yield per plant (g). 34.31 20.17 34.5 24.43

9 Pod Length 17.22 8.42 23.9 8.48

10 50% podding 9.21 4.92 28.5 5.41

11 Percentage of disease incidence 175.9 162.2 85 308.17

Table 1. Variability, Heritability and Genetic advance over mean of yield and yield components inGreen gram

Correlation between seed yield and itscomponents

Seed yield was positively and non significantlycorrelated with days to initial flowering, days to 50%flowering, no. of branches per plant, no. of pods perplant, no. of seeds per plant, days to full maturity,100 seed weight (g), Pod length (cm), 50% poddingand negatively correlated with per cent diseaseincidence, results are presented in Table 2. Similarfindings were reported by Mishra and Pradhan (2006)and Patel et al. (2006) for days to flowering and podlength, and Reddy et al. (2011) for days to fullmaturity and 100 seed weight. Anil Sirohi andLokendra Kumar (2006) for number of branches perplant Sreelakshmi and Reddysekar (2011) for numberof pods per plant, for number of seeds per pod.

Path analysis

The correlation values decide only the natureand degree of association existing between pairs ofparameters. A parameter viz., like seed yield isdependent on several mutually associatedcomponent characters and change in any one of thecomponents is likely to affect the cause and effective

PCV: Phenotypic coefficient of variation. GCV: Genotypic coefficient of variation.

GA (%): Genetic advance as % of mean

relationship. This in turn might affect the trueassociation of component characters, both inmagnitude and direction and tend to decrease theassociation of yield and yield components. Hence, itis necessary to divide the phenotypic correlations ofcomponent characters into direct and indirect effects(Biradar et al., 2007) and are presented in Table 3.

Direct effects

Seed yield per plant was considered as thedependent variable for path analysis. At genotypiclevel maximum positive direct effect was recordedfor days to full maturity followed by number of seedsper pod, pod length, 50% podding, days to 50%flowering recorded low positive direct effect. The highnegative direct effect was recorded on diseaseincidence followed by days to initial flowering, 100seed weight and the low negative direct effects wererecorded on number of branches per plant and numberof pods per plant.

At phenotypic level highest positive direct wasrecorded for 100 seed weight followed by pod length,number of seeds per pod, 50% podding and the lowestpositive direct is recorded on days to initial flowering,

GENETIC VARIABILITY, CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR YIELD

38

Tabl

e 2.

Gen

otyp

ic a

nd p

heno

typi

c co

rrel

atio

n co

effic

ient

s in

Mun

gbea

n (V

igna

radi

ata

(L.)

Wilc

zek)

1

*si

gnifi

cant

at 5

% le

vel

**

sign

ifica

nt a

t 1%

leve

l

P

= P

heno

typi

c le

vel

G

= G

enot

ypic

leve

l


39

number of branches per plant, disease incidence. Themaximum negative direct effect was recorded on daysto 50% flowering, number of pods per plant, days tofull maturity. Similar results were found by Patel etal. (2007) which indicated that positive high directeffects of days to maturity; Mishra and Pradan (2006)indicated maximum positive direct effect on seedyield per plant was exhibited by 100-seed weight.Gopikrishnan et al.(2002) and Karmakar andSinhamahapatra (2006) stated that negative directeffect on seed yield per plant was exhibited by 100-seed weight, number of pods per plant.

Days to initial flowering

At genotypic level positive indirect effect of days toinitial flowering was recorded for number of branchesper plant, per cent disease incidence, days to fullmaturity, number of pods per plant. Negative indirecteffect was recorded for number of seeds per pod,100 seed weight, pod length, 50% podding and daysto 50% flowering.

At phenotypic level positive indirect effect wasrecorded through days to 50% flowering, 50% podding,pod length, 100 seed weight. Negative indirect effectwas recorded through days to full maturity, numberof pods per plant, number of branches per plant,number of pods per plant, per cent disease incidence.Similar findings of positive indirect effects atgenotypic level were found by Pundir et al. (1992),Haritha and Reddy Sekhar (2002) and Sreedevi andReddy Sekhar (2004) indicated the same trend ofnegative indirect effects at phenotypic level.

Days to 50% flowering

A low positive indirect effect of days to 50%flowering was recorded for number of pods per plant,pod length, number of branches per plant, days tofull maturity, days to initial flowering, 50% poddingand negative indirect effect was exerted for numberof seeds per pod, 100 seed weight and per centdisease incidence at genotypic level.

At phenotypic level all traits exhibitednegative indirect effects except per cent diseaseincidence exhibited low positive indirect effect andthe data was recorded by pod length, 100 seedweight, days to initial flowering, number of seeds perpod, days to full maturity, number of branches perplant, number of pods per plant and 50% podding.

Similar findings of positive indirect effectswere found by other workers for days to full maturity(Bhadru, 2010), number of pods per plant ,100 seedweight and days to 50% flowering (Kumar et al.,1995), pod length and number of seeds per pod(Sodavadiya et al., 2009).

Similar findings of negative indirecteffects were found by other workers for number ofpods per plant (Veerabadiran and Jehangir, 1995), podlength (Bhadru, 2010), number of seeds per pod and100 seed weight (Kingshlin and Subbaraman, 1997)and (Chandirakala and Raveendran, 1998).

Number of branches per plant

Low and negligible indirect effects wererecorded for number of branches per plant on seedyield. It had positive indirect effect for days to initialflowering, number of pods per plant, pod length atgenotypic level, Negative indirect effects wererecorded for 50% podding, number of seeds per pod,per cent disease incidence, 100 seed weight, daysto 50% flowering, days to full maturity, number ofbranches per plant.

At phenotypic level positive indirect effectwas recorded for days to 50% flowering, 100 seedweight, 50% podding, days to initial flowering, podlength, number of seeds per pod, negative indirecteffect was recorded through per cent diseaseincidence, days to full maturity, number of pods perplant.

Haritha and Reddy Sekhar (2002) reportedthe positive indirect effect of number of pods per plant,which Pundir et al. (1992) reported on number ofseeds per pod.These findings are similar to theresults.

Number of pods per plant

Low positive indirect effect was recordedfor number of branches per plant, per cent diseaseincidence, days to initial flowering. Negative indirecteffects were recorded through 100 seed weight , 50%podding, days to 50% flowering, number of seedsper pod, days to full maturity, number of pods perplant at genotypic level.

At phenotypic level low positive indirecteffects were recorded for number of branches perplant, days to initial flowering and per cent disease


40

G =

Gen

otyp

ic le

vel

P

= P

heno

typi

c le

vel

Tabl

e 3.

Est

imat

es o

f dir

ect a

nd in

dire

ct e

ffec

ts o

f yie

ld c

ompo

nent

s on

yie

ld in

Mun

gbea

n (V

igna

radi

ata

(L.)W

ilcze

k)JYOTHSNA and ANURADHA

41

incidence. Negative indirect effects were recordedfor pod length, days to 50% flowering, 100 seedweight, 50% podding, days to full maturity, numberof seeds per pod and number of pods per plant.

Kingshlin and Subbaraman (1999b) reportedpositive indirect effects of days to 50% flowering anddays to full maturity, Venkateswarlu (2001) fornumber of seeds per pod and 100 seed weight andChandirakala and Raveendran (1998) reportednegative indirect effect for number of seeds per pod,these findings are similar to the present results.

Number of seeds per pod

Recorded Positive indirect effect wasrecorded for number of pods per plant, 100 seedweight, days to full maturity, number of branches perplant, pod length, per cent disease incidence anddays to initial flowering. Negative indirect effect wasrecorded for days to 50% flowering, and 50% poddingat genotypic level.

At phenotypic level all traits exhibited positiveindirect effects except pod length and days to initialflowering which exhibited negative indirect effect, thetraits which are positive indirect effects are numberof pods per plant , 100 seed weight, days to fullmaturity, days to 50% flowering, 50% podding, percent disease incidence and number of branches perplant. Similar results were reported for days toflowering (Kingshlin and Subharama, 1999a), fornumber of pods per plant (Chandrikala andRaveendran, 1998), for days to full maturity (Aher etal., 1998a).

Days to maturity

Days to maturity recorded positive indirecteffect of number of pods per plant, 100 seed weight,days to 50 % flowering, number of branches per plant,number of seeds per pod, per cent disease incidence,pod length, and 50% podding. Negative indirect effectwas recorded for days to initial flowering at genotypiclevel.

At phenotypic level recorded positive indirecteffect was recorded for number of branches per plantand days to initial flowering . Negative indirect effectwas recorded through 50% podding, pod length, percent disease incidence, days to 50 % flowering, 100seed weight and number of seeds per pod. Theseresults are in accordance with findings of earlier

workers for number of pods per plant (Aher et al.,1998a), pod length (Bhadru, 2010) and number ofseeds per pod (Haritha and Reddy sekhar, 2002).

100 seed weight

Positive indirect effect was observed fordays to 50% flowering and per cent disease incidenceand negative indirect effect was recorded for 50%podding, number of branches per plant, number ofpods per plant, days to initial flowering, number ofseeds per pod, days to maturity and pod length atgenotypic level.

At phenotypic level positive indirect effectwas observed for pod length, number of seeds perpod, number of pods per plant, days to full maturity,number of branches per plant, 50% podding, daysto 50% flowering and days to initial flowering andnegative indirect effect was recorded for per centdisease incidence. Sreedevi and Reddy sekhar(2004) reported similar findings for days to flowering.Pundir et al. (1992) and Veerabadhiran and Jehangir(1995) reported positive indirect effects of 100 seedweight via number of pods per plant, and number ofseeds per pod.

Pod length (cm)

Positive indirect effect for 50% podding, 100seed weight, days to initial flowering, number of podsper plant, days to 50% flowering, days to full maturity,number of seeds per pod and negative indirect effectfor number of branches per plant and per cent diseaseincidence at genotypic level.

At phenotypic level 100 seed weight, 50%podding , number of pods per plant, days to fullmaturity , days to 50% flowering, number of branchesper plant and days to initial flowering showed positiveindirect effect and negative indirect effect throughnumber of seeds per pod and per cent diseaseincidence. The results of number of pods per plantand 100 seed weight are similar with findings of Kumaret al. (1995).

50% podding

At genotypic level positive indirect effectswere recorded for pod length , days to 50% floweringdays to initial flowering, number of pods per plant,100 seed weight, days to full maturity, number ofbranches per plant and negative indirect effect for


42

number of seeds per pod and per cent diseaseincidence.

At phenotypic level positive indirect effectswere recorded for days to 50% flowering, number ofpods per plant, pod length, 100 seed weight, days toinitial flowering , number of seeds per pod ,numberof branches per plant and days to full maturity andnegative indirect effect for per cent diseaseincidence. Mohapatra et al., (1987) reported thepositive indirect effects number of branches per plantand pod length which are similar to the results.

Per cent disease incidence

At genotypic level positive indirect effectswere recorded through 50% podding, pod length, days

to 50% flowering , days to initial flowering , 100 seedweight and number of pods per plant and negativeindirect effect through number of seeds per pod,number of branches per plant and days to fullmaturity.

At phenotypic level positive indirect effectswere recorded through days to full maturity, numberof seeds per pod and negative indirect effect throughnumber of branches per plant, 100 seed weight,number of pods per plant, days to initial flowering,days to 50% flowering , pod length and 50% podding(-0.009). Similar findings were found by Hussain etal., (2004) regarding indirect effects of number ofbranches per plant, number of pods per plant andpod length.

REFERENCES

Aher, R.P., Dahat, D.V and Thombre, B.B. 1998. Pathanalysis in pigeonpea. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities.23 (3): 318 – 319.

Anilsirohi and Lokendra Kumar. 2006. Studies onGenetic variability, heritability and geneticadvance in mungbean Vigna radiata L.Wilczek. International Journal of Agriculturalscienes. 2 (1): 174-176.

Bhadru, D. 2010. Studies on genetic parameters andinterrelationships among yield and yieldcontributing traits in pigeonpea Cajanus cajanL. Millsp.Legume Research. 33(1): 23-27.

Biradar,K.S., Salimath, P.M and Ravikumar, R.L.2007. Genetic studies in greengram andassociation analysis. Karnataka Journal ofAgricultural sciences. 20:4,83-844. 8 ref.

Bupesh, K and Mishra, M. N. 2004. Geneticvariability in urdbean germplasm. Annals ofAgricultural research New Series. 25 (3): 406-407.

Chandirakala, R and Raveendran, T.S. 1998. Studieson association and path analysis in pigeonpea.Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 32(3):211-216.

Gopikrishnan, A., Reddy Shekar, M., Raja Reddy, Kand Subramania Reddy, K. 2002. Characterassociation and path analysis in urdbean Vigna

mungo L. Hepper. Madras Agric. J., April-June, 2002. 89 (4-6): 315-318.

Haritha, S and Reddysekhar, N. 2002b. Correlationand path coefficient analysis in mungbeanVigna radiata L. Wilczek . Legume research.25(3): 180-183.

Hussain M, Qazi J, Mansoor S, Irum S, Bashir Mand Zafar Y, 2004. First report of mungbeanyellow mosaic virus on mungbean in Pakistan.Plant Pathol., 53(4): 518.

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44

Custard apple Annona squamosa L. is anarid zone fruit grown in India. It is also known asSithaphal, Sharifa, Sugar apple, Sweetsop. Custardapple is the most popular and widely used dessertfruit having the maximum production efficiency. Theplants are hardy, drought resistant and can thrivewell on marginal and neglected soils with minimuminputs (Rajput, 1985). It is a delicious table fruit andis valued mainly for its sweet, mild flavored pulp.The fruit is botanically referred as syncarpium andaggregate of fruitlets. It is a climacteric fruit, startsripening soon after detached from the tree (Wills etal., 2001). It is highly perishable fruit with short shelflife of 1-2 days after ripening. The steady increase inarea and production of custard apple in India hasenhanced the fruit flow into the markets, which mostof the time leads to glut in the markets (Jalikop,2006). The lack of information on the post harvesthandling of this highly perishable fruit has resulted inhuge losses. Extension of storage life in custard appleeven for a day or two will go a long way in increasingthe shelf life and thus making it much easier to handlethe fruit.

Several reports are available to increase theshelf life of custard apple. The shelf life of custard

EFFECT OF POST HARVEST APPLICATION OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON SHELF LIFEAND QUALITY OF CUSTARD APPLE Annona squamosa L. cv. BALANAGAR

FRUITS STORED AT 15±1oCA. VENKATRAM, A. BHAGWAN and M. PRATAP

Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Medak (District) – 502 110



ABSTRACT

The effect of different concentrations of antioxidants (500, 1000 ppm of sodium benzoate, SB and ascorbicacid, AA and 50, 100 ppm of benzyl adenine, BA) on shelf life and quality of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits storedat 15 ±1ÚC, was conducted at Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Medak (district) during 2009-11. The days takenfor ripening, shelf life and quality parameters like TSS, acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars (reducing, total and non-reducing) and ascorbic acid were estimated at an interval of 2 days during storage. Maximum days taken for ripeningwas recorded in fruits treated with BA with both concentrations (50 and 100 ppm) and SB 500 ppm. Fruits treated withBA 100 ppm or SB 500 ppm or AA 1000 ppm significantly increased the shelf life upto 11, 10.5 and 10 days,respectively, whereas the control fruits recorded a shelf life of 8.5 days only. Quality parameters like TSS, brix-acidratio and sugars (reducing and total) was recorded the lowest and ascorbic acid recorded the highest in fruits treatedwith BA 100 ppm. The treated fruits recorded significantly the highest acidity and the lowest non-reducing sugarsirrespective of antioxidants and their concentrations.

apple fruits could also be extended up to 7 days whentreated with waxol or waxol + KMnO4 or waxol + NAA

30 ppm and packed in individual wrapping 75 gaugepolyfilm at ambient storage conditions as against 4

days in untreated and unpacked fruits (Masalkar and

Garande, 2005). Application of edible coating materiallike sago, arrowroot and waxol 10% to custard apple

fruits resulted in increase in shelf life by 5-8 dayswhen compared to untreated fruits (Jholgiker and

Reddy, 2007).

Antioxidants are the molecules that are

capable of showing or preventing the oxidation ofother molecules. These are reducing agents which

prevent oxidation reaction by scavenging reactiveoxygen species before they can damage the cells.

Several reports are available on post harvest

application of antioxidants increased the storageperiod of many fruits like mango (Ahmed, 1998) and

banana (Padmavathi, 1999). However, suchinformation on custard apple is scanty. Hence, the

present investigation was carried out to study thepost harvest application of antioxidants for enhancing

storage life and quality of custard apple cv. Balanagar

fruits stored at 15±1ÚC.

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 40-46, 2013

45


The experiment was carried out during 2009-11 at Fruit Research Station, Sangareddy, Dr. Y.S.R.Horticultural University, Medak district. Custard apple‘Balanagar’ fruits were harvested at the light greenfruit colour, yellowish white colour between the carpelsand initiation of cracking of the skin between thecarpels. Matured fruits of uniform size, firm, free fromdisease and injuries were directly picked from orchardand brought to the laboratory. The fruits were cleanedwith running tap water to remove the adherent dirtmaterial and then allowed to dry in shade. The fruitswere surface disinfected with 0.1% (w/v) bavistinsolution for 2 minutes. The fruits were then dipped inthe respective antioxidants solutions for 10 minutes.The treatments include: sodium benzoate (SB) 500ppm, SB 1000 ppm, ascorbic acid (AA) 500 ppm,AA 1000 ppm, benzyl adenine (BA) 50 ppm, BA 100ppm and control (without dipping of fruits). After thetreatment the moisture on the surface of the fruitswere dried and the fruits were stored at a temperatureof 15±1oC in horizontal racks. The experiment wasconducted in completely randomized design withfactorial concept and each treatment replicatedthrice. The days taken for ripening, shelf life, TSS,acidity, brix-acid ratio, sugars (reducing, non-reducingand total) and ascorbic acid were estimated at aninterval of 2 days during storage.

The stage wherein more than 50% of thestored fruits became ripen was considered as end ofdays taken for ripening. The stage wherein more than50% of the stored fruits became unfit for consumptionwas considered as end of shelf life and expressedas mean number of days. The total soluble solids(TSS, oBrix) and titrable acidity (%) were determinedby using ERMA hand refractometer and titrationmethod, respectively (Ranganna, 1986). Brix-Acidratio was calculated by dividing the TSS value bythe acid value. The sugars (reducing and total %)present in the custard apple pulp were determinedby the method of Lane and Eyon. The non-reducingsugars (%) were determined by subtracting reducingsugars from total sugars. Ascorbic acid content (mg/100 g of pulp) was determined by 2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol titration method (Ranganna, 1986). The

experiment was conducted in completely randomizeddesign with factorial concept and each treatmentreplicated thrice.


Days taken for ripening

The days taken for ripening (Table 1) issignificantly maximum of 9 days (22.78% delayedripening over control) in fruits treated with BA withboth concentrations (50 and 100 ppm) or SB 500 ppmand minimum in control (7.33 days) fruits. The daystaken for ripening of fruits treated with AA 1000 ppmwere at par with SB 1000 ppm. The rate of ripeningwas delayed with decrease in storage temperatureswith fruits ripening on day 4, 6 and 9 of storage 25,20 and 15oC, respectively as reported by VishnuPrasanna et al. (2000). Wills et al. (1984) and Batten(1990) also reported similar ripening periods of 4-5,5-6 and 8-9 days in atemoya fruits at 24-25, 19-20and 15-16oC, respectively. Bhagwan (1994) alsoreported that banana cv. Robusta treated with SB500 ppm and 4% waxol exhibited delayed ripening.Slower ripening rate was recorded by treating sapotacv. Kirthibarthi fruits with ascorbic acid,hydroxyquinone, menadione and aminoethoxyvinylglycine (Rao and Chundawat, 1982).

Shelf life (days)

The shelf life (Table 1) differed significantlyamong different antioxidants treated fruits withmaximum shelf life of 11 days (29.41% increase overcontrol) in fruits treated with BA with bothconcentrations (50 and 100 ppm) and minimum incontrol (8.5 days) fruits. The fruits treated withantioxidants recorded higher shelf life irrespective oftheir concentrations. Improved shelf life by BA is dueto its strong antioxidant as well as free radicalscavenger action, which might have delayed theripening of fruits by reducing and delaying the ethyleneproduction and may be due to inhibition of alternativerespiration and also protection from senescence asa cytokinin (Ravikiran Reddy, 2007). Similar resultsof increased shelf life earlier reported in custard apple(Bhadra and Sen, 1997), mango (Ahmed, 1998) andguava (Jayachandran et al., 2007) with use ofantioxidants.

VENKATRAM et al

46

TSS (oBrix)

Significantly the highest TSS (Table 2) wasrecorded in control (22.81oBrix)) and the lowest infruits treated with BA 100 ppm (21oBrix). The fruitstreated with SB and AA recorded lower TSSirrespective of their concentrations. The TSSincreased from 0 to 10th day and then declined to23.97oBrix on 12th day and increase was morepronounced from 6th to 8th day of storage. On all thedays of storage, there was increase in TSS with anytreatments from 0 to 10th day and then declined up to12th day of storage and the fruits treated with SB andAA recorded significantly lower TSS irrespective oftheir concentration. The TSS of climacteric fruitsincrease with progressive of ripening (Kumbhar andDesai, 1986). The increase in TSS was gradual incustard apple fruits stored at 15oC and 20oC(VishnuPrasanna et al., 2000). Soluble solids r iseconcomitantly with the respiratory increase inannonaceous fruits and reach a maximum after theonset of second respiratory rise (Martinez et al.,1993). The TSS of custard apple fruits slowlyincreased during storage is due to slowly increasedripening at low temperatures (Bolivar-Fernandez etal., 2009). This could be due to delay in ripening anddecreased rate of starch hydrolysis and the TSSmostly made of sugars, increased from 10-16ºBrixduring 3 days of ripening in soursop fruits (Paull, 1982).Gutierrez et al. (1994) also found storage at 1oC for27 days resulted in an increase in TSS by only 2ºBrix.

Titrable acidity (%)

Significantly the lowest acidity (Table 2) wasrecorded in control (0.25%) and the highest (0.29%)in fruits treated with antioxidants irrespective ofconcentrations and antioxidants. The acidityincreased from 0 to 10th day and then declined to0.39 % on 12 th day and increase was morepronounced from 6th to 10th day of storage. Theinteraction effect on acidity of fruits betweentreatments and storage period was not significant.Initial increase in acidity may be due to formation oforganic acids and subsequent decrease in aciditymay be due to utilization of organic acids in respirationand conversion of acids to sugars. The increase in

acidity can be ascribed to the production of organicacids as reported by Gutierrez et al. (1994) duringripening of soursop and cherimoya fruits. Aciditycontent in edible ripe stage in custard apple varied0-2.5 % based on the varieties (Rajput, 1985).

Brix-acid ratio

Significantly the highest brix-acid ratio (Table2) was recorded in control (95.25) and the lowest infruits treated with BA 100 ppm (72.82). The lowerbrix-acid ratio recorded with higher concentration ofantioxidants than lower concentration except AA ismay be due to low TSS in treated fruits. The brix-acid ratio decreased from 0 to 10th day and thenslightly increased up to 12th day and decrease wasmore pronounced from 8th to 10th day of storage. Onall the days of storage, there was significant decreasein brix-acid ratio with any treatment from 0 to 10th

day and then increased up to 12th day and higherbrix-acid ratio recorded with higher concentration ofantioxidants than lower concentration.

Sugars (%)

Significantly the highest reducing sugars(Table 3) were recorded in control (15.99%) and thelowest in fruits treated with BA 100 ppm (13.41%).The fruits treated with antioxidants recordedsignificantly lower reducing sugars irrespective of theirconcentrations. The reducing sugars increased from0 to 10th day and then declined by 16.81% on 12th

day and increase was more pronounced from 8th to10th day of storage. The interaction effect betweentreatments and storage period was not significant.

Significantly the highest total sugars (Table3) were recorded in control (17.60%) and the lowestin fruits treated with BA 100 ppm (14.80%). The fruitstreated with antioxidants recorded significantly lowertotal sugars irrespective of their concentration. Thetotal sugars increased from 0 to 10th day and thendeclined by 18.30% on 12th day and increase wasmore pronounced from 6th to 8th day of storage. On allthe days of storage, there was significant increasein total sugars with any treatment from 0 to 10th dayand then declined up to 12th day and antioxidantstreated fruits showed lower total sugars irrespectiveof their concentrations except AA on 6th day.

VENKATRAM et al

47

Significantly the highest non-reducing sugars(Table 3) were recorded in control (1.57%) and thelowest (1.35%) in fruits treated with antioxidantsirrespective of their concentrations. The non-reducingsugars of fruits increased from 0 to 12th day andincrease was more pronounced from 6th to 8th day ofstorage. The interaction effect on non-reducing sugarbetween treatments and storage period was notsignificant.

The sugars (reducing and total) increased incherimoya after 5th day of storage onwards is due tothe starch declined drastically and there was also acoincidence in the increase of sugars and the declineof starch content, indicating a hydrolysis of starchinto its constituent sugars during fruit ripening(Martinez et al., 1993). This might de due to the onsetof ethylene emission coincided with an increase inthe respiration, beginning of starch degradation andrapid decline in firmness (Martinez et al., 1993). Thedecrease in sugar content in later stages of storagemay be attributed to their utilization in respiration.

Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g)

Significantly the highest ascorbic acidcontent (Table 3) was recorded in fruits treated with

BA 100 ppm (42.92 mg/100 g) and the lowest incontrol (37.25 mg/100 g) fruits. The higher ascorbicacid content was recorded with fruits treated withhigher concentration of antioxidants than lowerconcentration except SB. The ascorbic acid contentincreased from 0 to 6th day and then declined by 22.80mg/100g on 12th day and decrease was morepronounced from 6th to 8th day of storage. On all thedays of storage, there was increase in ascorbic acidcontent with any treatment from 0 to 6th day and thendeclined up to 12th day of storage and the highest infruits treated with BA 100 ppm and the lowest incontrol. The decrease in ascorbic acid in later stageof storage may be due to higher rates of respiration,conversion of ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acidand oxidation. Broghton and Tan (1979) also reportedan increase in ascorbic acid content of custard appleas the fruit ripened, reaching a maximum at theclimacteric, after which the amount decreased. Paull(1982) also observed an increase in ascorbic acidduring the ripening of soursop fruit. As the number ofdays required reaching the ripe stage increased withdecrease in storage temperature, the ascorbic acidcontent was decreased in the ripe fruits (VishnuPrasanna et al., 2000).

Treatments Days taken

for ripening

Delayed ripening

over control (%)

Shelf life

(days)

Increased shelf life

over control (%)

SB 500 ppm 9.00b 22.78 10.50b 23.52

SB 1000 ppm 8.50c 15.96 10.40b 22.35

AA 500 ppm 8.00d 9.14 10.00c 17.64

AA 1000 ppm 8.50c 15.96 10.00c 17.64

BA 50 ppm 9.00b 22.78 11.00a 29.41

BA 100 ppm 9.00b 22.78 11.00a 29.41

Control 7.33a - 8.50d -

CD at 5% 0.48 0.35

Table 1. Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on days taken for ripening and shelf life(days) of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1ÚC

Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly

EFFECT OF POST HARVEST APPLICATION OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON SHELF LIFE

48

Treatments

Days after storage

Mean 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

TSS (°Brix)

SB 500 ppm 18.50 19.50 20.40 21.30 23.40 23.90 23.60 21.51c

SB 1000 ppm 18.50 19.60 20.30 21.40 23.30 23.80 23.50 21.48c

AA 500 ppm 18.50 20.80 21.40 22.60 24.40 24.90 24.60 22.45b

AA 1000 ppm 18.50 20.60 21.60 22.40 24.60 25.10 24.80 22.51b

BA 50 ppm 18.50 19.00 19.70 20.80 22.70 23.20 23.10 21.27e

BA 100 ppm 18.50 20.80 19.80 20.70 22.80 23.30 23.00 21.00d

Control 18.50 20.90 21.90 22.80 24.90 25.50 25.20 22.81a

Mean 18.50g 20.17f 20.73e 21.71d 23.73c 24.24a 23.97b

Treatments Titrable acidity (%) Mean

SB 500 ppm 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.33 0.45 0.40 0.29a

SB 1000 ppm 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.33 0.45 0.40 0.29a

AA 500 ppm 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.33 0.45 0.40 0.29a

AA 1000 ppm 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.33 0.45 0.40 0.29a

BA 50 ppm 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.33 0.45 0.40 0.29a

BA 100 ppm 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.25 0.33 0.45 0.40 0.29a

Control 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.38 0.35 0.25b

Mean 0.15g 0.20f 0.23e 0.25d 0.32c 0.44a 0.39b

Treatments Brix-acid ratio Mean

SB 500 ppm 119.35 89.62 80.40 81.25 68.16 51.55 57.75 78.68d

SB 1000 ppm 119.35 98.11 80.81 80.85 71.79 51.77 57.75 76.00e

AA 500 ppm 119.35 98.11 87.34 88.28 73.27 55.33 61.50 79.76c

AA 1000 ppm 119.35 91.98 83.26 83.20 70.27 53.11 59.00 82.95b

BA 50 ppm 119.35 92.45 82.85 83.53 69.96 52.88 58.75 74.30f

BA 100 ppm 119.35 97.16 88.16 87.50 73.87 55.77 62.00 72.82g

Control 119.35 121.51 107.35 93.82 88.92 67.10 72.00 95.25a

Mean 119.35a 98.42b 87.16c 85.49d 73.75e 55.36h 61.19f

CD at 5% TSS Titrable acidity Brix-acid ratio

For days (D) 0.18 0.005 0.86

For treatments (T) 0.17 0.005 0.80

For D × T 0.47 NS 2.26

Table 2. Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on TSS (ÚBrix), titrable acidity (%) and brix-acid ratio of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC

Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly; NS- Non Significant

VENKATRAM et al

49


Mean 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Reducing sugars (%)

SB 500 ppm 11.90 12.90 12.60 13.78 15.75 16.66 16.55 14.30c SB 1000 ppm 11.90 12.90 12.60 13.81 15.70 16.66 16.75 14.32c AA 500 ppm 11.90 13.15 13.16 15.15 16.50 17.85 17.30 14.99b

AA 1000 ppm 11.90 13.15 13.25 14.78 16.50 17.85 17.30 14.96b BA 50 ppm 11.90 11.90 12.00 12.82 14.20 15.62 15.65 13.43d BA 100 ppm 11.90 11.90 12.00 12.82 14.20 15.62 15.55 13.41d Control 11.90 13.83 14.25 15.25 18.18 20.00 18.61 15.99a Mean 11.90f 12.81e 12.83e 14.06d 15.86c 17.18a 16.81b Treatments Non-reducing (%) Mean SB 500 ppm 12.5 1.25 1.32 1.32 1.45 1.50 1.45 1.35b SB 1000 ppm 1.25 1.25 1.32 1.32 1.45 1.50 1.45 1.35b AA 500 ppm 1.25 1.25 1.32 1.32 1.46 1.50 1.45 1.35b AA 1000 ppm 1.25 1.25 1.32 1.32 1.46 1.50 1.45 1.35b BA 50 ppm 1.25 1.25 1.32 1.32 1.47 1.50 1.45 1.36b BA 100 ppm 1.25 1.25 1.32 1.32 1.47 1.50 1.45 1.36b Control 1.25 1.47 1.60 1.60 1.70 1.75 1.65 1.57a

Mean 1.25e 1.28d 1.36c 1.36c 1.49b 1.53a 1.53a Treatments Total sugars (%) Mean SB 500 ppm 13.15 14.15 13.92 15.10 17.20 18.16 18.00 15.66c SB 1000 ppm 13.15 14.15 13.92 15.20 17.15 18.16 18.20 15.70c AA 500 ppm 13.15 14.40 14.57 16.47 17.97 19.35 18.75 16.37b AA 1000 ppm 13.15 14.40 14.57 16.10 17.97 19.35 18.75 16.32b BA 50 ppm 13.15 13.25 13.32 14.14 15.66 17.12 17.10 14.81d BA 100 ppm 13.15 13.18 13.32 14.14 15.66 17.12 17.06 14.80d Control 13.15 15.55 15.85 16.85 19.88 21.75 20.26 17.60a Mean 13.15f 14.15e 14.21e 15.42d 17.35c 18.71a 18.30b Treatments Ascorbic Acid (mg/100 g) Mean SB 500 ppm 41.30 45.20 50.50 51.20 38.50 30.80 22.60 40.07c

SB 1000 ppm 41.30 43.60 50.50 53.30 39.40 29.20 23.50 40.11c AA 500 ppm 41.30 42.50 48.20 50.50 37.80 28.50 20.50 38.47e AA 1000 ppm 41.30 44.40 47.80 49.43 38.50 30.50 21.30 39.03d

BA 50 ppm 41.30 48.30 51.50 54.30 40.40 32.30 25.20 41.90b BA 100 ppm 41.30 49.20 52.30 56.50 41.30 33.40 26.50 42.92a Control 41.30 41.50 49.50 49.50 35.50 26.50 20.00 37.25f Mean 41.30d 44.95c 49.61b 52.10a 38.77e 30.17f 22.80g CD at 5% Reducing sugars Non-reducing sugars Total sugars Ascorbic acid For days (D) 0.49 0.09 0.09 0.40 For treatments (T) 0.46 0.08 0.08 0.37 For D × T NS NS 0.24 1.06

Table 3. Effect of post harvest application of antioxidants on sugars (reducing, total and non-reducing,%) and ascorbic acid (mg/ 100g) of custard apple cv. Balanagar fruits stored at 15±1oC

Figures with same alphabet did not differ significantly; NS- Non Significant

EFFECT OF POST HARVEST APPLICATION OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON SHELF LIFE

50

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Padmavathi, C. 1999. Post harvest storage Studiesin banana cv. Dwarf Cavendish (Musa AAA),M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Acharya N. G.Ranga Agri. Univ. Hyderabad.

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Rajput, C.B.S. 1985. Custard apple, In: Fruits of India-Tropical and subtropical, Ed. T.K. Bose, Nayaprakash publications, Calcutta, India, pp 479-486.

Ranganna, S. 1986. Hand book of Analysis and qualitycontrol for fruits and vegetable products. TataMc Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi, India.

Rao, P.V and Chundawat, B.S. 1982. Effect ofantioxidants on post harvest ripening of sapota.Progressive Hort. 14 (2): 43-45.

Ravikiran Reddy, Y. 2007. Effect of Gamma Irradiationand antioxidants on post harvest shelf life ofpapaya Carica papaya cv. Red lady. M. Sc.Thesis submitted to Acharya N.G. Ranga Agri.Univ. Hyderabad.

Vishnu Prasanna, K.N., Sudhakar Rao, D.V andShantha Krishnamurthy 2000. Effect of storagetemperatrure on ripening and quality of custardapple Annona squamosa L. fruits. J. of Hort.Sci. and Biotechnol. 75 (5): 546-550.

Wills, R.B.H., Warton, M.A., Mussa, D.M.D.N andChew, L.P. 2001. Ripening of climacteric fruitsinitiated at low ethylene levels. Aust. J. of Expt.Agri. 41 (1): 89-92.

VENKATRAM et al

51



In peri-urban areas, the availability of landfor agriculture is restricted due to urbanization andincreased demand of land for housing. Cropintensification either in space or in time or both isthe feasible option left to the farmers for enhancingthe production. Food – forage based systems providea support to small and marginal farmers by adjustinga substantial part of their land exclusively for forageproduction in grain crop based rotations (Sunil kumarand Faruqui, 2009). Efficient crop sequence inintensive agriculture promotes productivity per unitarea per unit time and provides more economicbenefits to the farmers. In rice based cropped areaof A.P, pillipesara and sun hemp are grown as foddercrops on residual moisture after rice harvest (Hazra,1998). In this agro climatic region of Andhra Pradesh,high yielding quality forage crops can be introducedin the existing cropping systems to meet the foragedemand. Short duration forage crops like cowpea,guar and sorghum offers scope to grow in kharifseason followed by food based rabi crops.

Maize is an ideal forage crop, possessingquick growing and high yielding ability during summerseason and can be fed to the cattle at any stage ofgrowth, as there is no problem of hydrocyanic acidor oxalic acid poisoning to cattle. Raising of babycorn and sweet corn both for food and forage can beencouraged in peri-urban areas for their demandthrough out the year. NB hybrid + cowpea – berseemand maize – berseem- cowpea are the profitableintensive forage based cropping systems to AndhraPradesh (Suneetha Devi et al., 2004).

PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF FOOD – FORAGEBASED CROPPING SYSTEMS IN SOUTHERN TELANGANA

REGION OF ANDHRA PRADESHV.CHANDRIKA, R. BALAJI NAIK, K.B. SUNEETHA DEVI and M. SHANTILivestock Research Institute, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the forage production potential of various intensive croppingsystems including speciality corn types for both food and forage. NB hybrid + cowpea – Lucerne was found mostefficient cropping system in terms of green and dry fodder yields and for year round forage production. But under periurban situations, Maize + cowpea – Maize - Maize + cowpea systems were found to be more efficient in terms of netreturns(Rs.1,19,200/yr), FEY(278 t/ha/yr) and MUE(326.5 Rs/ha/day).

Hence, to evaluate intensive forage basedcropping systems involving speciality corn types inperi-urban areas, in Southern Telangana region ofAndhra Pradesh, this study was under taken.


A field experiment was conducted for threeyears (2007 to 2009) at LRI, Rajendranagar,Hyderabad. The soil was sandy loam, low in organiccarbon (0.32%), available nitrogen (87.7 Kg ha -1),high in available phosphorus (68.8 kg ha -1) andmedium in available potassium (230.2 kg ha -1). Atotal rainfall of 588.8mm, 1167.9mm and 663.2mmwas received in 48, 51 and 38 rainy days during thethree years of study, respectively. The treatmentsconsisted of ten crop sequences viz., C1- NB hybrid+ cowpea- Lucerne, (round the year forage croprotation of the region) C2- Baby corn + cowpea- babycorn- Baby corn +cowpea, C3- Baby corn + cowpea– Lucerne (best food crop rotations of the region),C4- Baby corn + cowpea-Oats - Baby corn + cowpea,C5- Baby corn+ cowpea- Oats –Fodder maize+cowpea(inclusion of rabi crop in the rotation), C6-Green cob + cowpea- green cob - Green cob +cowpea, C7- Green cob + cowpea – Lucerne, C8-Green cob + cowpea- Oats – Green cob + cowpea,C9- Green cob + cowpea- Oats – Fodder maize +cowpea, C10- Maize(G) + cowpea- Lucerne(F)–Lucerne(s)(best remunerative rotation of the zone).The experiment was laid out in RBD with threereplications and the site of the experimental field wassame through out the experimentation. The varieties

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 47-52, 2013

52

Tabl

e-1.

Sea

son

- wis

e G

reen

Fod

der Y

ield

(q/h

a) o

f ent

ire

sequ

ence

gro

wn

for b

aby

corn

and

sw

eet c

orn

CHANDRIKA et al

53

Cropping systems Cob yield (q/ha)

Dry Fodder Yield (q/ha)

Crude protein yield (q/ha)

Seed yield of lucerne

(q/ha)

C1- NB hybrid + cowpea- Lucerne

0.0 366 16.71

---

C2-Baby corn + cowpea- baby corn- Baby corn +cowpea

151 91 4.05

---

C3-Baby corn + cowpea – Lucerne

60 140 7.64

2.05

C4-Baby corn + cowpea-Oats - Baby corn + cowpea

96 135 5.13

---

C5-Baby corn+ cowpea- Oats – Fodder maize+ cowpea

52 151 5.66

---

C6-Green cob + cowpea- green cob - Green cob + cowpea

148 114 5.17

---

C7-Green cob + cowpea - Lucerne

46 139 7.84

1.88

C8-Green cob + cowpea- Oats – Green cob + cowpea

89 142 5.46

---

C9- Green cob + cowpea- Oats – Fodder maize + cowpea

41 152 5.26

---

C10-Maize(G) + cowpea- Lucerne(F) – Lucerne(s)

35 135 6.81

1.98

Table 2. Important yield parameters of food – forage based cropping systems (Mean of 3 years)

of different crops used were NB hybrid- APBN-1, babycorn – G-5406, green cob- Madhuri, fodder maize-African tall, cowpea – COFC-8, Lucerne- Anand-2,Oat – OS-6 and grain maize- DHM-111.

Sowing of kharif, rabi and summer crops wasdone during the I FN of July, I FN of November and IFN of March, respectively. Crops were raised underirrigated conditions with recommended package ofpractices of the region. Stem cuttings of NB hybrid‘APBN-1’ were planted in July at a spacing of 90 x60 cm and the crop was maintained as perennialstand. Cowpea during kharif and Lucerne during rabiwere planted as intercrop in between two wider rowsof NB hybrid. Cowpea was sown as an intercrop inmaize during kharif and summer seasons underadditive series. All the forage crops were harvestedat 50% flowering stage. Baby corn and green cobswere harvested at soft dough stage as cobs. Lucernesown during rabi was harvested for green fodder upto two cuts and thereafter, left for seed purpose. InNB hybrid, after first cut, interval for subsequent cutswas 45 days. Data on growth and yield was taken at

appropriate harvesting schedules of the crops.Economics and NB hybrid forage equivalent yieldwere computed at prevailing market prices.Production efficiency was worked out by dividing thetotal production of a sequence by total duration ofthe crops in that sequence (Tomar and Tiwari, 1990).The data was pooled over three years and given asmean pooled data. Sustainability yield index wascomputed for the sequences on the basis of NB hybridequivalent yield with the following formula:

Sustainability yield index (SYI) =

Mean yield- Standard deviation

Maximum yield


Crop productivity

Production potential of component crops ofall the cropping sequences showed variation over threeyears. Higher green fodder yield was recorded withC1 (NB hybrid+ cowpea – Lucerne) in all the threeyears of experimentation (Table-1). It may be due to

PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF FOOD – FORAGE BASED CROPPING

54

Tabl

e-3:

For

age

equi

vale

nt y

ield

, eco

nom

ics

and

syst

em p

rodu

ctiv

ity o

f foo

d –

fora

ge b

ased

cro

ppin

g sy

stem

s (

mea

n of

3 y

ears

)

Mar

ket R

ate

(Rs.

): 1

) M

aize

bab

y co

rn (w

ith h

usk)

: 10/

- per

Kg

2

) M

aize

gre

en c

ob: 0

6/- p

er K

g

3)

All

fodd

er: 6

50/-

per

ton

4)

Luc

erne

see

d: 1

50/-

per

Kg

CHANDRIKA et al

55

the high production potential of NB hybrid as reportedearlier by Patel et al. (2003). Green fodder yield ofNB hybrid was low during rabi season over otherseasons. This clearly indicates the winter dormancycharacter in NB hybrid and the number of cuttingswere subsequently, reduced. Islam and Thakuria(2002) also reported winter dormancy in NB hybridduring rabi season and therefore inclusion of legumeas inter crop in the existing NB hybrid will supplementgreen fodder yield and compensate the yield lossdue to less number of cuttings of NB hybrid. Lucerneas intercrop supplemented green fodder yield of NBhybrid during rabi season in C1 cropping sequence.Cropping systems viz., C5, C9, C4 and C8 ranked asnext best cropping systems in terms of GFY. In thesecropping systems, Oats, which has high green fodderproduction potential was included as winter cerealcrop during rabi season (Shashikala et al., 2009).However, the green fodder yield was very low withC3, C10 and C7 where Lucerne was included in thesystem during rabi season as the green fodderpotential of Lucerne is low when compared to eitherNB hybrid or Oats. In these three systems Lucerneseed could also be harvested, besides green fodder(Table-2). In general, during kharif season greenfodder yields were low with the cropping systemswhere speciality maize types were grown. C2 and C6

systems recorded about 529 and 626 q/ha (Table-1)of green fodder, respectively. In these two systems,speciality maize types were included in all the threeseasons. Though the green fodder yield wascomparatively low, green cobs could be obtainedbesides green fodder, which will be moreremunerative in peri urban situations.

Cob yield of maize was higher with C2 andC6 sequences (Table-2), where in maize was includedin all the three seasons of the cropping system. Thismay be due to another fact that about 4 to 5 pickingswere obtained from baby corn. This was followed byC4 (96 q/ha), where baby corn was raised during kharifand summer seasons. The highest dry fodder yield(366q/ha) was obtained with C1 (Table-2) and this maybe due to the high green fodder production potentialof NB hybrid and higher dry matter content. C9 &C5

were the next best sequences with regard to dry fodderyield (152 and 151 q/ha, respectively).

Higher crude protein yield (Table-2) wasobtained with C1 (16.71 q/ha). Though the crude

protein content of NB hybrid was low, due to the higherdry fodder yield, CPY was found to be higher. Thecropping systems involving Lucerne – a legume (C3,C7 and C10) recorded higher CPY (7.64, 7.84 and 6.81q/ha, respectively) due to higher CP contents eventhough the dry fodder yields are low.

System productivity

Pooled data indicated variation in systemproductivity in terms of Forage Equivalent Yield offood – forage and forage based cropping systems(Table-3). Among all the tested systems, Baby corn+ cowpea – baby corn - Baby corn + cowpeaproduced highest FEY (277.7t/ha/yr) and it was 25.3%higher over C4 (221.6t/ha/yr), where oats was includedin the system during rabi season instead of baby corn.Similarly, it is significantly higher than othersystems.C6 recorded a FEY of 196.1 t /ha / yr and itwas comparable with C9 where, maize (either babycorn or sweet corn) was a component crop of thesystem. Inclusion of Oats as rabi crop was foundbetter in terms of FEY over Lucerne (C3, C7 and C10).Higher FEY of maize might be due to the monetarybenefit through cob yield besides green fodder yield.The lower FEY was obtained with C10 and it might bedue to the lower green fodder yield of Lucerne.Though, there was an additional advantage of seedyield of Lucerne in this sequence, the seed yield ofLucerne was meager so that it could not compensatewith the monetary benefit of cob yield of maize. SunilKumar and Faruqui, (2009) also reported higher FEYof the cropping systems where maize was included.Similar trend was observed with system productivityalso. C2 sequence being on par with C4 recordedsignificantly higher system productivity (0.76t/ha/day)than others followed by C4 (0.61t/ha/day) and it mightbe due to the higher net returns of those systems(Table-3). Higher system productivity was observedwith maize based food forage cropping systems overothers and this may be due to the higher monetarybenefit from maize. Suneetha Devi et al., (2004) alsoreported higher system productivity of maize –Lucerne (F)- Lucerne(s) cropping system. Highersustainability yield index (SYI) was recorded(0.82)with Baby corn + cowpea – baby corn - Baby corn +cowpea system indicating its stability over three yearsfollowed by Baby corn + cowpea-Oats -Baby corn +cowpea(0.62).

PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF FOOD – FORAGE BASED CROPPING

56

Economics

Economics of various food forage basedcropping systems showed variation in terms ofmonetary benefit (Table-3). Baby corn + cowpea –baby corn - Baby corn + cowpea showed maximumnet returns (Rs. 119200 / ha/yr) and the next bestcropping system was C4, where oats was includedas a rabi crop, which is also having higher productionpotential of green forage. Lowest net returns wereobtained with C10 [Maize(G) + cowpea – Lucerne(F)-Lucerne(s)] as the green fodder potential of Lucerneis low and the seed yield of Lucerne is very meagerto compensate over maize. C1 system also recorded93,600 Rs/ha/yr indicating the superiority of NB hybridproduction potential over other crops. Where asBenefit-cost ratio was highest with C1(5.54) followedby C3 (3.28) and C4(3.11). It might be due to the lowercost of cultivation involved for NB hybrid due to itsperennial nature. Though the net returns of C2 werehighest, B-C ratio was 2.94 only and it might be dueto the higher cost of production involved in pickingsof baby corn through out the year. Patel et al., (2003)also reported higher net returns with Hybrid Napier +cowpea – Lucerne system. The monetary return use

efficiency (Table-3) was highest with C2 (326.5 Rs/ha/day), on par with C4 (264.6Rs/ha/day), C1 (256.4Rs/ha/day) and significantly higher than othersequences. Lowest MUE (85.5 Rs/ha/day) wasrecorded with Maize (grain) + cowpea – Lucerne (F) -Lucerne(s). Similar results were also reported earlierby Sunil Kumar and Faruqui (2009).

Thus it can be concluded that in this agro –climatic zone, NB hybrid + cowpea – Lucerne wasfound most efficient cropping system in terms of greenand dry fodder yields and for year round forageproduction. This system may be best suitable to adairy entrepreneur in non urban areas where greenfodder supply may be ensured through out the yearto maintain a definite no. of milch animals. Since,the animals are the end users of forages their excretesadds to sustainable maintenance of soil fertility andhealth. But under peri urban situations, Maize +cowpea – Maize - Maize + cowpea systems werefound to be more efficient in terms of net returns,FEY and MUE. Integration of forages in food basedproduction systems may prove sustainable andeconomically viable, which not only provide food butalso supports live stock by supplying green fodder.

REFERENCES

Hazra, C.R., 1998. Proceedings of National Seminaron strategy for maximization of forageProduction by 2000 A.D., pp: 40-56.

Islam, M and Thakuria, K., 2002. Seasonal variationin green fodder production of importantperennial grasses and legumes intercroppingsystem. Journal of Agricultural Sciences,Society of North East India., 15(2): 192-195.

Patel, M. R., Sadhu, A.C., Patel, P.C andYadavendra, J.P. 2003. Productivity andeconomics of forage based cropping systemsunder irrigated conditions of middle Gujarat,Forage Res., 29 (3): 112-113.

Shashikala, T., Chiranjeevi, Ch., Shanti, M and BalajiNaik, R. 2009. Oats- A potential rabi cerealcrop for Andhra Pradesh. National Symposiumon Forage Crops, 16-17 Feb, 2009 held atJaisalmer, Rajasthan.

Suneetha Devi, K. B., Madhusudhan Reddy, D andSultan, M.A. 2004. Comparison of food andfodder – based cropping systems for sustainedproductivity under irrigated condition. ForageRes., 30(1): 49-53.

Sunil Kumar and Faruqui, S.A. 2009. Productionpotential and economic viability of food foragebased cropping system under irrigatedconditions. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 54(1):36-41.

Tomar, S. S and Tiwari, A.S., 1990. Productionpotential and economics of different cropsequences. Indian Journal of Agronomy., 35(1and 2) : 30-35.

CHANDRIKA et al

57

A holistic approach to agricultural extensiontoday goes beyond technology transfer for major cropand livestock production systems. It includes goalsfor human capital development, in terms of enhancingthe management,technical skills of farm householdsrelating to production and post harvest handling ofhigh-value crops, livestock and fisheries, sustainablenatural resource management, family health andnutrition, leadership and organizational skills, inaddition to social capital development, that is,organizing producer groups (Swanson 2006). Asalready discussed, agricultural extension facilitatesproblem solving, creates links to markets and otherplayers in the agricultural value chain, and providesaccess to information, skills, and technologies.Reforms in agricultural extension system envisagesan extension system more broad based and holisticin content and scope beyond transfer of technology.

In order to address the key constraints facedby extension system in the country with respect toreduced capacity of public extension services, itslack of decentralized and demand driven focus, theinnovations in Technology Dissemination componentof the National Agricultural Technology Project(NATP) ATMA was pilot tested in seven states inthe country namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, HimachalPradesh, Jarkhand, Orissa, Maharashtra and Punjabthrough four projects in each state. Based on the

ATTITUDE OF FARMERS AND EXTENSION OFFICERS TOWARDSAGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT AGENCY (ATMA) &

SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE FUNCTIONINGM. RAMA DEVY, M . SURYA MANI and N. SHANDHYA SHENOY

DAATT Center, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,Guntur-522034.



ABSTRACT

Extension reforms were implemented all over India with a view to deliver broad based extension services.A study was conducted in Andhra Pradesh with a sample size of 240 farmers from four districts namely Adilabad,Kurnool, Chittoor and Prakasam and 80 extension functionaries in the year 2010. Ex Post Facto research designwas adopted for the study. Data was collected using structured interview schedule and analysed using appropriatestatistical tests i.e. frequency, percentage , mean and standard deviation. Majority of the farmers and extensionfunctionaries were having favorable attitude towards extension reforms The suggestions given by them for theeffective implementation were providing timely and advance information about the programmes followed by regularconducting of meetings, approval of action plans at the district level itself, convergence in preparation of action plansand timely release of funds. The suggestions given by the extension officers were early approvalof action plans andrelease of funds, separate staff i.e. Project Director (PD) and supporting staff for ATMA and encouragement fororganisation of district level CIGs.

success of ATMA pilot project it was scaled upacross the country.

Though ATMA represents an institutionalreform which was implemented in project mode thesuccess depends on the implementation processonly.

ATMA implemented throughout the state ofAndhra Pradesh since a decade has taken severalinitiatives to promote a positive change in the farmingcommunity and has now become the keyword forextension in the country. It was launched toconsolidate the earlier investments and addressspecific system constraints, weaknesses and gapsthat remained un-addressed by previous research andextension projects. Innovations in TechnologyDissemination (ITD) component, in particular wasexpected to test new innovations in technologydissemination with restructured institutional anddevelopmental arrangements resulting in delineationof future direction of the extension system and, atthe same time, bridge serious Research-extension-farmer (R-E-F) linkage problems that currentlyconstrain the flow of appropriate technology tofarmers. The present study was taken up to throwlight on ground reality of implementation status ofprocesses with the objectives of finding out theattitude of farmers and extension officers towards

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 53-57, 2013

58

extension reforms and elucidate suggestions foreffective functioning of ATMA.


The study was conducted in AndhraPradesh State during the year 2010. Among the 24districts in AP four districts namely Adilabad,Kurnool, Chittoor and Prakasam districts werepurposively selected in which the extension reforms(ATMA) were pilot tested (1998-2005) and are beingin operation.

An Ex Post Facto research designwith random sampling procedure was adopted for thepresent study. Four blocks from each district wererandomly selected thus making a total of sixteen

blocks. In consultation with officers of Departmentof Agriculture 60 farmers from each district who werethe members of different bodies such as FarmerAdvisory Committee (FAC) ,Governing board,Commodity Interest groups (CIGs),Farmer InterestGroups (FIGs) and other groups through which ATMAactivities are being carried out were randomlyselected making a total of 240 farmers. Twentyextension functionaries from each district wereselected making the sample size 80. Data wascollected using structured interview schedule andanalysed using appropriate statistical tests i.e.frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviationand ranks were assigned based on the frequencies.Categorisation was done based on mean and standarddeviation.


The results obtained after thorough analysis of the data were as follows

Attitude of farmers and extension functionaries towards extension reforms

Table1. Distribution of respondents according to their attitude towards extension reforms (n= 60 foreach district for farmers and 20 officers per district)

The results indicated that more than half(65.00%) of the ATMA respondents of Chittoor districthad favourable attitude followed by highly favourableattitude towards extension reforms (26.67 %) andunfavourable attitude (8.33%). In Adilabad district,majority had favourable attitude (61.67 %) towardsextension reforms followed by highly favourable(23.33 %) and un favourable attitude (15.00%).Similarly in case of Kurnool district three fourths ofthe respondents (75.00% ) had favourable attitudefollowed by highly favourable (13.33%) and unfavourable attitude (11.67 %) towards extensionreforms. Where as, in Prakasam district nearly 73.33

per cent had favourable attitude followed by highlyfavourable attitude (21.67 %) and a meagerpercentage (5.00%) with un favourable attitudetowards extension reforms. Of the total sample ofATMA respondents, majority (68.75 %) hadfavourable attitude towards extension reformsfollowed by highly favourable attitude (21.25 %) andun favourable attitude (10.00%).

On the whole, the results indicated thatmajority of respondents were having favourableattitude towards extension reforms. The reasons forthis trend were the medium level of social

S. No

Category of farmers

Farmers Extn. Functionaries

n=80 Chittoor Adilabad Kurnool Prakasam Total n= 240

f % f % f % f % f % f %

1 Highly favourable

16 26.67 14 23.33 8 13.33 13 21.67 51 21.25 11 13.75

2 Favourable 39 65.00 37 61.67 45 75.00 44 73.33 165 68.75 60 75.00

3 Un favourable

5 8.33 9 15.00 7 11.67 3 5.00 24 10.00 9 11.25

Mean 85.88 84.10 81.87 84.20 88.25

SD 6.61 7.03 5.21 5.59 11.52

RAMA et al

59

participation, extension contact and risk orientationof the farmers which created interest among therespondents to utilize the innovative programmes ofthe Government. The farmers were convinced withthe benefits of new institutional arrangements, broadbased extension services, multi agency extensionapproaches and incentives to the farmers in the formof rewards rendered through extension reforms. Theywere highly dissat isfied with the way ofimplementation of meetings, group approaches andother aspects. They were not willing to pay 10%contribution for sustainability of the programmesunder extension reforms. The results were inconfirmation with the findings of Ramamurthy (2000),Kappala (2002), Lakshmana (2003), Obaiah (2004),Nasib Singh and Singh RP (2008) and Srinivasulu(2011)

The above table showed that three-fourths(75.00%) of the extension functionaries the selecteddistricts had favourable attitude towards extensionreforms followed by highly favourable (13.75%) andun favourable attitude (11.25%). The reason might

be that the reforms had given opportunities fordemand driven FSBE extension activities, capacitybuilding and also handful of funds, though the burdenof work was increased. The stake holders hadfavourable attitude towards new institutionalarrangements, broad basing of extension servicesand research extension farmer linkages. Theyexpressed unfavourable attitude towards groupapproaches as such formation of groups at villagelevel was time consuming .They expressed thatgroups will become sustainable if they were formedat district level. They also expressed favourableattitude towards convergence and multi agencyextension approaches to some extent. The resultswere in line with results of Nasib Singh and SinghRP (2008).

Suggestions given by the farmers: Thesuggestions given by the farmers to overcome andimprove the process implementation of extensionreforms were presented in Table 5. (with frequencies,percentages and ranks assigned based on theirmagnitude).

S.

No Suggestions Frequency Percentage Rank

1. Separate staff i.e. PD and supporting staff for ATMA

210 87.5 V

2. Conducting of ATMA meetings regularly 230 95.83 II

3. Action plans to be prepared with the convergence of farmers members also

220 91.67 IV

4. Timely release of funds and approval of action plans

210 87.5 V

5. Approval of action plans to be doneat the district level itself

224

93.34 III

6. Promotion of mechanisation 200 83.34 VII

7. Promotion of organic farming 180 75.00 IX

8. Updating of FIAC 205 85.41 VI

9. Provision of honorarium to members of ATMA committees for attending meetings

175 72.91 X

10. Organisation of more exposure visits 190 79.16 VIII

11. Timely information about ATMA programmes

235 97.91 I

Table 2 Suggestions given by the ATMA farmers to improve functioning n=240

It was evident from the Table 3 that majorityof the farmers suggested supply of timely informationabout ATMA programmes (97.91%) as the first

suggestion followed by conducting of ATMA meetingsregularly (95.83%), approval of action plans to bedone at the district level itself (93.34%), action plans

ATTITUDE OF FARMERS AND EXTENSION OFFICERS TOWARDS ATMA

60

to be prepared with the convergence of farmersmembers also (91.67%), timely release of funds andapproval of action plans, separate staff i.e.PD andsupporting staff for ATMA (87.5%),updating ofFIAC(85.41%), promot ion of mechanisation

(83.34%),organisation of more exposurevisits(79.16%),promotion of organic farming(75.00%)and provision of honorarium to members of ATMAcommittees for attending meetings (72.91%). Rankswere assigned based on magnitude.

Table 3. Suggestions given by the extension functionaries to improve functioning (n=80)

It is evident from the Table that majority ofthe extension functionaries suggested early approvalof action plans and release of funds (96.25%) as thefirst suggestion followed by separate staff i.e. PDand supporting staff for ATMA (95.00%), district levelCIGs may be encouraged (93.75%), conducting ofAMC and GB meetings regularly (91.25%), districtlevel trainings to block level officers about extensionreforms (87.5%), timely supply of guidelines fortrainings and exposure visits (85.00%),supply of CDson location specific technologies (85.00%,), provisionfor decentralisation of decisions (81.25%),provisionof honorarium, TA& DA to members of ATMAcommittees for attending meetings (78.75%) andtimely information about ATMA programmes to be

organised (70.00%). Ranks were assigned based onmagnitude.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that farmers andextension functionaries were having favourableattitude towards extension reforms followed by highlyfavourable and unfavourable attitude. This showsthat they were having favourable attitude towardsthe process involved and not satisfied with theimplementation status of institutional arrangements,bottom up planning and flexible decision making andimplementation systems though the project was inimplementation since a decade. The policy makersshould take into consideration that the attitude of

S. No Suggestions Frequency Percentage Rank

1. Separate staff i.e. PD and supporting staff for ATMA

76 95.00 II

2. District level CIGs may be encouraged 75 93.75 III

3. Early approval of action plans and release of funds

77 96.25 I

4. Conducting of AMC and GB meetings regularly

73

91.25 IV

5. Provision for decentralisation of decisions

65 81.25 VII

6. Timely supply of guidelines for trainings and exposure visits

68 85.00 VI

7. District level trainings to block level officers about extension reforms

70 87.50 V

8. Supply of CDs on location specific technologies

68 85.00 VI

9. Provision of honorarium, TA,DA to farmer members of ATMA committees for attending meetings

63 78.75 VIII

10. Timely information about ATMA programmes to be organised

56 70.00 IX

RAMA et al

61

individuals plays major role for the success or failureof the programme. Hence efforts must be directedtowards capacity building and creating awarenessabout processes of reforms among stake holderswhich will help to make them to move towards highercontinnum of attitude towards reforms. The

constraints enlisted and suggestions given by thestakeholders in the present study will not only serveas an indicator of prevailing condition but will helpthe policy makers and administrators to modify thepresent guidelines for successful implementation ofthe programme.

REFERENCES

Ramamurthy, V.S. 2000. A study on JanmabhoomiProgramme in Chittoor district of AndhraPradesh.M.Sc(Ag.) Thesis submitted toAcharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,Hyderabad.

Kappala, A. R. 2002.An analysis of sustainability ofagriculture in watershed environment inMahaboobnagar district of AndhraPradesh,Ph.D. Thesis submitted to AcharyaN.G.Ranga Agricultural University,Hyderabad.

Nasib Singh and Singh R.P. 2008. Attitude ofExtension personal towards ATMA modelAgricultural extension review-January-June :pp21-23.

Lakshmana, Kella. 2003. Indigenous TechnicalKnowledge in agriculture in High Altitude and

Tribal Area Zone of Andhra Pradesh,Ph.D.Thesis submitted to Acharya N.G.RangaAgricultural University,Hyderabad.

Obaiah, M C 2004. A Study on Capacity building ofrice growing farmers of Farmers Field Schools(FFS) in Krishna Godavari Zone of AndhraPradesh.Ph.D. Thesis submitted to AcharyaN.G.Ranga Agricultural University,Hyderabad.

Swanson,B.E. 2006. The changing role of agriculturalextension in a global economy. Journal ofInternational Agricultural and ExtensionEducation. 13(3):5-17.

Sreenivasulu, Midde.2011. Empowerement of farmersthrough Farmer Field Schools in AndhraPradesh ,Ph D thesis submitted to ANGRAU,Hyderabad.

ATTITUDE OF FARMERS AND EXTENSION OFFICERS TOWARDS ATMA

62

Chickpea is the second largest pulse cropproduced in the world happens to play important rolein human nutrition as source of protein. Chickpea isgrown in arid and semi arid tracts of the country whichsuits best for its production. India grows chickpea in7.29 mha producing 5.77 million tonnes seed whichrepresents 30% and 38% of the national pulseacreage and production respectively. With respectto Andhra Pradesh, there has been a dramaticincrease in area, production and productivity levelssince1995-96 to till date. The productivity of A.P is1141kg/ha and in Anantapur it is only 1222kg/ha. Thebulk of chickpea produced in India is being absorbedlocally and is still happening to continue as largestimporter of chickpea in the world (1.45lakh tonnes).With the increase in imports it is the need of hour toincrease the productivity of chickpea with theadoption of improved practices.

In this regard ANGR Agricultural University,Hyderabad has developed improved productiontechnologies as per requirement of farmers in AndhraPradesh. To improve productivity of chickpea inAnantapur district KVK,Reddipalli Anantapur hastaken up demonstrations with improved cultivars andtrained farmers on improved practices and IPMtechnologies. The transfer of improved technologyand their effective adoption is influenced by the

KNOWLEDGE AND EXTENT OF ADOPTION OF IMPROVED PRACTICES OFCHICKPEA THROUGH KVK INTERVENTIONS

P.GANESH KUMAR, M.K. JYOSTHNA and P.LAKSHMI REDDYKrishi Vigyan Kendra, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural Unviersity, Reddipalli , Anantapur-515701



ABSTRACT

Front line demonstration (FLD) is the important intervention of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) to demonstratenewly released crop production and protection technologies and their management practices in the farmers fieldsunder different agro-climatic regions and farming situations. KVK Reddipalli has conducted demonstrations, trainingsand method demonstrations etc in chickpea under rainfed vertisols in northern parts of the district where predominantcrop is chickpea. These demonstrations and extension activities have created awareness among farming communityon improved technologies with special focus on IPM practices. As the programme has completed four years, anattempt was made to study the level of knowledge and extent of adoption of improved practices of chickpea farmersin Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh using ex-post facto research design. Sample size consists of 90 farmersselected randomly from study area. The profile analysis of farmers indicated that majority of them are middle aged,low extension contact and majority had high scientific orientation and economic orientation. Fifty three percent offarmers possessed medium level of knowledge where as 53 per cent farmers had low adoption rate with regard toimproved technologies. More than half of respondents revealed lack of soil testing facilities at their nearest and nonavailability of bio pesticides and fungicides was constraint to adopt IPM technologies.

method of its transfer to the farmers in accordancetotheir need. Keeping this in view the present studywas undertaken to know the knowledge level and rateof adoption of improved production technologiesrecommended by KVK , Reddipalli, Anantapur by thefarmers with the following specific objectives.

1. To study the personal and socio-economiccharacteristics of the farmers.

2. To know the knowledge level and extent ofadoption of recommended technologies ofchickpea

3. To find out the constraints faced by the farmersin adopting the recommended technologies.

METHODOLOGY

The study was conducted in purposivelyselected villages of Anantapur district during 2011-12 where demonstrations, trainings, field days andawareness programmes were conducted during 2007-08 to 2010-11 in order to know the knowledge andadoption of recommended technologies. Ex-post-facto research diesign was adopted for this study.Three villages were selected purposively for thispurpose. 30 farmers were selected from each villagethus making a total of 90 respondents. The data werecollected by personally interviewing the selectedrespondents with the help of structured interview

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 58-63, 2013

63

schedule. The statistical methods like percentage,frequency, mean and standardeviation were employedfor analysing the data.


It was evident that majority of therespondents belonged to middle age group (42.22 percent) followed by old age group (41.11 per cent) andyoung age group(16.66 per cent). Large number ofrespondents were educated up to middleschool(24.4)followed by primary education(22.22) andfunctional literates (20 percent) and illiterates are 15.5percent..It was further observed that the respondentswere normally distributed having agriculture as theirmain occupation(95.5 %) while remaining havingsubsidiary occupation(4.5 %). This might be due toagriculture is the only enterprise in the village whichis source of livelihood.Incase of land holding majorityof the farmers were beloned to mediumcategory(60%) followed by big (24.44%) and smallfarmers(15.55%). The annual income majority of therespondents (60 %) fall under low level of incomehaving upto Rs.1 lakh per annum, while 22.22 percent respondents are medium level of income andremaining only 11.11 per cent were high level ofincome. Due to small holdings and rainfed farmingresults in majority farmers categorised into lowincome group. This result is in correlation with lowlevel of education and income level of therespondents. In case of extension contact, it wasobserved that majority of respondents had low (61.11%) extension contact while 27.77 per cent hadmedium and 11.11 per cent had low extension contact(Darekar 2002). This might be due to unaware ofrespondents about information sources for accessinginformation about agriculture technologies. It wasobserved that majority of respondents had low (64.44)levelof social participation followed by medium(24.44%) and high level (11.11) of social participation. In case of economic orientation majority of farmers(51.11) had highlevel of economic orientation while25.22 per cent had medium level followed by low level(23.33%) economic orientation. Though respondentshad low level of education majority had high andmedium level of economic orientation. This is due toincreased cost of cultivation and scarcity of labourand increase in house hold expenditure in every year.Pertaining to scientific orientation majority (53.33%)

had high levelof scientific orientation followed bymedium (31.11) and low level(15.55%).

It was observed from table 2 incase ofrecommended varieties it was known to cent per centfarmers and cent percent farmers were adoptedrecommended varieties. Regarding seed rate only38.8 per cent farmers known about seed rate but dueto apprehension of seedling damage in the earlystages this was adopted by only 16.6 percent farmers.This is due to fact farmers believe that high seedrate may compensate damage caused due todiseases in early stages. This can be over come byresult demonstrations in the farmers fields. Knowledgeabout seed treatment was 40 per cent and its adoptionrate with right chemical is 22.22 per cent. Majority ofrespondents are not aware of right chemicals forseed treatment, might be due to thier low extensioncontact. With regard to seed treatment withtrichoderma viridi was known to only 22.22 per centfarmers and its adoption is 8.88 per cent. It wasevident from the table 2 recommended spacing isknown to 66.66 per cent farmers and adoption by 50per cent farmers. Cent per cent had knowledge andadoption of right t ime of sowing. Regardingrecommended dose of fertilisers it is known to 16.66per cent and adoption rate is only 13.33 percent. Thisis due to majority of respondents are applyingcomplex fertlisers/DAP knowingly or unknowingly.It indicates more focus should be needed oneducating farmers on soil test based fertilisersapplication. It was evident from table no.2 no onehas knowledge about urea application during floweringstage. Respondents had apprehension of urea spraymay effect flower dropping, resulted in non adoptionof this technology. And no one has adopted gypsumapplication to the chickpea. This might be due tonon availability of gypsum. Regarding sulphurapplication it is known to 12.22 per cent but no onewas adopted. With regard to herbicides it is known toonly 8.88 per cent and adopted by only 3.33 per cent.With regard to critical stage of irrigation it is knownto 38.88 per cent farmers and adopted by only 16.66per cent farmers. This is due to non availabiity ofirrigation sources. With respect to pests and theircontrol knowledge and adoption is 83.33 per cent.Regarding diseases and their control is only 13.33percent. Very few respondents (20%) had knowledgeabout IPM practices but their adoption is 5.55 per

KNOWLEDGE AND EXTENT OF ADOPTION OF IMPROVED PRACTICES OF CHICKPEA

64

S.No. Category No Percent 1. Age

Young (upto 35 years) Middle (36-50) Old (51 and above)

15 38 37

16.6 42.2 41.1

2. Education Illiterate Functional literate Primary Middle school High school College education

14 18 20 22 6 10

15.5 20

22.2 24.4 6.6

11.1 3. Occupation

Agriculture Agriculture is subsidiary occupation

86 04

95.5 4.5

4. Land holding Small farmers(upto 2ha) Medium farmers (2-4 ha) Big farmers (above 4 ha)

14 54 22

15.5 60

24.4

5. Annual income Low (upto 1 lakh) Medium(1-2 lakhs) High (above 2 lakhs)

54 20 16

60

22.22 17.77

6. Extension contact Low Medium High

55 25 10

61.11 27.77 11.11

7. Social participation Low Medium High

58 22 10

64.44 24.44 11.11

8. Economic orientation Low Medium High

21 23 46

23.33 25.22 51.11

9. Scientific orientation Low Medium High

14 28 48

15.55 31.11 53.33

10. Innovativeness Low Medium High

29 39 22

32.22 43.33 24.44

Table1. Distribution of respondents by the personal and socio- economic characteristics (N=90)

GANESH et al

65

S.No. Recommended technology K now ledge F

%

Adoption F

%

1. Varieties recommended for A.P a)JG -11 b)JA KI-9218 Kabuli types: c)Phule G 95311 d)LBeg-7 e)a ll

48 53.3 90 100

2. Seed rate of 25-30 k g /acre is recommended yes/No For bo ld seeded varieties 40 kg/acre is recommended yes/No For medium size seed 30-35 kg/acre is recommended yes/No

35 38.8 15 16.6

3. Seed treatm ent with captan /thi ram or carbedaz im @2.5 gr per kg is recommended to protect crop from w ilt and dry root rot Yes/no

36 40 20 22.22

4. Seed treatment with trichoderma v iridi 8 gr per kg is recommended to protect crop from w ilt and dry root rot true/ False

20 22.22 8 8.88

5. Spacing for chickpea is 30*10 60 66.66 45 50 6. Optimum time for s ow ing ____________ 7. Fertilizers recom mended

a) 8-20-16 kg of N-P-k b) 8-20-50 c) 20-20—0 d) 14-35-14

15 16.66 12 13.33

8. Foliar spray of 2% urea or DAP at f low ering stage enhances yie ld by 25%

0 0 0 0

9. Recommended dose of gypsum is ___________________

9 10 0 0

10 Recommended dose of sulphur is 11 12.22 0 0 11. Time of application of su lphur is –basal before

sowing 5 5.55 0 0

12. Pre em ergence herb icide recommended of Bengalgram is pendim ethalin

8 8.88 3 3.33

13. Recommended dose herb icide for bengalgram is

8 8.88 3 3.33

14. Critical stages of irr igat ion is pod development stage is flowering stage True/False

35 38.88 15 16.66

15. Major pests of Bengalgram and their control 75 83.33 75 83.33 16. Major diseases of bengalgram and the ir

control 20 22.22 12 13.33

17. IPM practices of bengalgram are a) D eep summ er p loughing destroys

pupal stages of pests b) C rop rotation w ill reduce intensity of

pest c) Guard crop in chick pea is d) Pherom one traps wil l reduce pest

bu ild up e) W ith the help of b ird perches larvae

w ill feed by b irds f) N eem oil w ill reduce the growth of the

larvae and egg laying g) N PV is used for contro l o f _______-

Remedial measure of chem ical spraying in bengalgram are

18 20 5 5.55

Table 2. Knowledge and adoption of improved production technologies of chickpeaN= 90


66

cent only. This is due to lack of knowledge and lowfamrer to famrer extension contact and farmers opinethat complexity of IPM technologies to adopt in theirfarms.

With regard to overall Knowledge of improvedpractices of chickpea table 3 indicates that majority(57.9.%) of respondents had medium level of

cent had low level of knowledge.

Extent of adoption: It was evident from Table 4majority had medium adoption rate (75.5%) followedby high (36.66%) adoption rate and only 4.5 per centhad less adoption of improved technologies. This isdue to dissemination of technologies in medium rangeand farmer to farmer extension is to be improved toincrease knowledge and adoption rate.

Table 3. Distribution of respondents according to knowledge N=90

S.No. Category Number Per cent

1. More knowledge 23 25.5

2. Medium knowledge 52 57.9

3. Less knowledge 15 16.6

Mean :9.05, SD: 3.171

Table 4. Distribution of respondents according to their adoption N=90


1. High adoption 18 20

2. Medium adoption 68 75.5

3. Low adoption 4 4.5

Mean :6.16, SD: 2.35

Table 5. Distribution of respondents according to the constraints faced by them N=90


1. Lack soil testing facilities 48 53.33

2. Non availability of gypsum 9 10

3. Non availability of recommended bio pesticides and fungicides

18 20

4. Lack of followup action 27 30

It was evident from Table 5. That 53.33 per

cent farmers felt, lack of soil testing facilities at theirnearest and lack of follow up action about the

technologies were considered by the thirty per centrespondents. Twenty per cent considered nonavailability of bio pesticides and fungicides was

knowledge followed by high (25.5%) and16.66 per

GANESH et al

67

another constraint in adoption of IPM technologies.All these constraints need to be addressed byconcerned authorities.

It may concluded that over all extent ofknowledge and adoption was in medium level. Hencethere is need of filling this extension gap by providingneed based training about technologies which are notadopted by majority of farmers. And agriculture

REFERENCES

Deshmukh, P.R 2007. Knowledge and adoption ofAgricultural technologies in Marathwada,Indian Research Journal of ExtensionEducation 7 (1), January 2007.

officers also need to be trained to dissemonate latestknow-how about chickpea technologies. So that theirknowledge could be incrreased and the adoption oftechnologies would ultimately be enhanced. Thereare many profile characterstics influencing the extentof knowledge about chick pea technologies, whichalso need manipulation towards higher productivityof chickpea crop.

Ganesh Kumar, P. 2005. A study on rytumitraTelevision programme for farm televiewers inChittooor district of Andhra Pradesh, M.Sc.Thesis , ANGRAU, Hyderabad.


68

INTRODUCTION

The recent advances in the field ofelectronics have revolutionized the ICT whichincludes satellite communication, video cassetterecorders, personal computers, facsimile machine,internet, desktop video production, digital audio, localand long distance telephoning, point to point cableservices, cellular telephone, video conferencing,video phones and fibre optics and switchedbroadband networks. The information revolution hasmany implications for revitalizing farming community.The main benefits of ICT are increasing efficiencyby economizing on resource use in the operations offirms, as well as in market transaction. Informationthat would otherwise conveyed through face to facecontact, post, courier, print delivery, telegraph ortelephone might instead be communicated in digital;electronic form via the Internet.

The term Information and CommunicationTechnologies (ICTs) can be broadly interpreted astechnologies that facilitate communication and theprocessing and transmission of information byelectronic means. This definition encompasses thefull range of ICTs from radio, and television totelephones,mobile,computers and the internetTechnical Centre for Agricultural and RuralCooperation (Anonymous, 2003). New ICTs arebecoming more accessible and users can obtaininformation from various sources and one computer

A STUDY ON PURPOSE OF USING ICT TOOLS AMONG FARMING COMMUNITYK. P. Raghuprasad, S.C. Devaraja and Y.M. Gopala

Directorate of Extension, UAS, Hebbal, Bangalore – 560024



ABSTRACT

The study was conducted in Bangalore rural, Chikkaballapura and Kolar districts of Karnataka state during2010-11 to know use of ICT tools among farming community. These districts were selected purposefully as thesedistricts are nearer to the hub of IT i.e. Bangalore. Many farmers of all the three districts are getting Multi MessageServices (MMS) and also they are using old and new ICT tools. Totally 120 farmers were selected from the 12villages of three districts. Majority of the respondents obtained information occasionally from TV regarding inputsavailability (60.83%), production technologies (70.83%), marketing (73.33%), weather (57.50%), governmentprogrammes and schemes (70.83%) and Integrated Pest Management (84.17%). A considerable percentage of therespondents obtained information occasionally from mobile regarding input availability (37.50%), marketing (54.17%),government programmes and schemes (70.83%) and IPM (40.00%). Majority of the farmers obtained informationregarding agriculture through television and mobile. Hence, there is a need to educate the farmers regardinginternet, conferencing and agricultural DVDs by means of providing facilities of these tools in rural areas.

could meet the need of a large rural community. Theyoffer current and better-focused access to informationin a short time. Electronic mails (e-mails), internet,radio and mobile phones are the most commonly usednew information and communication technologies andhave caused a cultural revolution in the wayindividuals and organizations interact, in terms ofcost, time and distance.

Access, efficiency and affordability ofagricultural information are the major barriers in thebattle to uplift agricultural productivity among farmers.However this challenge can be alleviated through theeffective exploitation of innovative solutions thatintegrate Information and Communicat ionTechnologies in the dissemination of agriculturalinformation (Muriithii et al., 2009). The interest in theapplication of ICT tools in agriculture arises from theperennial problems farmers face in accessingagricultural information (Okello et al., 2009).

Problems in ICT usage in rural areas are ruralpeople don’t know benefits of ICT, do not have skillsor expertise in using ICT, lack of time spent on ICT,have no knowledge in using ICT, price of ICT isexpensive, lack of training on ICT usage, languageproblem, lack of technology accommodation, afraidto use ICT, lack of support from responsibleagencies, ICT is not friendly users, lack of ICT supportservices, ICT is not safe, lack of updated agricultureinformation on ICT, lack of chances to use ICT and

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 64-69, 2013

69

lack of agriculture information offered by ICT (MusaAbu Hassan, 2009).

The modernization of agriculture will begreatly influenced by new gadgets like CD-ROM,internet etc. specially by integrating informationsystems in a single tool which can be used in thesame way as any other farm input. The informationcommunication technologies (ICT) are offering newways for extension personnel to reach wider audience.However, introducing ICT in poor rural areas can bea catalyst for change. However, some pre- requisitesare needed to make this introduction cost-effectiveand sustainable, such as stable electric and software.If these essential factors are not present, it may bebetter to search for more appropriate and low-techsolutions. With this background, the study wasundertaken to assess the use of ICT tools amongfarming community and to know the constraints facedby farmers in using the ICT tools for farmcommunication.

Research methodology

The study was conducted using “Ex-post-facto research design” in Bangalore rural,Chikkaballapura and Kolar districts of Karnatakaduring 2010-11. To know the purpose of using ICTtools using in farm communication. These districtswere selected purposefully because as these districtsare nearer to the hub of IT i.e. Bangalore. Manyfarmers of the three districts are getting MultiMessage Services (MMS) and also they are usingold and new ICT tools. Doddaballapurar, Chintamaniand Srinivasapura taulks were selected fromBangalore rural, Chikkaballapura and Kolar districtspurposefully because these taluks were near torespective KVKs. From each taluk four villages wereselected which are closer to respective KVKs. Thevillages selected were Hadonahalli, Tapsahalli,Gejjegaranahalli and Lakshmidevapura fromDoddaballapura taluk. Kurtahalli, Muniganahalli,Kallahalli and Kachalli from Chintamani taluk andShettihalli, Chowdanalli, Dosandra and Vardanahallifrom Srinivasapura taluk. In each of the selectedvillages, initially a list of 25 farmers was prepared asthe farmers are getting multi message services,attended video conference programmes and usingone or more ICT tools in getting farm information.From this list 10 farmers were selected randomly from

each village, constituting a total sample of 120 farmersfor the study.


Different aspects of information from ICT toolsregarding agriculture

A perusal of Table 1 presents the dataobtained regarding purpose of using ICT informationfrom ICT tools regarding agriculture.

1. Information regarding inputs

A great majority (99.67%) of the respondentsdidn’t get information on inputs from radio and 0.83per cent of farmers obtained occasionally. Aconsiderable percentage (60.83%) of the farmersoccasionally obtained information on inputs from TVand 39.17 per cent of the respondents never obtained.A great majority (98.33%) of respondents neverobtained information on inputs from internet but 1.67per cent of respondents occasionally took informationon inputs from internet.

2. Information regarding production technologies

Majority (85.00%) of the respondents havenot obtained information on production technologiesfrom radio. Maximum (70.84%) of the respondentsoccasionally obtained information on productiontechnologies from TV and 29.16 per cent ofrespondents never obtained information on productiontechnologies from TV. More than half (58.33%) ofthe respondents never got any information fromtelephone regarding production technologies and41.67 per cent were obtained occasionally. Majority(80%) of the respondents occasionally obtainedinformation regarding production technologies frommobile.

3. Information regarding credit

A great majority (99.17%) of the respondentsdidn’t get information on credit from radio whereas,64.17 per cent of the respondents occasionallyobtained information on credit from TV. Large number(97.50%) of the respondents never obtainedinformation on credit from internet and 2.50 per centof respondents have occasionally obtained. Morethan three-fourth (83.33%) of the respondents neverobtained information from telephone 16.67 per centobtained occasionally from telephone.

A STUDY ON PURPOSE OF USING ICT TOOLS AMONG FARMING COMMUNITY

70

Tabl

e. 1

Diff

eren

t asp

ects

of i

nfor

mat

ion

obta

ined

from

ICT

tool

s re

gard

ing

agri

cultu

re

(n

=120

)

RAGHUPRASAD et al

71

4. Information regarding marketing

Majority (85%) of the respondents haven’tobtained information on marketing from radio and 15per cent of respondents occasionally obtained.Maximum (73.33%) of the respondents sometimesobtained information on marketing from TV and 16.67per cent of respondents never obtained. Considerablenumber (66.67%) of the respondents never obtainedinformation from telephone and 33.33 per centobtained occasionally.

5. Information regarding weather

Majority of respondents (85.84%) haven’tobtained information on weather from radio, followedby 14.16 per cent of respondents who occasionallyobtained information on weather from radio. Nearly57.50 respondents occasionally obtained informationon weather from TV, and 30.00 per cent ofrespondents never obtained.

6. Information regarding crop insurance

Majority (96.67%) of the respondents haven’tobtained information on crop insurance from radioand 3.33 per cent of respondents occasionallyobtained. More than half (53.33%) per cent of therespondents occasionally obtained information on cropinsurance from TV and 46.67 per cent of respondentsnever obtained.

7. Information regarding government prog-rammes

Majority (96.67%) of the respondents didn’tget information on government programmes from radioand considerable number (70.84%) of the farmerstook information on government programmes fromTV. Majority (97.50%) of the respondents neverpreferred to obtain information from telephone.

8. Information on post harvest technologies

Maximum number (62.50%) of therespondents never obtained information on postharvest technologies from TV and 37.50 per cent ofrespondents have occasionally obtained. A greatmajority (97.50%) of the respondents never obtainedinformation on post harvest technologies frominternet.

9. Information on Integrated Pest Management(IPM)

Majority (85.00%) of respondents haven’tobtained information on IPM from radio. Nearly 65per cent of farmers occasionally took information onIPM from TV and 35.83 per cent of the respondentsnever obtained from TV. Majority (96.67%) of therespondents never obtained information on inputs frominternet and 3.33 per cent of respondents occasionallyobtained.

10. Information on Integrated NutrientManagement (INM)

Majority (85.00%) of respondents neverobtained information on INM from radio. Nearly 65per cent of farmers occasionally took information onINM from TV and 35.83 per cent of the respondentsnever obtained. Majority (97.50%) of the respondentsnever obtained information on inputs from internetand 2.50 per cent of respondents have occasionallyobtained.

The study indicated that television was mostused ICT tool and it was used for many purposeslike inputs, production technology, credit, marketinginformation, weather information, crop insurance andinformation related to government programmes andschemes. The probable reason might be that majorityof the respondents possessed TV and mobile. TV isthe most effective communication tool to disseminatethe farm information to the farming community sincemany decades. TV became popular since it providesinformation in the form of audio with video. Further,different types of programmes like success stories,interviews, phone in programme are telecastingthrough TV is provided wide range of information witheffectiveness. Portability and multiple uses of mobilecan help in getting information at their door step andeven at working places. Further, they perceive thatthe information provided from these sources is foundcredible and timely. Hence, majority of therespondents obtained information regarding differentaspects of agriculture by means of TV and mobile.

In order make farmers updated with the recenttechnologies, the television is best and most suitedmedia. The television has access to far and remoteareas in the country hence it is very much necessaryto work on this and to make policy arrangements.


72

The method, procedure and the timings ofthe television programmes needs to be taken care.The next best media as revealed by the study isradio. Since, it has wider coverage and less costmedia it can be used to disseminate the informationto the farmers. The radio being one of the mostpreferred media by the farmers has created lessimpact on the farming. Hence, there is a need tomake radio programmes most effective and efficient.

Problems in using ICT tools among farmers

The results in Table 2 indicated thatproblems in using ICT tools among farming

community were electricity problems (I), lack of ICT

literacy among the farmers (II), more time and

practice required to learn the tools to use (II), lack of

trained man power (III), clarification is difficult if any

doubt arise (IV), initial cost is more (IV), time of

broadcasting and conferencing is not convenient (V),

recurring expenditure is more (VI), Lack of training

centres in rural area (VII)), dependency on

interpreters (VIII), problems of foreign language (IX)

and Lack of locally relevant information (X).

Sl. No.

Statements Score* Percentage Rank

1 Electricity problems 344 95.60 I

2 Lack of ICT literacy among farmers 250 69.40 II

3 More time and practice required to learn to use the tools

250 69.40 II

4 Lack of trained man power 244 67.80 III

5 Clarification is difficult if any doubt arise 243 67.50 IV 6 Initial cost is more 243 67.50 IV

7 Time of broadcasting and conferencing is not convenient

242 67.20 V

8 Recurring expenditure is more 241 66.90 VI

9 Lack of training centers 236 65.60 VII

10 Dependency on interpreters 195 54.20 VIII 11 Problems of foreign language 167 46.90 IX

12 Lack of locally relevant information 158 43.90 X

Table 2. Problems in using ICT tools

* - Multiple responses

More severe problems in using ICT toolsamong farming community are electricity problemsin rural areas because of frequent load shedding inrural areas hence they can’t able to get informationregarding agricultural broadcasted through televisionand radio timely. The study revealed that in ruralareas majority of the people had education up toprimary to high school, so that they can’t able toeasily access ICT tools that it requires more timeand practice to learn to use ICT tools. The findingsof the study indicated that there was lack of trained

personnel regarding ICT usage and non-availabilityof these tools. Majority of the people can’t ableaccess information independently from ICT toolsbecause of lack of knowledge and complexity of fewtools and cost is more for some of the tools likecomputer, TV and internet due to their medium levelof income. Time of broadcasting and conferencing isnot convenient due to time constraint in prime hoursespecially in TV programme. The leisure timeprogrammes in television, radio and videoconferencing is most welcomed effort by the farmers.

RAGHUPRASAD et al

73

Most of the time farmers spend in field only hencethey are unable to watch programmes during day time.Further, there is a lack of locally relevant informationand non availability of ICT tools in local dialect likeinternet, kiosk and computer is one of the importantconstraints that farmers are facing hence there is aneed to develop the ICT tools in local language.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the study inferred thatmajority of the farmers obtaining information regardingdifferent aspects of agricultural through television andmobile. Hence, there is a need to educate farmersother ICT tools like internet, conferencing andagricultural DVDs by means of providing training andensuring availability of these tools in rural areas.Majority of the respondents expressed that lack ofICT literacy, infrastructure facilities, problem of foreignlanguage and lack of trained man power. Hence,developmental departments need to organise trainingprogrammes at village level and make farmers toexpose different extension services and more toacquaint with new ICT tools and also trainingopportunities on application, maintenance and skillsdevelopment in ICTs for farmers and extension agentsshould be provided. Establishment and operation of

telecenters, rural community-based informationcenters, that accommodate ICT tools like telephone,computer-based systems with internet connection,are required to enhance ICT usage by farmers inobtaining agricultural information. Increasedmobilization of farmers into farmer’s organizationsas a strategy for agricultural development will notonly enhance the use of ICTs but will also assistfarmers in securing credit facilities and better bargainto establish multipurpose ICT centers from whichthey can get information about improved agriculturaltechnologies.

Recommendations

1. Ensuring the programme broadcasting duringleisure period mostly during the night throughtelevision, radio and the video conferencing.

2. Training of farmers on usage of ICT tools viz.,kiosk, internet, web portals and the digital videodisks (DVD) of package of practices.

3. Development of ICT tools on the local languageso that farmers who are not aware of universallanguage (English) make the best use of thetools.

REFERENCES

Annonymous, 2003. Technical Centre for Agriculturaland Rural Cooperation. ICTs–TransformingAgricultural Extension. An e-discussion.

Murithii, Jhamatani, A and Rao, D.U.M., 2009.Information Technology for Agriculture andrural development. International research onFood Security. Natural ResourcesManagement and Rural development.Tropetag. University of Hamburg.

Musa Abu Hassan, 2009.Problems and obstacles inusing Information and CommunicationTechnology (ICT) among Malaysian agro-based entrepreneurs. European Journal ofScientific Research.36 (1): Pp.93-101.

Okello, J.J., Okello, R.M and Adera-Ofwonaf, E.,2009. Awareness and use of mobile phonesby smallholder farmers in Kenya. E-Agricultureand E-Government for Global PolicyDevelopment. IGI Publishers.


74

INTRODUCTIONEntrepreneur is the key factor of

entrepreneurship and now women have beenrecognized as successful entrepreneurs as they havequalities desirable and relevant for entrepreneurshipdevelopment. In the process of entrepreneurship,women have to face various problems associatedwith entrepreneurship and these problems get doubledbecause of her dual role as a wage earner and ahomemaker. Women in India constitute a largerproportion of total unemployed population and henceit is imperative to find out the entrepreneurialconstraints faced by them. Keeping this in view, anattempt was made to study the problems faced bythe women entrepreneurs in planning, production andmarketing of products and to develop suitablestrategies for building successful women ledenterprises.


Exploratory research design was adopted forthe study. Three districts namely Ranga Reddy,Guntur and Chittor were selected from Telngana,Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema regionsrespectively based on maximum number of womenentrepreneurs. With respect to entrepreneur selection,sixty nine (69) women entrepreneurs from RangaReddy, Forty four (44) from Güntur and Thirty seven(37) from Chittor district were selected respectively

PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS AND SUGGESTIONS FORPRODUCTION & MARKETING OF PRODUCTS

G.PADMINI DEVI, P. RAMESHKUMAR REDDY and CH. VENUGOPAL REDDYDepartment of Agricultural Extension, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030

ABSTRACT

The results of the study indicated that lack of training in enterprise planning, multiple roles of womenentrepreneurs, lack of experience in planning followed by inadequate working capital, lack of adequateinfrastructure, no and less access to skilled labour, lack of advertizing and branding of the products, competitionfrom branded products and lack of skills in sales promotion were the major planning, production and marketingproblems facing by women entrepreneurs. Appropriate training in enterprise planning and development, supportfrom family members both in family and enterprise running, assertiveness training to make quick decisionsat appropriate timings, provision of sufficient working capital by the government, infrastructure in the form ofindustrial plots & sheds to be provided by the state run institutions, provision of skill oriented training to thelabour, networking with potential customers, product branding and training on sales promotion were the majorsuggestions given by the women entrepreneurs for better planning, production and marketing of the products.



for the study. Thus, A total of one hundred and fiftywomen entrepreneurs were selected based onproportionate random sampling. An open endedinterview schedule was used to elicit data for thestudy and all the responses were coded in the formof frequencies and later on converted intopercentages and ranks were assigned.


It was evident from Table-1 that majority ofthe women entrepreneurs (71.33%) expressed theproblem of lack of training in enterprise planning anddevelopment and received first rank. The reason forthis might be that it was often overlooked by theinstitutions in providing training on enterprisemanagerial aspects. At the same time even if trainingis available, women may be unable to access itbecause it is held at a time when they are meetingfamily responsibilities. Sixty eight per cent of thewomen entrepreneurs were facing the problem ofperforming the multiple roles as it was necessary forthem to perform household chores, child rearing andat the same time they have to concentrate onenterprise activities. The entrepreneurs were alsoexpressed problems like lack of experience in planning(third rank – 64.00%), uncertainty in getting resources(fourth rank -60.00%),limited exposure to technicalknow-how (fifth rank – 56.00%) inability to anticipateproblems in production and marketing (sixth rank -

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 70-74, 2013

75

48.00%) and lack of knowledge on availability andprocurement of machinery and raw material(seventhrank-40.00%). Limited number of entrepreneurs (eighth

rank -30.67%) expressed lack of analytical skills inidentifying the enterprise. The reason might be dueto low education, less awareness on variousenterprises.

Table 1. Problems as perceived by women entrepreneurs in planning of enterprises

S.No. Problems Frequency Percentage Rank 1. Lack of training in enterprise planning 107 71.33 I 2. Multiple roles of women entrepreneurs 102 68.00 II 3. Lack of experience in enterprise planning and

management 96 64.00 III

4. Uncertainty in getting resources 90 60.00 IV 5. Limited exposure to technical know-how 84 56.00 V 6. Inability to anticipate problems in production and

marketing 72

48.00

7. Lack of knowledge on availability and procurement of machinery and raw material

60 40.00

8. Lack of analytical skills in identifying the enterprise 46 30.67

A perusal of Table- 2 indicated that, majority(first rank - 70.67%) of the women entrepreneurssuggested to provide appropriate training in enterpriseplanning and development to overcome the problemsin effective planning of enterprise activities followedby needed support from family members both infamily and enterprise running (second rank - 66.67%)so that it would help the entrepreneurs in

concentrating on business effectively. Assertivenesstraining to make quick decisions at appropriatetimings(third rank - 59.33%), technical know-how onsmall scale enterprises (fourth rank - 55.33%) andprofessional expertise on latest production andmarketing trends(fifth rank -47.33%) were thesuggestions given by women entrepreneurs to solvethe problems in planning the enterprise activities.

S.No. Suggestions Frequency Percentage Rank 1. Provide appropriate training in enterprise planning

and development 106 70.67

I

2. Needed support from family members both in family and enterprise running

100 66.67 II

3. Assertiveness training to make quick decisions at appropriate timings

89 59.33 III

4. Provide technical know-how on small scale enterprises

83 55.33 IV

5. Provide professional expertise on latest production and marketing trends

71 47.33 V

6. Create awareness on various sources of machinery and raw material

60 40.00

Table 2. Suggestions given by the women entrepreneurs for better planning of enterprises

It was evident from the Table-3 thatinadequate working capital (first rank- 85.3%) wasthe major production problem as working capital isthe business’s back bone and every entrepreneur’s

primary task is to keep it flowing. But, due toinadequate initial investment and delay in gettingfinancial assistance from inst itutions theentrepreneurs was always in need of finance. Lack

PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS FACED BY THE WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN PLANNING

76

of adequate infrastructure (second rank – 76.7%),was another major problem in running the enterpriseas most of them were middle income group theycould not afford to rent or lease in a better place withall facilities. No and less access to skilled labour(third rank - 73.3%) was another problem as most ofthe workers were migrated to places for betterremuneration. Frequent fluctuations in raw materialprices (fourth rank -65.3%) were also one of theimportant problems as there was no regulated marketprice for the raw material. Purchasing of raw materialin small lots (fifth rank 56.00%) as the entrepreneurswere not having sufficient funds to purchase raw

material in bulk. Lack of technical know-how aboutrunning of the enterprise( sixth rank -53.3%) and lackof knowledge and skills in maintenance of productionrecords(seventh rank-48.00%) was some of theproduction problems the women entrepreneurs werefacing. The reason for this might be due to lack oftraining in production aspects. Limited number (eighthrank- 45.30%) of entrepreneurs was facing theproblem of lack of information networks to exchangeinformation about modern technologies. This mightbe due to inefficiency of institutions in maintainingdata base of potential entrepreneurs.

Table 3. Problems perceived by women entrepreneurs in running the enterprises

S.No. Problems F % Rank

1 Inadequate working capital. 128 85.3 I 2 Lack of adequate infrastructure facilities. 115 76.7 II 3 No and less access to skilled labour 110 73.3 III 4 Frequent fluctuations in raw material prices. 98 65.3 IV 5 Purchasing of raw material in small lots results in high

costs. 84

56.0 V

6 Lack of technical know-how about running of the enterprise.

80 53.3

7 Lack of knowledge and skills in maintenance of production records

72 48.0

8 Lack of information networks of women entrepreneurs to exchange information about modern technologies.

68 45.3

9 Inadequate power and water supply. 54 36.0

From the Table – 4 it can be observed that,the suggestions given by the women entrepreneursto overcome the production problems were, providesufficient working capital by the government (first rank-85.33%) so that they can purchase raw material,machinery other production needed material in timefor continuous production. Infrastructure in the formof industrial plots & sheds to be provided by the staterun institutions(second rank - 76.00%) so that wouldhelp entrepreneurs in availing benefits like subsidieson land, building, power supply, water supply,information on meals, exhibitions etc. Followed byother suggestions like, skill oriented training to thelabour (third rank -73.33%), regularization of rawmaterial cost by the government (fourth rank -64.67%)and finance on subsidy basis for purchasing the rawmaterial in bulk (fifth rank -55.33%), upgrade technicalknow-how through training(sixth rank- 53.33%), impart

training on record maintenance(seventh rank-47.33%), create networks among existing & potentialwomen entrepreneurs for information exchange(eighth rank- 44.67%).

It was evident from the Table-5 that majority(first rank – 73.33%) of the women entrepreneursproblem with respect to marketing was lack ofknowledge on advertizing and branding of theproducts. This might be due to less mobility, lesstechnical expertise and less finance the entrepreneurswere not concentrating on advertizing and branding.Competition from branded products (second rank -72.67%), was another major problem facing by thewomen entrepreneurs. The reason might be thatgrowing awareness of customers on various aspectsof marketing made them to prefer branded products.However, most of the women entrepreneurs were

DEVI et al

77

running business on small scale and were notinvolved in direct marketing hence they were notconcentrating on branding.

Lack of skills in sales promotion (third rank -69.33%)due to non-availability of training on various aspectsof marketing especially sales promotion. Dominanceof wholesalers in fixing price (fourth rank – 50.67%)as the entrepreneurs were still struggling forestablishment of their product they were not in aposition to decide their own price. Inability for personalselling (fifth rank -49.33%) as most of them were not

having sufficient funds they were not involved inpersonal selling. The entrepreneurs were also facingother marketing problems viz., inability in meetingthe demand of the product(sixth rank-48.00%),insignificant location of the enterprise(seventh rank-42.00%), changing preferences of the customer(eighth rank-39.33%) and turnover liquidity due topiece meal payment(ninth rank - 36.00%). Limitednumber (tenth rank-34.67%) of entrepreneursexpressed lack of knowledge in supply chainmanagement as they were not having technicalexpertise in assessing demand and supply.

S.No. Suggestions Frequency Percentage Rank 1 Provide sufficient working capital by the

government 128 85.33 I

2 Infrastructure in the form of industrial plots & shed to be provided by the state run institutions

114 76.00 II

3 Provide skill oriented training to the labour 110 73.33 III 4 Regularization of raw material cost by the

government 97 64.67 IV

5 Provide finance on subsidy basis for purchasing the raw material in bulk.

83 55.33 V

6 Upgrade technical knowhow through training 80 53.33 7 Impart training on record maintenance 71 47.33 8 Create networks among existing & potential

women entrepreneurs for information exchange

67 44.67

9 Regular supply of electricity and water 53 35.33

Table 4. Suggestions of women entrepreneurs for effective running of the enterprises

S.No. Problems Frequency Percentage Rank 1. Lack of knowledge on advertising and branding of

the products 110 73.33 I

2. Competition from branded products 109 72.67 II 3. Lack of skills in sales promotion 104 69.33 III 4. Dominance of wholesalers in fixing price 76 50.67 IV 5. Inability for personal selling 74 49.33 V 6. Inability in meeting the demand of the product 72 48.00 7. Insignificant location of the enterprise 63 42.00 8. Changing preferences of the customer 59 39.33 9. Turnover liquidity due to piece meal payment 54 36.00 10. Lack of knowledge in supply chain management 52 34.67

Table 5. Problems as perceived by women entrepreneurs in marketing of product

PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS FACED BY THE WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN PLANNING

78

From Table. 6, it was evident that nearlythree fourth of the women entrepreneurs suggestedthat networking with potential customers (first rank -73.33%) followed by product branding (second rank -72.00%) training on sales promotion (third rank -68.67%), improve the negotiation and bargaining skillsthrough training (fourth rank- 50.67%), governmentshould provide sufficient financial assistance to enterinto direct marketing (fifth rank - 49.33%), time linemanagement between production and marketing (sixth

rank-47.33%), more number of industrial estatesespecially for women should be allotted (seventh rank-42.00%), innovativeness in product development tomeet customer demand (eighth rank-38.67%),sensitizing the customers towards repayment ethics(ninth rank-36.00%) and provision of knowledge onsupply chain management (tenth rank-34.00%) werethe suggestions given by women entrepreneurs toovercome the marketing problems.

Table 6. Suggestions given by the women entrepreneurs for better marketing of products

S.No Suggestions Frequency Percentage Rank 1. Networking with potential customers 110 73.33 I 2. Ensure product branding 108 72.00 II 3. Training on sales promotion 103 68.67 III 4. Improve the negotiation and bargaining skills through

training 76 50.67 IV

5. Government should provide sufficient financial assistance to enter into direct marketing

74 49.33 V

6. Time line management between production and marketing

71 47.33

7. More number of industrial estates specially for women should be allotted

63 42.00

8. Innovativeness in product development to meet customer demand

58 38.67

9. Sensitizing the customers towards repayment ethics 54 36.00 10. Provide knowledge on supply chain management 51 34.00

REFERENCES

Chidambaram, K and Themozhi G 1998. Constraintsfor women entrepreneurs. Social welfare Vol45 (1):28-31.

Madasamy, V and Xavier Joseph, A 2005 Womenentrepreneurs in rural IndiaJauary, Kisan worldVol.32 (1): 21-22

Ramachandran, S and Selvarani 2005. Problemsand prospects of women entrepreneurship inrural areas. Kisan world Vol.32 No(12)

Vijayachandran, B and Harikumar V. 2006. Self-HelpGroups in Kerala. Kurukshetra Vol.54, No.(9).

DEVI et al

79

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is the backbone of our economy.The share of agriculture in the Gross DomesticProduct (GDP) is 14 % which provides employmentto nearly 66 per cent of population in the country.Agricultural credit, Kisan Credit Card (KCC) is aninstrument which played a very important role indevelopment of agricultural sector. It enabled thefarmer to go for short-term credit which is used bythe farmers for purchase of inputs and other services.Farmers prefer short-term loans and medium-termloans while some large farmers are used to long-termcredit for completing their needs those are related toagricultural inputs, raw materials other agriculturalallied activities also. The Green Revolution of Indianagriculture is a good example to a large extent whichdepends on financial institutions for the support toagricultural sector in terms of expansion in inputs

A STUDY ON GROWTH, PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT OF KISAN CREDITCARDS ON FARMER’S INCOME IN RAJASTHAN – AN ECONOMIC APPROACH

S. S. MEENA and G. P. REDDY Department of Agribusiness Management and ABM-Division, Head, NAARM,

College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030



ABSTRACT

In India, The Kisan Credit Card Scheme was initiated in 1998-99 providing entrance to short term credit inthe agricultural sector. The paper vitally examines the growth in Kisan Credit Cards issued, pattern of credit acquisitionby the farmers, its impact on farmer’s income and constraints faced by the farmers holding Kisan Credit Card (KCC)across Karauli district in Rajasthan State, India. The study used both primary and secondary data from the year 2001to 2011 used for analyzing the objectives. Stratified random sampling method was used for Selection of samples.Thus, a total of 120 farmers were selected for collecting the required data for the study through pre-tested questionnaire.The results revealed that the number of kisan credit cards (KCC) issued from past 10 years was continuouslypositive and is increasing in the Commercial Banks (29.80), Regional Rural Banks (19.57) where as Co-operativeBanks (-6.76) are showing decline trends. The study also examines that, Commercial Banks are the major source forfarmers for the credit which sanctioned Rs. 8,156 lakhs (77.23 %) of the total credit given by the banks to the farmers.While RRBs and Co-operative Banks are given Rs. 1,112 lakhs (10.53 %) and Rs. 934 lakhs (08.84 %) respectivelyand the share of credit from the money lender to the farmer was Rs. 358 lakhs (03.39 %) of the total credit. The resultsalso reveal that, the income of kisan credit card (KCC) holders is 25 to 30 per cent more than the Non kisan CreditCard (KCC) holders. This income gap is attributed because Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders use good quality inputmaterial in agricultural operations. However, the study also says that, the large number of the farmers in both thecategories opined that the rate of interest was high (61.67 % in Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and 93.33 % in non-KisanCredit Card (KCC)). Hence, the study suggests that as the large number of the farmers in both the categories opinedthat the rate of interest was high (61.67 % in Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and 93.33 % in non Kisan Credit Card (KCC)and also there is a need to consider the additional activities related to crop production while fixing credit limit underKisan Credit Card (KCC). Hence, banks are suggested to consider the additional activities while fixing credit limitwhich ensures bridging the credit gap.

like fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides, chemicals,capital, etc.

The incorporation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)Scheme was done by RBI and NABARD in 1998-99.Since, incorporation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)scheme, State Cooperative Banks (SCBs) throughDCCBs and PACS and also the Regional Rural Banks(RRBs) and Commercial Banks (CBs) areimplementing the scheme under the guidelines ofNABARD. Samantara (2010) mentioned that theintroduction of a new credit product called KisanCredit Card (KCC) in 1998-99 with three different sub-limits viz. production, assets maintenance andconsumption needs is a step in this direction toaddress the challenge. Farmers have been givensufficient freedom to decide how to use their credit,while at the same time a set repayment schedulehas been provided. However for this scheme to be

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 75-81, 2013

80

successful, education of both the farmers and alsothe bank officials about the scheme is required.

The Kisan Credit Card is a pioneering creditdelivery innovation for providing adequate and timelycredit to farmers under single window, with flexibleand simplified procedure, adopting whole farmapproach, including the short-term credit, mediumterm and long term credit needs of the borrowers foragriculture and allied activities and a reasonablecomponent for consumption needs. Its coverage iscomprehensive and broad which is extended to alltypes of farmers (Kallur, 2005). Interestingly, Andhrahas yet again bagged first position among all statesin the country with regard tothe issue of KisanCredit Cards for ‘2001-2002,”(www.articles. economictimes. indiatimes.com,2002)announced by B.Vasanthan, SLBC chairman AndhraBank. He also stated that, against a target of 40 lakhKisan Credit cards, AP had issued 42.7 lakh cardsduring the year. AP State Co-operative Bank hastopped the list by issuing 30.6 lakh cards. During theprevious year too AP was ranked first in the countrywith regard to the issue of Kisan credit cards. Forthe year ended March 2001, AP had issued as manyas 34,00,487 Kisan Credit Cards while Maharashtraand Rajasthan issued 17,61,511 and 15,13,697 cardsrespectively.

The performance in the implementation ofthe Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme has beenimpressive in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab,Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh andUttaranchal.

METHODOLOGY

The aim of the study was to evaluate theoverall performance of Kisan Credit Card scheme.The study was conducted in three major Kisan CreditCard (KCC) issuing tehsils namely Karauli, Hindauncity and Nadoti of Karauli district in Rajasthan. Forselection of sample farmers, in each tehsils, twovillages were selected for study purpose based onthe number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) issued. Everyvillage was divided into four categories i.e. marginalfarmers (< 1ha), small farmers (1 to 2ha), mediumfarmers (2 to 4ha) and large farmers (> 4 ha.). Ineach village 10 Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders and10 Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders were

selected for the purpose of study. These respondentswere selected by stratified random sampling method,thus, a total of 120 farmers were selected forcollecting the required data for the study. Secondarydata was collected from District Lead Bank, NABARD,journals, (http://www.nabard.org), etc. The datacollected on number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)issued and amount sanctioned in Karauli district ofRajasthan from the year 2001 to 2011. The datacollected were tabulated, processed and analyzedusing appropriate tools and technique. The CAGRmethod was used to calculate the growth of KisanCredit Card (KCC) in the study area. The creditacquisition pattern is measured to the amount takenby the farmers. The impact of Kisan Credit Card(KCC) on farmer’s income is determined by thecomparison of the income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)holder and Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders.Opinion survey method was conducted to study theinstitutional and management constraints.

To estimate Compound Annual Growth Rate(CAGR), this can be written as:

If yt denotes the observation (e.g. number ofKISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) issued) at time t and ris the compound growth rate, model employed forestimating r is based on Eq. (1):

yt = y0 (1+ r) t ………… (3.1)

The usual practice is to assume amultiplicative error-term exp (€) in Eq. (1) so that themodel may be linearized by means of logarithmictransformation, giving Eq. (2):

ln (yt) = A + Bt + € ………… (3.2)

Where, A = ln (y0), and B = ln ( 1 + r ). Eq. (2) is thenfitted to data using “method of least squares” andgoodness of fit is assessed by the coefficient ofdetermination R2. Finally, the compound growth rateis estimated by Eq. (3):

r^ = exp (B^) – 1 …………. (3.3)

Where r^ = estimated compound growth rate.exp (B^) = co-efficient of time (t).


1. Growth in kisan credit cards issued in the studyarea

The analysis of growth rate and per centchange in kisan credit cards issued in the study ispresented in the Table.1 the results shows that, the

MEENA and REDDY

81

number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) issued from2001to 2011 was continuously increasing in theCommercial Banks with slight variations in few yearsas well as Regional Rural Banks were showing thesame pattern while Co-operative Banks were exactopposite of these two. The numbers of Kisan CreditCard (KCC) issued was high in the initial years ofincorporation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Schemebut they were showing high negative growth rate inlast four to five years. The compound growth ratecalculated from the ten years data. The compoundannual growth rates for Commercial Banks, RRBsand Co-operative Banks were 29.80 per cent, 19.57per cent and -6.76 per cent respectively. Three banksshown significant at 1 % level of significancecompound growth rate and here overall CGR is 16.37per cent which is also significant.

2. Pattern of credit acquisition by the farmers

The pattern of credit acquisition is presentedin the Table-2 represented that in the year 2006-07,the amount sanctioned through Kisan Credit Card(KCC) in the Karauli district were Rs.1,887 lakh only.In Karauli district of Rajasthan, Commercial Banksare the major source for farmers for the credit whichsanctioned Rs. 8,156 lakh (77.23 %) of the total creditgiven by the banks to the farmers. While RRBs andCo-operative Banks are given Rs. 1,112 lakh (10.53%) and Rs. 934 lakh (08.84 %) respectively and someof the farmers have taken credit from the moneylender i.e. 358 lakh (03.39 %) of the total credit. Fromthese data of the different banks which are availablein the study area, we conclude that most of thefarmers have taken the credit from the banks. Bankswere the major source of credit acquisition in thestudied area.

The compound annual growth rate was 16.37per cent per annum and there is consistent growth inKisan Credit Card (KCC) issued in Karauli District ofRajasthan (Table 1). As far as the study area isconcerned, in the Karauli district there is high positivegrowth both in the number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)issued and amount sanctioned. It might be due toeither banks were already reached the satisfactionlevel or there was good performance of banks withrespect to implementation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)but we have to need some changes in Kisan Credit

Card (KCC) Scheme. Loganthan (2008) analyzedKisan Credit Card scheme and came out with similarresult. Patel (1999) suggested to modify the schemeto fit the needs of users in particular area thanintroducing uniform scheme in the country. Trivedi(2006) reviewed status of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) inMadhya Pradesh and concluded that the scheme hadachieved less than its target. Anjani kumar et al (2007)revealed that the distribution of credit under KisanCredit Card was less skewed. Singh and Sekhon(2006) concluded that Kisan Credit Card Scheme wasefficient for meeting short term credit requirement.

3. Impact of kisan credit card on farmer’s income

The perusal of Table-3 shows that, in thecategory of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holder, marginalfarmer’s average income is Rs. 62,333.33 ascompared to Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holder,marginal farmer’s average income is Rs. 48,000. Thedifference in the income of marginal farmers is Rs.14,333.3 (7.66 % of total marginal farmers KCCholders). In the small farmer’s category, thedifference in the income of small farmer’s incomewith respect to Non-Kisan card credit holder was Rs.27,677.77. It accounted for 8.01 % of total smallfarmers KCC holders. In the category of mediumfarmers average income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)holders is Rs.1, 34,000 as compared to Non-KisanCredit Card (KCC) holder’s average income is Rs. 1,15,000. The difference in the income of mediumfarmer’s is Rs. 19,000 (4.72% of total medium farmersKCC holders) and in the category of large farmer’saverage income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holder’sis Rs. 1, 98,000 as compared to Non-Kisan CreditCard (KCC) holder’s average income is Rs. 1, 65,000.The difference in the income of large farmer’s is Rs.33,000 (5.55 % of total large farmers KCC holders).The result of this comparison of farmer’s income ofKisan Credit Card (KCC) holder’s and Non-KisanCredit Card (KCC) holder’s Category reveals that,average farmers income for the KCC was higher thanthat of non KCC category. It also reveals theadequacy of credit for the Kisan Credit Card holderswas more when compared to Non-Kisan Credit Cardholders. The income of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)farmers was high due to availability of credit, whichwas used for good quality input material required inthe agricultural production process.

A STUDY ON GROWTH, PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT OF KISAN CREDIT CARDS ON FARMER’S

82

Sr. No.

Agency Commercial Banks RRBs Co-operative Banks Total

Year

KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) issued

(in lakh)

% change over

previous year


(in lakh)

% change over

previous year


(in lakh)

% change over

previous year

1. 2001-02 58 - 22 - 195 275

2. 2002-03 117 101.72 56 154.54 125 -35.897 298

3. 2003-04 215 83.76 79 41.07 115 -8 409

4. 2004-05 469 118.14 69 -12.65 129 12.17 667

5. 2005-06 530 13.00 99 43.47 107 -17.05 736

6. 2006-07 596 12.45 117 18.18 102 -4.67 815

7. 2007-08 675 13.25 129 10.25 88 -13.72 892

8. 2008-09 729 8.00 147 13.95 79 -10.22 955

9. 2009-10 650 -10.83 132 2.32 89 12.65 871

10. 2010-11 810 24.61 169 28.03 99 11.23 1078

Total 4849 1019 1128 6996

% change in 2010-11 over 2001-02

364.11

299.18

-53.50

CAGR

29.80** (5.295)

19.57** (5.690)

-6.76** (4.143)

16.37** (6.904)

Table 1. Percentage change and growth rates in number of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) issued in KarauliDistrict (Agency-wise status of Kisan Credit Card (KCC)

Note: ** Significant at 1 % level ;* Significant at 5 % levelFigures in parentheses are‘t’ values; CAGR: Compound Annual Growth Rate.

Table 2. Agency-wise amount sanctioned in Karauli District (Rs. in lakh)

Agency Commercial

Banks RRBs Co-operative

Banks

Money

Lenders Total

2006-07 1485

(78.69) 175

(09.27) 162

(08.58) 65

(03.44) 1887 (100)

2007-08 1567

(76.85) 225

(11.03) 179

(08.77) 68

(03.33) 2039 (100)

2008-09 1430

(73.25) 239

(12.24) 201

(10.29) 82

(04.20) 1952 (100)

2009-10 1741

(78.21) 217

(09.74) 194

(08.71) 74

(03.32) 2226 (100)

2010-11 1933

(78.70) 256

(10.42) 198

(08.06) 69

(02.80) 2456 (100)

Total 8156

(77.23) 1112

(10.53) 934

(08.84) 358

(03.39) 10560 (100)

Source: Lead District Bank (Bank of Baroda). Note: Figures in parentheses are per cent to amountsanctioned.

MEENA and REDDY

83

Sr. No. Name of Tehsils

KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) holders

Marginal (n=15)

Small Medium Large

All (n=60) (n=15) (n=15) (n=15)

1 Karauli 62000 125000 130000 198000 515000

2 Hindaun 65000 116000 127000 201000 509000

3 Nadoti 60000 104000 145000 195000 504000

Total 187000 345000 402000 594000 1528000

Average 62333.33 115000 134000 198000 509333.3

Sr. No. Name of Tehsils

Non- KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) holders

Marginal Small Medium Large

All (n=60) (n=15) (n=15) (n=15) (n=15)

1 Karauli 45000 87000 120000 170000 422000

2 Hindaun 48000 85000 115000 165000 413000

3 Nadoti 51000 90000 110000 160000 411000

Total 144000 262000 345000 495000 1246000

Average 48000 87333.33 115000 165000 415333.3

Table 3. Farmer’s Income in Karauli district of Rajasthan (in Rs.)

Sl.No. Views Categories KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC)

Holders

Non-KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC)

Holders 1. Purpose of loan Agricultural

Non-Agricultural 50 (83.33) 10 (16.67)

28 (46.67) 32 (53.33)

2. Adequacy Adequate Inadequate

33 (55.00) 27 (45.00)

23 (38.33) 37 (61.67)

3. Timeliness Timely Untimely

49 (81.67) 11 (18.33)

08 (13.33) 52(86.67)

4. Rate of Interest Low High

23 (38.33) 37 (61.67)

04 (06.67) 56 (93.33)

5. Repayment term

Easy Difficult

59 (98.33) 01 (1.67)

55 (91.67) 05 (08.33)

6. Procedure for Advance

Simple Cumbersome

60(100.00) 00 (0.00)

09 (15.00) 51 (85.00)

7. Accessibility Easy Difficult

57 (95.00) 03 (05.00)

56 (93.33) 04 (6.67)

8. Security Flexible Rigid

57 (95.00) 03 (05.00)

29 (48.33) 31 (51.67)

9. Loan Supervision

Frequently Rarely

27(45.00) 33 (55.00)

07 (11.67) 53(88.33)

10. Did borrowing helped

Yes No

59 (98.33) 01 (1.67)

60 (100.00) 00 (00.00)

No. of Respondents

60 60

Table 4. Opinion of borrower with regard to term and condition of loans

Source: Primary data from sample respodents Note: Figures in parentheses are per cent of total respondents.


84

4. Identification of the constraints

Opinion survey method of farmerbeneficiaries was carried to find out timeliness,security, adequacy, interest and other issues of KisanCredit Card (KCC) and the results are summarized inTable. 4. More than 80 per cent of farmers borrowedcredit to meet the expenditure incurred in agricultureunder the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) category whileonly about 47 per cent of the borrowers were reportedto borrow for agriculture purpose in Non- Kisan CreditCard (KCC) category. This was because the loangiven under KCC was mainly crop loans. With regardto adequacy of credit large number of farmers underKisan Credit Card (KCC) opined that the credit wasadequate (55 %) but under Non-Kisan Credit Card(KCC) the borrowers opined that it was inadequate

(61.67 %). About the timeliness, 81.67 per centfarmers under Kisan Credit Card (KCC) felt that thecredit was timely while large number of the farmersunder Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) felt that it wasuntimely (86.67 %). The large number of the farmersin both the categories opined that the rate of interestwas high (61.67 % in Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and93.33 % in Non Kisan Credit Card (KCC)).

The opinion of bank managers with respectto Kisan Credit Card (KCC) is presented in Table-5.With regard to sense of accomplishment in the Karaulidistrict 52 per cent expressed high sense ofaccomplishment. In respect of communication withpolicy makers regarding agriculture and rural financing82 per cent respondents in the Karauli district feltthat it was well. According to opinion of bank

Sr. No. Particulars Categories Karauli District (in %)

1.

Sense of worthwhile accomplishment

High Moderate Low

52 30 18

2.

Communication and Co-ordination

Well Somewhat good Not at all

82 10 08

3.

Growth in Agricultural Advances

Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

83 17

4.

Number of KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC) issued

Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

93 07

5.

Procedure followed for issuing KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC)

Easy Cumbersome

100 0

6.

Accessibility to the Branch Advance

Easy Difficult

75 25

7.

Agricultural Officer Provided Not Provided

65 35

8.

Time taken to sanction loan under KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC)

Timely Untimely

98 2

9.

Recovery percentage of loan under KISAN CREDIT CARD (KCC)

Good Poor

98 2

10.

Attitude of Borrower

Co-operative Non co-operative

97 3

Table 5. Opinion of Managers in respect of Kisan Credit Card scheme in study area

Source: Primary data from sample respondents

MEENA and REDDY

85

REFERENCES

Kallur, M.S. (2005), Impact of Kisan Credit Card onFlow of Credit and Repayment Rate in

Backward Region : A case of Agricultural

Development Bank of Shorapur Taluka,

Gulbarga District, Karnataka State, Indian

Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 60, No.

3, July-September, P 396.

Kumar, A., Singh, D.K and Kumar, P. 2007.

Performance of rural credit and factors

affecting choice of credit sources. Indian

Journal of Agricultural Economics. 62 (3): 297-

313.

Loganthan. 2008. Kisan credit card- a boon for small

farmers. Indian Co-operative Review. 45 (4):

300-304.

managers in Karauli district the number of KisanCredit Card (KCC) issued was satisfactory (93%).

Nearly all the bank managers in the studyarea agreed that the procedure followed for issuingthe Kisan Credit Card was simple and favorable tothe farmers. The loan sanctioned under the KisanCredit Card (KCC) scheme was in time and majorityof them felt that there was easy accessibility to thebank branches. As far as recovery of loan under KisanCredit Card (KCC) was concerned, nearly all bankmanagers in the study felt that it was good and attitudeof the borrower was co-operative.

CONCLUSIONS

The growth of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) inthe study area is positive and the credit acquisitionpattern, in case of Karauli district of Rajasthan,Commercial Banks are the major source for farmersfor the credit which sanctioned Rs. 8,156 lakh (77.23%) of the total credit given by the banks to thefarmers. However, the income of Kisan Credit Card(KCC) holders is 25 to 30 per cent more as compared

to Non-Kisan Credit Card (KCC) holders. Theinstitutional and management constraints arenegligible in the study area but marginal farmers werenot involved in this scheme. The farmers are havingaccess to adequate and timely credit. There isminimum paper work and simplif ication ofdocumentation for withdrawal of funds from the banks.Now-a-day, banks are providing assured availabilityof credit at any time enabling reduced interest burdenfor the farmers. Sanction of the facility for three yearssubject to annual review and satisfactory operationsand provision for enhancement. Banks are givingflexibility of withdrawals from a branch other than theissuing branch at the discretion of the bank. KisanCredit Card (KCC) holders are benefited due to timelyavailability of the credit; they are able to buy theproducts whenever they want without keeping creditin the shops. The study also suggests that, KCCshould not only be a vehicle of short term credit toagriculture but also increasingly as a source ofinvestment and consumption needs of farmers.

Patel, A.R. 1999. Kisan Credit Card scheme: Needsfor banks init iatives and co-ordination.Financing Agric, 27 (3): 3-6.

Samantara S(2010), Kisan credit Card, a study,occasional Paper-53, NABARD, India.

Singh, H and Sekhon, M.K. 2005. Cash benefits ofthe kisan credit card scheme: Onus is uponfarmers. Indian Journal of AgriculturalEconomics. 60 (3): 319-334.

Trivedi, S. 2006. Kisan credit card: missing target.Business Standard. Bhopal, April 12.

http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2002-05-23/news/27357557_1_kisan-credit-cards-c r o p - l o a n s - s s i - a d v a n c e sh t t p : / / w w w . n a b a r d . o r g / E n g l i s h /KisanCreditCard.aspx


86

There are many things in a home for micro-organisms to live on. All textiles provide a growingenvironment for these micro-organisms. (Yau,1998)They are very different in their chemical nature, modeof action and impact on people and the environment.Microbes grow rapidly under warmth and in thepresence of moisture which the human body providesthrough sweat and body temperature (Ramachandranet.al 2004). These micro-organisms create problemsin textiles, including discoloration, stains and fiberdamage, unpleasant odour and a slick, slimy feel.The natural and synthetic fibers vary greatly in theirresponse to microbial growth. Natural fibers, suchas cotton and wool, are especially susceptible tomicrobial growth. Dust mites accelerate microbialgrowth because they retain oxygen, water, andnutrients (Kut et.al 2005). In the present era, healthconsciousness is a major issue and the current needfor antimicrobial textiles on the market is huge.Imparting this antimicrobial finish in an eco friendlyway is an important feature that consumer looks in.The toxicity produced by the synthetic antimicrobialagents can be prevented by using herbs (Deepthi,2007). To answer these toxicity problems fromsynthetic agents, the ancient idea of finding healingpowers in plants has been sought after. India is avarietal emporium of medicinal plants and is one ofthe richest countries in the world with regard to geneticresources for medicinal plants.

UTILITY OF HERBAL PRODUCTS IN ANTIMICROBIAL FINISHING OFCOTTON FABRICS

D.ANITHA, S.DHANA LAXMI and G.MAHESHDepartment of Apparel and Textiles, College of Home Science

Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad 500004



ABSTRACT

Antibacterial finish was imparted to cotton fabrics using extracts of fresh leaves of Polyalthia longifolia(Ashoka), Psidium Guajava (Guava), Cassia angustifolia (Custard Apple) and their combination. Pad-dry-cure methodwas followed to treat fabric samples with pure aqueous extracts and the combination of extracts. Antimicrobialproperty of treated fabrics was evaluated by AATCC 147, AATCC 30 and AATCC 100, against the microorganismand S.aureus and E.coli. The effect of treatment on properties of the fabric was evaluated using standard BISprocedures. Results indicated that fabrics treated with Polyalthia longifolia and its combinations showed betterantimicrobial properties than other sources. The finished samples had increased drapability and thermal conductivitybut a loss in tear strength.

METHODOLOGY

Plain weave cotton fabric of 65x72 was used forthe study. The fabric was scoured using 2g/liter ofnon-ionic detergent and 1g/liter of caustic soda witha material-liquor ratio of 1:20. Leaves from Polyalthialongifolia (Ashoka), Psidium Guajava (Guava),Cassia angustifolia (Custard Apple) were collectedin and around Hyderabad. The leaves are shown infigure (1-3).

Extraction

Fresh and good quality leaves from P. longifolia,P. guajava, C. angustifolia without any damages weresorted and cleaned. Around 100 gm of leaves wereweighed with an equal ratio of ethanol and distilledwater. The material was chopped and crushed in agrinder. Addition of 5 ml cold distilled water helpedto get a homogeneous mixture the extract was filteredusing watman’s paper. Extracts from all three sourcesand a combination of sources in a ratio of 50:50 weretested for antimicrobial activity using test methodAATCC 147.

Application of finish

The pure extracts and their combinations (50:50)were applied onto cotton fabrics at variousconcentrations of 100 per cent, 20 percent and 10per cent. Cotton fabric was soaked in the solution ofplant extract for 15 minutes. Then the fabric waspassed through a padding mangle twice to removeexcess solution and was dried at 35°C for 15 minutes

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 82-87, 2013

87

in a hot air drier. Dried samples were evaluated forantimicrobial property. The treated samples were alsoanalyzed after they were laundered.

To assess the impact of finish the treated anduntreated fabrics were subjected to testing of fabricgeometrical parameters such as yarn count, fabricweight; handle properties stiffness, crease recovery,drape, thermal conductivity and mechanicalproperties such as strength and pilling following thestandard procedures laid down BIS at the TextileQuality Analysis lab at College of Home Science,Hyderabad.


For the purpose of convenience the samples arelabeled and the details are furnished below:

A-Ashoka C – Custard G - Guava A+G - Ashoka+Guava (50:50) A+C - Ashoka+ Custard(50:50) C+G- Custard+ Guava(50:50)

1. Microbial and bacterial count of pure extracts

Antimicrobial property of the pure extracts fromleaves of Ashoka, Custard, Guava, and theircombinations were evaluated and are presented in(Table no.1). The sources showed different degreesof activity. Pure leaf extract of Ashoka and Custardhave yielded 0 cfu of TBC (Total Bacterial count)and TMC (Total Microbial content) while the guavashowed less antimicrobial property. The combinationof pure extract of A+G, A+C showed 0 TBC and TMCbut C+G showed less antimicrobial property. Ashokaand its combinations showed good antimicrobialproperty than other sources. Chanda and Nair 2010also reported that ashoka leaves has antibacterialproperties against the gram positive bacterial andfungal stains.

2. Testing of zone of inhibition of pure extractsand treated fabric samples

Some of the pure extracts were tested for zoneof inhibition (Zoi) using test method AATCC 147-1998.Pure extract of ashoka showed 1 cm zone aroundthe sample followed Guava and Custard. Thecombination of pure extracts of A+G had higher zoneof inhibition than Ashoka indicating its higher

antimicrobial property (Jain and Sharma 2009).Custard leaf extract with Ashoka combination yieldedhigher zone than the pure extract (Table no.2 andfigure 4&5). The zone of inhibition exhibited by thetreated fabrics against microorganism indicated thatsamples treated with A+G had higher zone followedby samples treat with Ashoka alone. Though theinhibition zone had decreased in fabric sample overthe pure source, yet the same trend of pure extractin terms of their resistance to microorganisms wasobserved here.

3. Evaluation of TBC and TMC of treated cottonfabric

Treated fabric samples have shown differentresults shown in table no.3. Among all the samples,fabrics treated with 100 percent pure Ashoka extractshowed good antimicrobial property than the dilutedextract. Among the diluted concentrations 20%extracts showed good antimicrobial properties thantheir 10% counterparts. The combination sources ofA+G, A+C, and G+ C on fabric had good antimicrobialproperties at 100% level. Among the combinedsources pure extract of A+C showed goodantimicrobial property followed by A+G, G+C. Fabricstreated with extract of Ashoka with all the threeconcentrations and its combinations with othersources showed good resistance against microbes.

4. Impact of laundering on Antimicrobial activitytreated fabric samples

It was observed that the antimicrobial propertiesof treated fabrics reduced after washing. The TBCcount increased in second wash than first washindicating the loss of antimicrobial property in thesamples. Among all, samples treated with Ashokahad more antimicrobial property in first wash followedby Guava and Custard. In case of the combinationsources A+C showed less TBC count indicatinghigher antimicrobial property than A+G, C+G. Afterthe second wash the TBC count of all the sampleincreased indicating a further loss of the property ofthe fabric due to laundering (Table no.4). This maybe due to the aqueous extraction which is removedat each wash.

UTILITY OF HERBAL PRODUCTS IN ANTIMICROBIAL FINISHING OF COTTON FABRICS

88

5. Assessment of Fabric properties

Fabrics were treated with only those extractsthat have yielded best antimicrobial properties underdifferent AATCC test methods. Treated fabrics werecoded and were evaluated for geometrical andphysical properties.

Sample A - control/plain fabric

Sample B – fabric treated with Ashoka

Sample C – fabric treated with Ashoka and Guava

Sample D – fabric treated with Ashoka and Custard

1. Geometric properties

The yarn count was observed to be highest inuntreated over all the treated fabrics. No variationwas registered among the treated fabrics. In case offabric weight the treated fabric gained weightcompared to the control samples which is shown intable no 5. This may be due to the shrinkage of thefabric during treatment and compactness of yarnsafter the treatment.

2. Handle and Mechanical properties

The stiffness of the treated sample decreasedafter treatment indicating its suppleness leading togood drape factor. Control sample had higher stiffnessthan the treated sample. Sample D had low bendinglength than the sample B and C in warp and weftdirection. Highest flexural rigidity was observed insample C indicating low stiffness. From the table itcan be inferred that treated samples had highestrecovery in comparison with the control samples.Sample C had almost similar crease recovery as thecontrol in warp direction. It can be concluded thatthe sample B had highest crease recovery in bothwarp as well as in weft direction and sample D had

least recovery in both the directions. This variationmight be observed due to the various sources usedin the treatment of the fabrics. The drapability of thefabric had increased in treated sample than controlsamples as seen in table no 6. Sample D had gooddrape among the treated fabrics and sample B hadregistered low drape. The finish might have acted asa softener which improved this drapability.

The thermal conductivity of the control samplewas found to be 1.8 CLO. Among the treated fabrics,sample C had least CLO value indicating good heatconductivity. Sample B and D had almost similar CLOvalues. In comparison with the control, none of thetreated fabrics had high CLO values.

The tear strength of the control samples wasfound to be higher than treated sample. The strengthof the treated sample reduced after treatment asshown in table no 6. Sample C lost more strengthwhile sample D has retained higher strength than othertreated samples. Treated samples had showed slightpilling (Standard II) while control samples did not pillindicating that the finish improved the smoothnessof the fabric surface.

CONCLUSION

The antimicrobial properties of Polyalthialongifolia (Ashoka), Psidium Guajava (Guava),Cassia angustifolia (Custard Apple) and itscombinations were evaluated. The Total bacterialcount, Total microbial count and zone of inhibitionwhen assessed for all the plant sources indicatedthat Ashoka and its combinations with Guava andCustard showed good antimicrobial property againstmicroorganism E.coli and S. aureus. Fabric samplestreated with a combination of guava and ashoka hadgood heat conductivity low stiffness and creaserecovery and with acceptable pilling property.

S.NO Name of the Source TBC( cfu/ml) TMC ( cfu/ml) 1. Ashoka leaf 0 0 2. Custard apple leaf 0 0 3. Guava leaf 20 25 4. Ashoka + Guava 0 0 5. Ashoka + Custard 0 0 6. Custard + Guava 10 20

Table 1. Total microbial counts of pure extracts

ANITHA et al

89

S.NO Name of the Source Zone of inhibition (cm) Pure extracts Treated fabric samples

1. Ashoka leaf 1.0 0.3 2. Custard apple leaf 0.4 0.1 3. Guava leaf 0.7 0.2 4. Ashoka + Guava 2.0 0.4 5. Ashoka + Custard 0.5 0.2 6. Custard + Guava 0.5 0.1

Table 2. Zone of inhibition of pure extracts

S.NO Name of the Source TBC ( cfu/ml) TMC ( cfu/ml) 1. Ashoka 100% 7 x 103 0 2. Ashoka leaf 20% 11 x 103 0 3. Ashoka leaf 10% 22 x 103 0 4. Custard apple leaf 100% 22 x 104 0 5. Custard apple leaf 20% 29 x 104 0 6. Custard apple leaf 10% 30 x 104 0 7. Guava leaf 100% 4 x 104 0 8. Guava leaf 20% 22 x 104 0 9. Guava leaf 10% 25 x 104 0 10. Ashoka + Guava 100% 60 x10 4 0 11. Ashoka + Guava 20% 80 x10 4 0 12. Ashoka + Guava 10% 90 x10 4 0 13. Ashoka + Custard 100% 50 x104 0 14. Ashoka + Custard 20% 85 x10 4 0 15. Ashoka + Custard 10% 90 x10 4 0 16. Custard + Guava 100% 60 x10 4 0 17. Custard + Guava 20% 90 x10 4 0 18. Custard + Guava 10% 98 x10 4 0

Table 3. Total Microbial and bacterial counts of treated samples

S.NO

Name of the Source

First wash Second wash TBC (cfu/ml) Zoi (cm) TBC (cfu/ml) Zoi(cm)

1. Ashoka leaf 207 x 10 2 0.2 307 x 10 2 NZ 2. Custard apple leaf 300x 10 2 NZ 400x 10 2 NZ 3. Guava leaf 450 x 10 2 NZ 550 x 10 2 NZ 4. Ashoka + Guava 800x 10 3 0.1 900x 10 3 NZ 5. Ashoka + Custard 600 x 10 3 0.1 700 x 10 3 NZ 6. Custard + Guava 647 x 10 3 NZ 747 x 10 3 NZ

Table 4. Testing of TMC and zone of inhibition of washed sample

NZ = No Zone

S. No

Sample

Yarn count Fabric weight(g/m2)

warp weft 1 A 72 81 0.43 2 B 54 57 1.5

3 C 54 57 1.24 4 D 54 57 0.47

Table 5. Geometric properties of fabric


90

S.N

Sam-ple

Stiffness Warp Weft

Crease recovery (angle)

Drape

coefficient %

Therm

al conductivity CLO

Tear strength Pilling

BL (cm)

FR (mg-cm)

BL (cm)

FR (mg- cm)

Warp Weft Warp (kgf)

Weft (kgf)

1 A 1.51 0.389 1.49 0.136 121.5 95.8 44.0 1.80 5011.2 5011.2 No pilling

2 B 1.39 0.402 1.35 0.386 125.7 135.6 39.0 1.26 2150 2150.0 Standard

II

3 C 1.39 0.402 1.43 0.458 121.4 123.3 35.0 1.10 2419 2419.0 Standard

II

4 D 1.2 0.252 1.25 0.288 95.0 95.0 33.6 1.25 2905 2700.8 Standard

II

Table 6. Fabric Handle and Mechanical properties of fabric

Plant Source

Zone of inhibition - plant sources

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Zone of inhibition - plant sources treated fabric sample

REFERENCES

Chandra sumitra and Nair Rathish. 2010. Antimicrobialactivity of polyalthia longifolia (sonn) Pendulaleaf extracts against 91 clinically importantpathogenic microbial strains. ChineseMedicine. 1: 31-38.

Deepthi G. 2007 Antimicrobial treatment for textilesIndian Journal of fiber and textile research32:254-263.

Harini K, Siva priya S and Giridev V.R , 2007Checkmate for microbes, Synthetic Fibers 35:8-12

Jain, T and Sharma K. 2009. Assay of antimicrobialactivity of P.Lonifolia Benth and Hook leafextracts, Journal of cell and Tissue research9(2): 1817-1820.

Kut, D., Orhan, M., Gunesoglu, C and Ozakin, C.2005. Effects of Environmental Conditions onthe Antibacterial Activity of Treated CottonKnits, AATCC REVIEW, 5 (3): 25-28

Ramachandran, T., Rajendra kumar R, Rajendran,R. 2004. Antimicrobial Textiles – An overview,IE (I) Journal of textiles 84 : 42-46

Sun, G and Worley, S. D, 2005 Chemistry of durableand regenerable biocidal Textiles, Journal ofchemical education 1: 60-64

Vyas, S.K., Gulve, A.l and Kandekar, T.S.2010.Antimicrobial finishing agents for textiles. AsianTextiles Journal. 57-64.


92

Personal characteristics of the workers alongwith the work and work place factors contributetowards developing musculoskeletal pains,discomforts and disorders. Certain personalcharacteristics of the worker appear to affectvulnerability to work related musculoskeletal

disorders. As the age advances biological changesoccur in the muscles, tendons, ligaments and jointsthat contribute to the pathogenesis of work relatedmusculoskeletal disorders. There are three mainmusculoskeletal changes reported in the literatureviz. a reduction in joint mobility, decrease in muscular

strength and the slowing of reaction and movementtimes (Cassou et al., 2002). Basic education of personcan impact their knowledge about work practices.The propensity for injury is related more to thedifference between the demands of work and theworker’s physical work capacity or work ability.

Hence the present research undertaken withthe following objectives

(i) Determining the prevalence of musculoskeletalsymptoms among pharmacy packing womenworkers.

IMPACT OF PERSONAL VARIABLES ON WORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETALSYMPTOMS AMONG WOMEN WORKING IN PACKING UNITS OF

PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRYV. PRASUNA, T. NEERAJA, P. RADHA RANI and A. SHARADA DEVI

Department of Resource Management and Consumer Sciences College of Home Science, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Saifabad, Hyderabad-500 004



ABSTRACT

Hyderabad has emerged as a major drug manufacturing city with a presence in the global market. Inpharmaceutical industry mostly men are engaged for working with machines and equipments, where as women areengaged for sedentary and repetitive manual work. In this situation high rate of work related musculoskeletaldisorders occurrence could be expected. Often the worker has no control over timing and speed of work because ofexternal factors like assembly line speed or quota systems due to which stress level may increase causingmusculoskeletal symptoms. The sample consisted of 270 women workers randomly selected from ninepharmaceutical industries in Hyderabad. A scale was developed to study the musculoskeletal symptoms in nineanatomical body regions. The musculoskeletal symptoms like pain, stiffness, swelling, spasms and so on experiencedby women were explored. Correlation between the personal variables like age, number of years of education,number of years of experience, physical fitness with musculoskeletal symptoms was identified. Further throughANOVA significant difference between the respondents with mild, moderate and severe musculoskeletal symptomswas found out. The results emphasized increase in age, initial years of experience and low physical fitness were thecontributing factors for developing musculoskeletal symptoms.

(ii) Finding out the relationship between personalvariables and musculoskeletal symptoms.


Sampling procedure

Hyderabad city was selected to draw thesample for the present investigation. The women whowere involved in the packing activit ies inpharmaceutical industries for a period of minimumthree years and aged above 30 years was the criteriaadopted to select the sample for the study. A sampleof 270 women was chosen at random from ninepharmaceutical industries from the list procured fromoffice of the Commissioner of Industries.

Variables of the study

Dependent variable of the study wasprevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms. Thepersonal variables included age, number of years ofeducation, number of years of work experience andphysical fitness.

Data collection and measuring instruments

Personal characteristics viz., age, numberyears of education, number of years of workexperience were collected by interview method.

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 88-93, 2013

93

Physical fitness was measured by using Step StoolErgometer.

Physical fitness is considered as a measureof the body’s ability to function efficiently andeffectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy,to resist hypokinetic diseases, and to meetemergency situations (Wales, 2011). Thestandardized PFI method (Varghese et al., (1994) byusing Step Stool Ergometer was adopted to measurePFI in the present investigation. The duration ofstepping was maximum 5 minutes with a steppingrate of 30steps/min. With the help of Pulse RateMonitor the heart beat was recorded for every 5minutes during rest period, stepping activity andrecovery period.

The physical fitness score was calculatedusing the following formula.

PFI = Duration of stepping (sec.) X 100

Sum of 1st, 2nd and 3rd minrecovery phase count

The scores obtained were interpreted usingthe Physical Fitness Index scores. Up to 80 wasconsidered as poor physical fitness score. The scores81-100, 101-115, 116-135, 136-150 and >150 wereinterpreted as low average, high average, good, verygood and excellent.

The prevalence of musculoskeletalsymptoms was obtained by using a scale developedfor the present study. In the present investigationthe nine anatomical regions were grouped as neck,shoulder, upper limb (upper arm, elbow, fore arm,wrist, hand and fingers), back (upper back and lowerback), and lower limb (thigh, knee, ankle, feet andtoes) (Kuorinka et al., 1987, Winwood and Smith,

1985). The scale assessed the musculoskeletalsymptoms like pain, stiffness, swelling, spasms,cramps, numbness and tingling sensations. Thefrequency of experiencing the musculoskeletalsymptoms in nine anatomical body regions variedfrom never to always. The frequency of symptomswas assessed as never if symptoms may not present.The frequency of symptoms was assessed as rarelyif prevalence of symptoms was few hours in a week.The frequency of symptoms was assessed assometimes if prevalence of symptoms was 1-2 daysin a week. The frequency of symptoms was assessedas frequently if prevalence of symptoms was 3-4 daysin a week. The frequency of symptoms was assessedas severe if prevalence of symptoms was throughout the week. The scoring was given 1 to 5 for neverto always respectively. Higher the score means higherthe prevalence of symptoms.

Statistical analysis

The interrelationship between personalvariables and presence of musculoskeletal symptomswas assessed through Pearson’s CorrelationCoefficient. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) wascomputed between the personal variables andmusculoskeletal symptoms of the body to find outthe significant mean differences. Multiplecomparisons t-test was used to find out which meanswere different. Step wise regression was carried outto find out the major contributing factor among allthe variables.


Demographic information

The mean age of the employees was39.23±4.55 years; mean number of years of

Personal variables Mean± S.D. Min Max Groups (%) Age 39.23±4.55 33 57 33-34

(17.78) 36-42

(62.96) 43-57

(19.26)

Number of years of education

4.3±3.76 0 13 0 (37.04)

1-5 (27.04)

6-9 (21.11)

>=10 (14.81)

Number of years of work experience

6.13±4.68 3 15 3-6 (74.1)

7-11 (16.6)

>=12 (9.3)

Physical Fitness Index 117.14±12.85 81 150 Low average (13.70)

High average (31.11)

Good (42.22)

Very good

(12.96)

Table 1. Distribution of sample by personal variables (N=270)

IMPACT OF PERSONAL VARIABLES ON WORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL SYMPTOMS

94

education was 4.3±3.76 years. The mean number ofyears of work experience of packing workers at thetime of assessment was 6.13±4.68 (Table 1). Themajority of the respondents were in high average(31.11%) and good (42.22%) physical fitness indexgroups.

Prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms

Respondents working among packing unitsof pharmaceutical industry were asked to indicatethe presence of musculoskeletal symptoms usingthe standardized musculoskeletal symptomsassessment scale developed for the present

investigation. Majority of the respondents wereexperiencing the feeling of pain in neck (74%)followed by feeling of stiffness (56.3%) andappearance of swelling (55.93%). Among therespondents 73 per cent of the respondents wereexperiencing the feeling of pain in shoulder followedby 55 per cent feeling stiffness and 54 per cent withappearance of swelling. Among the respondents 74per cent of the respondents were experiencing thefeeling of pain in upper limb followed by 63 per centfeeling tingling sensations, 62 per cent occurrenceof spasms and tingling sensations in fingers(Table 2).

Musculoskeletal symptoms Neck (%) Shoulder (%) Upper limb (%) Back (%) Lower limb (%)

Feeling of pain 74.07 72.96 74.44 59.26 60.37

Feeling of stiffness 56.30 55.19 60.74 51.48 52.59

Appearance of swelling 55.93 54.44 61.11 52.22 56.30

Occurrence of spasms 51.11 51.11 60.00 48.15 53.70

Occurrence of cramps 51.48 47.41 61.85 48.89 52.22

Feeling of numbness 54.81 50.00 60.37 52.59 52.22

Tingling sensations 52.96 52.59 62.96 49.63 52.22

Table 2. Prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms among pharmacy packing women workers(N=270)

Among the respondents 59 per cent weresuffering from pain in back followed by feeling ofnumbness (52.59%), appearance of swelling(52.22%) and feeling of stiffness (51.48%). Amongthe respondents 60 per cent of the respondents were

suffering from pain in lower limb followed by 56.3 percent with appearance of swelling, 53.7 per cent withoccurrence of spasms and 52.6 per cent feeling ofstiffness and 52 per cent with occurrence of cramps,feeling of numbness, tingling sensations. The results

Frequency of Symptoms

Score

Neck Symptom

Score (%)

Shoulder Symptom

Score (%)

Upper limb Symptom

Score (%)

Back Symptom

Score (%)

Lower limb Symptom

Score (%)

Over all body Symptom

Score (%)

Normal 9 (25.6) 9 (26.3) 12 (24.8) 9 (27.8) 11 (23.7) 50 (17.8)

Low 10 -16 (15.2) 10 – 14 (16.3) 13 – 24 (19.3) 10-17 (14.1) 12-23 (17.8) 51-66 (8.1)

Moderate 17- 38 (46.3) 15 -37 (44.5) 25 – 51 (45.9) 18-38 (48.9) 24-48 (50.7) 67-187 (54.1)

Severe 39 -45 (12.9) 38 -45 (12.9) 52 -60 (10.0 ) 39-45 (9.2) 49-55 ( 7.8) 188-250 (20.0)

Mean 27.1 25.8 37.0 27.7 35.5 126.9

S.D. 10.9 11.5 13.5 10.5 12.3 60.4

Table 3. Distribution of musculoskeletal symptom scores in neck, shoulder, upper limb, back, lowerlimb and over all body

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are in line with the Varmazyar et al., (2009) foundthat pharmacy packing workers had high prevalenceof symptoms in knees (44.7%), back (36.8%) andneck (31.6%).

Relationship between personal variables andprevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms

The possible range of musculoskeletalsymptoms scores on the musculoskeletal symptomsassessment scale were 9-45, 9-45, 12-60, 9-45 and11-55 for neck, shoulder, upper limb, back and lowerlimb respectively. The mean scores earned by thesample was 27.1 for neck, 25.8 for shoulder, 37.0 forupper limb, 27.7 for back and 35.5 for lower limb.The over all musculoskeletal symptom score on thescale ranged between 50-250 and the meanmusculoskeletal symptom score earned by thesample was 126.9 (Table 3).

Age of the respondents showed significantpositive correlation with musculoskeletal symptomsin shoulder (r=0.15), upper limb (r=0.16) at 0.01 leveland back (r=0.13) and over all body symptoms(r=0.14) at 0.05 level. The computed F values revealedsignificant mean difference at 0.01 level between ageand musculoskeletal symptoms in neck (F=5.17),shoulder (F=5.22) and over all body (F=4.92). The Fvalues were found to be significant at 0.05 levelbetween age and musculoskeletal symptoms in upperlimb (F=4.15) and back (F=3.79). Further multiplecomparisons test was then used to determine whichmeans differ. The young women were rarelyexperiencing musculoskeletal symptoms in neck,shoulder, upper limb, back and over all body. Themiddle aged women and old aged women weresometimes feeling the neck, shoulder, upper limb,back and over all body symptoms. There was nosignificant difference was observed between middleage women and old age women. According to thepresent investigation, as age increased themusculoskeletal symptoms in the women engagedin packing activities of pharmaceutical industriesincreased. Similar findings were reported by Morkenet al. (2000) in aluminium industry workers.

Number of years of education of the respondentsshowed no correlation with musculoskeletalsymptoms in nine anatomical body regions. Thecomputed ‘F’ values revealed no significant differencebetween number of years of education and

musculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upperlimb, back, lower limb and over all body. Accordingto the present investigation the number of years ofeducation was found to be having no relation withthe musculoskeletal symptoms experienced bywomen engaged in packing activit ies ofpharmaceutical industries. On the contrary, Saha etal. (2010) found that musculoskeletal morbidity wasmore among illiterate workers as compared to literateworkers in small scale garment industry.

The computed ‘F’ values revealed significantmean difference at 0.01 level between number ofyears of experience and musculoskeletal symptomsin neck (F=5.44), shoulder (F=7.35), upper limb(F=8.49), lower limb (F=6.52) and overall body(F=7.96). The F value showed significant differenceat 0.05 level between number of years of experienceand back symptoms (F=3.91). The women with lessnumber of years of work experience were frequentlyexperiencing neck, shoulder, upper limb, lower limband over all body symptoms. The women withmedium experience were sometimes feelingmusculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upperlimb, lower limb and over all body. The women withmore number of years of work experience were rarelyexperiencing musculoskeletal symptoms in neck,shoulder, upper limb, back, lower limb and over allbody symptoms. In the present investigation as ageincreased perceived level of musculoskeletalsymptoms increased. But when it comes to numberof years of work experience, perceived level ofmusculoskeletal symptoms decreased with increasedwork experience. Perhaps this could be due to thereason that irrespective of age, women with morework experience were allotted jobs like supervision,collection, guiding others, getting work done and soon where in they can walk and move around duringthis work. Women when first joined or in the initialstages of the work were given exclusively packingactivities which involved repetitive body motions.Women in the initial years of work were confined tothe work place with out many movements and womenin the later years of work had the opportunity ofmoving around as a part of their duties. With moreexperience the women learned some techniques thatsimplified the work so that they became cautiouswhile carrying loads and sitting and grasping thethings made them less prone to musculoskeletalsymptoms.


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Physical fitness index (PFI) of the respondentsshowed significant negative correlation withmusculoskeletal symptoms in neck (r=-0.28),shoulder (r=-0.32), upper limb (r=-0.21), back (r=-0.21), lower limb (r=-0.19) and over all body (r=-0.27)at 0.01 level. The computed ‘F’ values revealedsignificant mean differences between physical fitnessindex and musculoskeletal symptoms at 0.01 levelin anatomical regions viz. neck (F=8.11), shoulder(F=10.33), upper limb (6.87), back (7.10), lower limb(F=6.62) and over all body (F=9.42). When different

groups were compared using multiple comparisonst-test, the women with low average PFI werefrequently experiencing musculoskeletal symptomsin neck, shoulder, upper limb, back, lower limb andover all body. The women with high average PFI andgood PFI were sometimes experiencingmusculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upperlimb, back, lower limb and over all body. The womenwith very good PFI were rarely experiencingmusculoskeletal symptoms in neck, shoulder, upperlimb, back, lower limb and over all body. As physical

Musculoskeletal symptoms in neck Step Variables Partial

R-Square Model R-Square

C(p) F-value Pr>F

1 Physical fitness index 0.027 0.575 20.27 16.90 <.0001 Musculoskeletal symptoms in shoulder Step Variables Partial


C(p) F-value Pr>F

1 Physical fitness index 0.055 0.519 34.489 30.31 <.0001 2 Number of years of experience 0.007 0.563 15.692 3.95 0.048 3 Age 0.010 0.573 11.298 6.34 0.012 Musculoskeletal symptoms in upper limb Step Variables Partial


C(p) F-value Pr>F

1 Physical fitness index 0.008 0.593 8.651 4.96 0.023 2 Number of years of experience 0.006 0.599 6.761 3.88 0.049 3 Age 0.013 0.612 0.038 9.04 0.003 Musculoskeletal symptoms in back Step Variables Partial


C(p) F-value Pr>F

1 Physical fitness index 0.019 0.376 17.78 8.14 0.005 2 Number of years of experience 0.007 0.383 16.507 3.14 0.078 3 Age 0.012 0.395 13.247 5.12 0.024 Musculoskeletal symptoms in lower limb Variables Partial


C(p) F-value Pr>F

1 Physical fitness index 0.013 0.390 2.477 5.50 0.019 2 Number of years of experience 0.011 0.401 0.445 5.03 0.026 Musculoskeletal symptoms in overall body Step Variables Partial


C(p) F-value Pr>F

1 Physical fitness index 0.029 0.591 12.88 19.13 <0.0001 2 Number of years of experience 0.008 0.599 9.738 5.06 0.025 3 Age 0.009 0.608 5.478 6.27 0.013

Table 4. Determinants of musculoskeletal symptoms in anatomical regions among women in packingactivities of pharmaceutical industry through stepwise regression

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fitness index score increased the musculoskeletalsymptoms in the women engaged in packing activitiesof pharmaceutical industries decreased. Similarfindings were reported by Morken et al. (2000) amongaluminium workers.

The physical fitness index was found to be themain contributing factor for musculoskeletalsymptoms in neck, shoulder, upper limb, back, lowerlimb and over all body. Initial number of years ofexperience was the contributing factor next to physicalfitness contributing to musculoskeletal symptoms inshoulder, upper limb, back, lower limb and over allbody. Age was found to be one determinant amongall the selected variables causing musculoskeletal

symptoms in shoulder, upper limb, back and over allbody (Table 4).

The prevalence of musculoskeletalsymptoms was more among women workers involvedin packing activities of pharmaceutical industry. Thepersonal variables like increase in age, initial yearsof experience, low physical fitness index were foundto be the risk factors causing musculoskeletalsymptoms among women working in packingactivities of pharmaceutical industry. Ergonomicinterventions like giving rest breaks, training andeducation on good ergonomic practices in the workcan reduce the work related musculoskeletalsymptoms. The physical fitness of the respondentscan be increased by regular exercise.

REFERENCES

Alexpoulos, E.C., Tanagra, D., Konstantinou, E andBurdorf, A. 2006. Musculoskeletal disordersin shipyard industry: prevalence, health careuse and absenteeism. BMC Musculoskeletaldisorders. 7:88

Cassou, B., Derriennic, F., Monfort, C., Norton J andTouranchet, A. 2002. Chronic neck andshoulder pain, age, and working conditions:Longitudinal results from a large randomsample in France. Occupational andEnvironmental Medicine. 59:537-544

Kuorinka, I., Jonsson, B., Kilbom, A., Vinterberg,H., Biering S.F., Andersson, G and Jorgensen,K. 1987. Standardized Nordic questionnairefor the analysis of musculoskeletalsymptoms. Applied Ergonomics. 18(3): 233–237.

Morken, T., Moen, B., Riise, T., Bergum, O., Hauge,S. H.V., Holien, S., Langedrag, A., Pedersen,

S., Saue, I. L. L., Seljebo, G. M and Thoppu,V. 2000. Prevalence of musculoskeletalsymptoms among aluminium workers.Occupational Medicine. 50 (6): 414-421

Saha, T.K and Dasgupta, A. 2010. Health status ofworkers engaged in the small-scale garmentindustry: How healthy are they? Indian Journalof Community Medicine. 35 (1): 179-82.

Varghese, M. A., Saha, P. N and Atreya, N. 1994. Arapid appraisal of occupational work load froma modified scale of perceived exertion.Ergonomics. 37(3):485-491.

Wales, J. 2011. Physical fitness. http://en.wikipedia/wiki/Physical_fitness

Winwood, R.S and Smith, J.L. 1985. Anatomy andPhysiology for Nurses, Education Academicand Medicinal Publishing Division of Hodderand Stoughton, London. 35-80.


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INTRODUCTION

Milk yield is a function of genetic makeup ofanimal and environmental interact ion. Theenvironmental factors i.e. temperature, humidity,radiation and wind influence the ability of the animalto maintain heat balance, milk production and feedconsumption. The environmental factors stress signalthe CNS and hypothalamus to alter feed intake andheat production leading to decline in milk productionand other productive performance. In a hotenvironment, when the body temperature is high theevaporative heat loss by respiration and skin surface,which lead to lower in production. Maintenance ofproductivity at high ambient temperature is determinedmostly by the balance between metabolic heatproduction and heat loss. Various managementpractices can be useful to alleviate the severity ofthe climatic influence of summer season. Water isan effective cooling agent either wetting of the animalbody surface or through indirect evaporative coolingof air. The present investigation aimed to find outthe effect of body surface cooling by sprinkling ofwater, provision of fan in conventional barn and inloose house confinement on milk production and feedconsumption of cross bred cows (HF) during summerseasons

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was carried out on fifteencrossbred cows (HF) three in each group ofAgricultural Polytechnic, Regional AgricultureResearch Station, Jagitial. All the animals were in

COOLING EFFECT OF BODY ON MILK PRODUCTION AND FEEDCONSUMPTION IN THE CROSS BRED COWS

SURESH RATHOD, M.KISHAN KUMAR and CH.SREEDHAR Department of Instructional Livestock Farm Complex,College of Veterinary Science, Korutla, Karimnagar-505326

ABSTRACT

The effect of cooling of body on milk production and feed intake was carried by selecting 5 groups of HFcrossbred cows i.e. Loose housing system with sprinkler (T1), Loose housing system without sprinkler (T2), Barn withsprinkler (T3), Barn with fan (T4) and Barn without fan (T5). Average daily milk yield (Kg) was significantly highest inloose housing with sprinklers and barn with sprinklers (T1 & T3). There is no significant difference in the consumptionof concentrate feed between the treatments and the animals consumed whole quantity of feed offered. Consumptionof roughages (Green & Dry fodder) was significantly higher in T1, T2 & T3.

early lactation (5-60 days of lactation) were selectedfor study and are open. The animals were divided into five groups of five treatments viz: loose housingwith sprinkler (T1), loose housing without sprinkler(T2), barn type with sprinkler (T3), barn type with fan(T4) and barn type without fan (T5) all the animalskept on concrete floor. The entire study period was60 days, divided in to two parts namely adjustmentperiod for 15 days and 45 days for observation periodin the month of April and May. The sprinklings ofwater were utilized 3 times a days at 10:30 am, 12:30pm, and 2.30 pm at 2 hourly interval by operating 30minutes. The data pertaining to macro climatic werecollected from Agro Advisory Service Unit RARS,Jagitial, and micro climate with in the animal vicinityonce in the morning at 9:00 am and again in eveningat 3:00 pm.Tthe phsychrometric tables were used toderive the relative humidity in percentage using thewet and dry bulb readings.

The cows were maintained under uniformfeeding of concentrate 2.0 kg as mash daily to meetmaintenance requirement and the extra ration wasfed to high yielders based on average milk yield overand above the 8 Kg of milk. Green fodder and dryfodder produced in farm was fed adlibitum thrice aday. Drinking water was provided four times a daythrough weighing of water in individual buckets toeach of the cow and weighing back of the leftovers

The milk yield of animals was recorded atmilking time individually in kgs. Milk samples werecollected once in a day for laboratory analyses

J.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 94-96, 2013

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separately for individual cows at each milking andfollowed appropriate procedure to estimate Fat (IS:1224 (Part I) 1977), SNF (IS: 1224-19558, total solidsand protein contents as per the standard procedure.The feed consumption was calculated by weighedquantities of fodder and concentrate offered toindividual cow and weighing the left overs. Thestatistical analyses of the data was carried out byusing standard procedure of Snedecor and Cochran(1989)


The micro climatic changes during the studyperiod including environmental temperature arerepresented in Table 1. The mean macro climatictemperature, minimum & maximum was recorded as19.500 C to 36.570C. The relative humidity in themorning was 65.80 and in the evening 48.55 percent.The wind speed was 6.23 Kmph which along withchange in R.H will cause change in environmentalprofile. The mean maximum temperature in the fivetreatment of study area is lower (P<0.001) than theenvironmental temperature. This indicated that theprovision of proper housing with shade and coolingeffect, reduced the temperature with in the vicinityof animal. The maximum temperature in the loosehouse without sprinkler and barn type without fan (T2

and T5) was significantly (P<0.001) higher than loosehouse with sprinkler, barn type with sprinkler and barntype with fan (T1, T3 and T4). This may be due tocooling effect of sprinkler and fan provided in theanimal shed. The minimum mean temperaturerecorded in the (T4 & T5) barn with fan and barn withoutfan was higher than that of other three treatmentsand that of environmental temperature at morning.The variation may be due to cooling effect sprinklersand free ventilation in the shed similar findings wasrecord by Thirumurugan and Saseendran 2008.Relative humidity in the morning and evening wassignificantly (P<0.001) high in barn with sprinklerfollowed by barn with fan and barn without fan thanthe loose house with sprinklers and loose housewithout sprinklers. This shows that the moistureaccumulation in side the shed due to hindrance inthe exchange of air increased relative humidity(Tthirmurugun and Saseendran 2008, Michale Brouk2005 and Rehman et al.,1982). The environmentalwind speed was lower (6.23 Kmph) than the idealwind speed (8 Kmph) suggested. ( Mc Dowell,1972).

This attribute that during the hot and humid climateanimals needed free ventilation with free airexchange. The sun shine observed in the study areawas 10:30 hrs.

Milk yield and milk constituents

The average daily milk yield and itsconstituents recorded for different treatments wereshown in table 2. Average daily milk yield (Kg) washighest in loose housing with sprinklers and barn withsprinklers (T1 & T3) and difference was highlysignificant. This might be due to cooling effect ofsprinkler which might has reduced the ambient bodytemperature. The study is in agreement withMahendra singh et al. (2008) and Dass et al. (2008),There is no significant difference in the milkconstituents (Fat, SNF and Total solids). Similarfindings were reported by Mahendra singh et al.(2008).with regards to constituents.

Feed and water Consumption

There is no significant difference in theconsumption of concentrate feed among thetreatments and the animals consumed whole quantityof feed offered. Consumption of roughages (Green& Dry fodder) was significantly higher in (T1, T2 & T3)loose housing with sprinklers, barn type with sprinklerand loose house without sprinkler fallowed by barntype with fan and lowest intake in barn type withoutfan. This was clearly indicated that cooling effect onbody with sprinkler and evaporative heat loss, freeair movement at loose housing system increaseddry matter intake and reduced heat stress. Similarfindings reported by West (2003). Voluntary intakeof water is significantly higher in barn type withoutfan followed by loose house without sprinklers, barntype with sprinkler and lowest intake of water is inthe T1 group. It appears that, heat stress increasedvoluntary intake of water and sprinkling of waterreduced heat stress and water consumption. Similarfindings were reported by Thirumuragan andSaseendran (2008).

The cooling system (sprinkling of water)increased dry matter intake, reduction in water intakeand increased milk yield. Hence, it is clear thatsummer management and heat stress managementwith sprinkling of water in loose housing system helpsin increasing of milk yield.

COOLING EFFECT OF BODY ON MILK PRODUCTION AND FEED CONSUMPTION

100

Table 1. Means of macro and micro environmental changes during study period

Parameters macro T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Maximum Temperature º C** 36.57±0.25 32.08±0.13 33.01±0.11 32.32±0.14 32.64±0.11 33.92±0.15 Minimum Temperature º C** 19.50±0.16 19.65±0.16 20.18±0.12 19.82±0.15 21.14±0.14 22.34±0.11 Mean temperature ºC 27.60±0.19 26.02±0.15 27.01±0.15 27.35±0.12 26.54±0.11 27.24±o.14 Relative Humidity (morning) %** 65.80±0.15 67.01±0.14 67.36±0.18 69.22±0.11 68.78±0.14 68.26±0.16 Relative Humidity (evening) %** 48.55±0.17 49.85±0.15 48.68±0.13 51.23±0.13 48.59±0.19 49.65±0.13 Mean relative humidity %** 58.75±0.12 58.36±0.16 58.22±0.12 60.22±0.18 58.86±0.11 59.64±0.12 Wind speed (kmph) 6.23±0.04 Sunshine (Hrs) 10.13±0.05

Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

Milk yield (kg/d)** 8.56±0.18 7.05±0.12 8.05±0.11 7.85±0.09 7.01±0.02

Milk fat % 4.12±0.06 3.85±0.03 3.92±0.07 4.21±0.02 3.95±0.05

Milk solids not fat % 8.68±.0.04 8.52±0.03 8.62±0.04 8.65±0.04 8.58±0.03 Milk total solids % 12.88±0.07 12.57±0.03 12.74±0.02 12.92±0.04 12.75±0.02

Con.feed consumption (kg/d) 4.86±0.18 4.80±0.09 4.68±0.08 4.58±0.12 4.74±0.10

Green fodder kg/d** 26.22±0.24 24.45±0.32 25.86±0.30 24.90±0.24 22.24±0.26

Dry fodder (kg/d)** 10.26±0.24 9.23±0.12 9.65±0.20 8.92±0.12 8.28±0.23 Water intake (kg/d)** 22.83±0.38 29.02±0.36 26.72±0.28 24.65±0.64 30.34±0.24

Involuntary water intake (kg/d)** 20.26±0.24 19.10±0.28 19.68±0.32 18.88±0.26 17.24±0.18

Total water intake (kg/d)** 43.09±0.28 48.12±0.20 46.40±0.26 43.53±0.38 47.58±0.22

Table 2. Averages of production parameters, feed and water consumption of crossbred cows in differenttreatments

REFERENCES

Das, M.M., Singh, K.K., Maity, S.B and Pailan, G.H.2008. Management of summer stress for milkproduction and reproduction in dairy animals.Indian dairy. 60 (5): 51-54.

Mc Dowell, R.E. 1972. Improvement of livestockproduction in warm climates. Free Man W.Hand Co. San francisco USA.

Michale Brouk. 2005. Evaluating and selectingcooling systems for different climates.Proceeding of the 7 th Western DairyManagement Conference, March 09-11-2005:33-40.

Mahendra singh, Sharma, D.K., Dutta, S and Ghosh,A. 2008. Effect of modified management onmilk production composition and physiological

response in cross bred cows in eastern region.Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 61 (4): 295-297.

Rehman ,Z.U., Gillani, A.H., Ahmed, M. and Ali, C.S.1982. Indian veterinary Journals, 59 : 170

Snedcor, G.W and Cochran, N.G. 1999. StatisticalAnalyses. 9 th edition. Oxford and IBHPublishing Co., New Delhi.

Thirumurugan, P and Saseendran, P.C. 2008. Effectof housing systems and sprinklings water onproduction and feed consumption of cowsIndian veterinary Journals 85 (11): 1203-1206

West, J.W. 2003. Effect of Heat stress on productionin dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Sciences. 86:2131-2144.

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Irrigation tanks were part of an ancient traditionof harvesting and preserving the local rainfall throughstreams and rivers for later use, primarily foragriculture and other uses. Tanks are especiallycritical in parts of South India, without perennialrainfall, where water supply replenishment dependson a cycle of dry seasons alternating with monsoonseasons available. Tanks are the important sourceof irrigation in Andhra Pradesh with around 80000tanks spreading in the districts where there are noother surface irrigation sources. Tank irrigation wasdeclined to about 50 per cent (10.68 lakh ha during1955-56 to 5.84 lakh ha during 2007-08) (GOAP, 2008)due to several administrative, technical and socialreasons. Andhra Pradesh was the first state thatintroduced and implementing Participatory IrrigationManagement (PIM) approach for managing waterresources since 1997. In this connection,10800 WaterUsers Associations (WUAs) have been formed (outof which 8079 WUAs were under minor irrigationprojects i.e., tanks) with a specific responsibilitiesand powers to manage their own irrigation sources.Under this new regime of PIM all the farmers (waterusers) have to plan, organise, coordinate andimplement the tank development activit ies incoordination with Irrigation and allied departments.With this back ground, this study was under taken toassess the constraints faced by the farmers underPIM approach particularly in tank irrigation commands.

Any suggestion made by a person who hasexperienced a particular situation will certainly guideothers into the right direction. Hence, an attempt wasmade to elicit suggestions from the farmers who havebeen experiencing the pros and cons of participatorywater management particularly under tank irrigationsystem since a decade. Suggestions not only findthe ways and means to solve the current problems,

FARMERS’ SUGGESTIONS FOR BETTER PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OFTANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM

KADIRI MOHAN1 and P.RAMESHKUMAR REDDYExtension Education Institute, Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030

but also help to arrive at a strategy for effectivemanagement of irrigation system.

The present study was conducted in purposivelyselected three districts viz., Chittoor, Vizainagaramand Warangal based on predominance of tankirrigation representing three regions of AndhraPradesh i.e., Rayalaseema, Coastal and Telanganarespectively of Andhra Pradesh. From each districttwo mandals were selected purposively based onmaximum area under tank irrigation. From eachmandal two irrigation tanks and from each irrigationtank ayacut 15 farmers were selected randomly, thusmaking a total of 180 farmers. The data was collectedthrough personal interviews with the help of semi-structured interview schedule. Farmers’ suggestionson various aspects of participatory tank irrigationmanagement were ranked in Table 1.

It could be inferred from the Table 1, that farmersindicated adequate funds need to be provided by thegovernment to take up development works on regularbasis (rank-1), tank ayacut should be developed withpermanent water distribution structures (rank-II),special survey on tank ayacut and catchment needto be carried out to curb encroachments (rank-III),tank maintenance works should be completed beforeonset of monsoon (rank-IV), WUAs office withamenities need to be provided in the village toconduct meetings and to perform office works (WUAs)(rank-V), severe punishments must be given to rulebreakers like lavish water users (rank-VI), coordinatedefforts of agriculture irrigation and revenuedepartments for effective implementation ofparticipatory tank irrigation system (rank-VII), politicaland external influences on WUAs functioning shouldbe seriously curtailed (rank-VII I), all tankdevelopment works should be given to WUAs (rank-IX), avoid undue delay in sanctioning of funds by the

Research NotesJ.Res. ANGRAU 41(3) 97-99, 2013

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Table 1. Suggestions elicited from the farmers for better participatory management of tank irrigationsystem

S.No. Suggestion F % Rank

1 Adequate funds need to be provided by the government to take up

development works on regular basis

164 91.11 I

2 Tank ayacut should be developed with permanent water distribution

structures

155 86.11 II

3 Special survey on tank ayacut and catchment area need to be carried

out to curb the encroachments

134 74.44 III

4 Tank maintenance works should be completed before onset of monsoon 125 69.44 IV

5 WUAs Office with amenities need to be provided in the village to conduct

meetings and to perform office works

116 64.44 V

6 Severe punishment must be given to rule breakers like lavish water

users

109 60.56 VI

7 Coordinated efforts of agriculture, irrigation and revenue departments

are needed for effective implement of participatory tank irrigation system

98 54.44 VII

8 Political and external influences on WUAs functioning should be

seriously curtailed

75 41.67 VII

9 All tank development works should be given to WUAs 70 38.89 IX

10 Avoid undue delay in sanctioning of funds by the Government 62 34.44 X

11 Elections should be conducted under political free conditions in a fair

and democratic manner

54 30.00 XI

12 Involvement of tenant farmers in decision making 36 20.00 XII

government (rank-X), elections should be conductedunder political free conditions in a fair and democraticmanner (rank-XI) and Involvement of tenent farmersin decision making (rank-XII).

All the farmers suggested that allocation ofsufficient funds to the WUAs for taking majordevelopment works which will lead to control ofwastage of funds and improve the quality of works.The training programmes need to be conducted tofarmers on regular basis to empower the farmers onlatest innovations for efficient water utilization. Thetraining also makes the farmers aware of the functionsof WUAs, convert the unfelt needs to be felt needs,impart skills, knowledge and attitudes and ultimatelyleads to full participation of farmers.

At present, there is a great danger for assertsand properties under tank because of encroachments.A special joint survey on the tank system propertiesand clear demarcation by the revenue departmentinvolving WUAs will certainly safe guard the tank areaand catchment area from encroachments.

Another important suggestion that farmerssuggested was as tank system is mainly dependenton monsoons and it should be made mandatory tocomplete all the tank repair works before the onsetof monsoon for its full utilization. Office facility forWUAs should be provided for smooth conduct ofactivities because at present all the activities arecarried out at the President and ManagementCommittee members residences. Due to prevailing

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social issues like class and caste in villages somefarmers are not freely visiting the WUA managementmembers residence. Severe punishments should begiven to rule breakers with out any discrimination toensure better obeying of rules and regulations.

Lack of coordination among agricultural, revenueand irrigation department is resulting in meagercollection of water cess and also hindering adoptionof latest technologies. Political influences onmanagement activities and elections of managementleadership should be curtailed and done fairly in

democratic manner. Further, when all the works in

the tank system allocated to WUA management with

government support and supervision will ensure better

quality of works and moreover increases the

accountability on part of the water users. Tenant

farmers should be registered and made them to

involve in the participatory aspects of the tank

management to ensure complete participation of the

water users. These findings were in line with

outcomes of Krishna (2001) and Purnima (2001).

REFERENCES

GOAP, (Government of Andhra Pradesh) 2008.Annual Reports. Irrigation and Command AreaDevelopment Department, Government ofAndhra Pradesh, Hyderabad (India)

Krishna, D.V. 2001. SMART analysis of Water Users’Associations in Godavari Eastern delta: Acase study. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis submitted to

Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,Hyderabad (India).

Purnima, K. S. 2001. A study on Water UsersAssociations in Khammam district of AndhraPradesh. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis submitted toUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Dharward,Karnataka (India).

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104

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cerealcrop, next to wheat and rice and it is staple food inmany developing countries (Morries et al 1999).Maize crop is of great significance due to its demandfor food, feed and industrial utilization. It plays animportant role in world economy and trade. Sincemaize protein lacks two essential amino acids lysineand tryptophan and protein deficiency is characterizedby many growth and health related complications inhumans. Therefore, considerable importance hasbeen given to Quality Protein Maize (QPM) breeding.

The material for the present study comprisedof sixty three quality protein maize genotypes(numbered BQML-101 to BQML-163) that wereobtained from Maize Research Centre, AgriculturalResearch Institute, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. Theexperiment was carried out at College Farm, Collegeof Agriculture, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabadduring rabi 2008-09 in a randomized block design withthree replications. Each genotype in each replicationconsisted of a single row of fifteen plants with aspacing of 75cm X 20 cm. Five representative plantswere selected at random from each line andobservations were recorded on each plant for sixteentraits viz., days to 50 per cent tasseling, days to 50per cent silking, plant height, ear height, days tomaturity, ear length, ear girth, number of kernel rowsper ear, number of kernel per row, 100-seed weight(g), ear weight (g), shelling (%), protein content (%),oil content (%), starch content (%) and grain yieldper plant (g). The correlation coefficients werecalculated as per the method suggested by Johnsonet al. (1955). Path analysis was worked out as permethod suggested by Deway and Lu (1959).

The Correlation coefficients between yield,its component characters and quality parameters arepresented in Table 1. In this study the values of

CHARACTER ASSOCIATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR SEEDYIELD IN QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE (Zea mays L.)

K. VIJAY KUMAR, M. R. SUDARSHAN, KULDEEP SINGH DANGI and S. MADHUSUDAN REDDYDepartment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,

Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030



correlation coefficients indicated that in general, themagnitude of genotypic correlation coefficients werehigher than phenotypic correlation coefficients for allthe traits which implied negligible influence ofenvironmental factors and strong inherent associationbetween the traits. Grain yield was significantly andpositively correlated with ear weight, number ofkernels per row, ear girth, shelling per cent, 100 seedweight, number of kernel rows per ear, ear lengthand oil content, while days to 50 per cent tasseling,days to 50 per cent silking, and days to maturity hadnegative association with grain yield. The remainingcharacters, plant height, ear height, protein contentand starch content did not indicate any associationwith seed yield. This indicated that seed yield canbe improved by making selection on the basis of earweight, number of kernels per row, ear girth, shellingper cent, 100 seed weight, number of kernel rowsper ear, ear length and oil content. The traits earweight, number of kernels per row, ear girth, shellingper cent, number of kernel rows per ear and 100 seedweight which had strong positive correlation with seedyield could be exploited in breeding programmes.Similar results were reported by Jayakumar et al(2007), Hemavathy et al (2008) and Shinde et al(2009).

Path coefficient analysis that partitions thecorrelation coefficient into direct and indirect effectswas worked out and is presented in Table 2. Amongthe characters studied, days to 50% silking, earheight, oil content and starch content had negativedirect effect on grain yield and the remainingcharacters had positive direct effect. The character,ear weight had the highest direct effect on seed yieldand it was followed by days to 50% silking andshelling per cent. The traits, ear weight and shellingper cent with high direct effect also had positive


105

correlation with seed yield while days to 50% tasselinghad significant negative correlation with seed yield.

Days to 50 per cent tasseling had negativeindirect effects through days to 50 per cent silking,ear height, ear length, ear girth, number of kernelsper row, ear weight and shelling per cent. This traithad positive indirect effects through plant height, daysto maturity, protein content and oil content. Days to50 per cent silking showed negative direct effects ongrain yield. This trait had negative indirect effectthrough ear height, ear length, ear girth, number ofkernels per row, ear weight, and shelling per cent.This trait had positive indirect effects through plantheight, days to maturity, protein content and oilcontent. Starch content had positive indirect effect.

Plant height had positive direct effects ongrain yield and negative indirect effects on grain yieldthrough ear height, ear length, number of kernels perrow and ear weight. This trait had positive indirecteffects through days to maturity, ear girth, 100 seedweight, shelling per cent, protein content and oilcontent. Ear height had positive indirect effectsthrough days to 50 per cent tasseling, plant height,days to maturity, ear girth, 100 seed weight, shellingper cent, protein content and oil content. Days tomaturity showed positive direct effect on grain yield.This trait had negative indirect effects on grain yieldthrough days to 50 % silking, ear height, ear length,number of kernels per row, ear weight, 100 seedweight, and shelling per cent whereas, oil content.This trait had positive indirect effects through daysto 50 per cent tasseling, plant height, ear girth,number of kernel rows per ear and protein content.

Ear length had positive direct effects on grainyield and had positive indirect effects through daysto 50 per cent silking, ear height, ear girth, numberof kernel rows per ear, number of kernels per row,ear weight, 100 seed weight and shelling per cent.Starch content had negative indirect effect. Ear girthhad positive direct effect on grain yield. This traithad positive indirect effects through days to 50 percent silking, plant height, days to maturity, ear length,number of kernel rows per ear, number of kernels perrow, ear weight, 100 seed weight and shelling percent.

Number of kernel rows per ear had positivedirect effect on grain yield. This trait had negative

indirect effects on grain yield through days to 50%tasseling, plant height, protein content and oil contentand had positive correlation with days to 50 per centsilking, ear height, days to maturity, ear length, eargirth, number of kernels per row, ear weight, 100 seedweight, and shelling per cent. Number of kernels perrow had positive direct effects on grain yield andshowed negative indirect effects on grain yieldthrough days to 50 per cent tasseling, plant height,days to maturity, protein content and oil content. Thistrait showed positive indirect effects on grain yieldthrough days to 50 per cent silking, ear height, earlength, ear girth, number of kernel rows per ear, earweight, 100 seed weight, and shelling per cent.

Ear weight had positive direct effect on grainyield. 100 seed weight had positive direct effect ongrain yield. Positive direct effect was shown byshelling per cent on grain yield. This trait had negativeindirect effects on grain yield through days to 50 percent tasseling, ear height, days to maturity and oilcontent and had positive indirect effect throughremaining characters viz., days to 50 per cent silking,plant height, ear length, ear girth, number of rowsper ear, number of seeds per row, ear weight, 100seed weight, protein content and starch content.Positive direct effect on grain yield was shown byprotein content. This trait had negative indirect effecton grain yield at phenotypic level through number ofkernel rows per ear and starch content.

Oil content had negative direct effect on grainyield. This trait had positive indirect effect throughdays to 50 per cent silking, ear height, days tomaturity, ear length, ear girth, number of kernel rowsper ear, number of kernels per row, ear weight andshelling per cent. Negative indirect effects on grainyield was exhibited by days to 50 per cent tasseling,plant height, days to maturity, 100 seed weight,shelling per cent and protein content and had positiveindirect effect through days to 50 per cent silking,ear height, ear length, ear girth, number of kernelsper row, ear weight and oil content. Similar resultswere reported by Kumar et al. (2006), Jay kumar etal. (2007), Brar et al. (2008) and Saidaiah et al. (2008).

Among the characters studied, ear length,ear girth, number of kernel rows per ear, number ofkernels per row, ear weight, 100 seed weight, shellingper cent and oil per cent had positive and significant

CHARACTER ASSOCIATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR SEED YIELD

106

Tabl

e 1.

Cor

rela

tion

coef

ficie

nts

amon

g yi

eld

and

yiel

d at

trib

utes

in s

ixty

-thr

ee g

enot

ypes

of Q

ualit

y P

rote

in M

aize

(Zea

may

s L.

)

* S

igni

fican

t at 5

per

cen

t lev

el,

*

* S

igni

fican

t at 1

per

cen

t lev

el.

VIJAY et al

107

Tabl

e2. P

ath

coef

ficie

nt a

naly

sis

indi

catin

g di

rect

and

indi

rect

eff

ects

of c

ompo

nent

s ch

arac

ters

on

grai

n yi

eld

in s

ixty

-thre

e ge

noty

pes

of Q

ualit

yP

rote

in M

aize

(Zea

may

s L.

)

Phe

noty

pic

resi

dual

effe

ct =

0.14

38G

enot

ypic

resi

dual

effe

ct =

0.1

057;

B

old

figur

es a

re d

irect

effe

cts

CHARACTER ASSOCIATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS FOR SEED YIELD

108

correlation coefficient with grain yield and had positivedirect relationship with ear weight and shelling percent. Hence, it might be regarded as these characters

REFERENCES

Brar, S. P. S., Chawla, J. S and Pritpal Singh, 2008.Studies on different selection indices and Pathanalysis in Maize (Zea mays L.). CropImprovement 35: 16-19.

Dewey, D. R and Lu, K. H. 1959. A correlation andpath coefficient analysis of components ofcrested wheat grass seed production.Agronomy Journal 51: 515-518.

Hemavathy, A. T., Balaji, K., Ibrahim, S. M., Anand,G and Deepa Sankar 2008. Geneticvariability and correlation studies in Maize(Zea mays L.). Agricultural Science Digest 28:112-114.

Jayakumar, J., Sundaram, T., Raguramarajan, Aand Kannan, S. 2007. Studies on pathanalysis in Maize (Zea mays L.) for grain yieldand other yield attributes. Plant Archives 7:279-282.

Jayakumar, J., Sundaram, T., Prabu, D. A and Rajan,A. R. R. 2007. Correlation studies in Maize(Zea mays L.) evaluated for grain yield andother yield attributes. International Journal ofAgricultural Sciences 3: 57-60

contributed maximum to the seed yield. Thus,selection based on these characters would result inimprovement in seed yield.

Johnson, H. W., Robison, H. F and Comstock, R. E.1955. Estimates of genetic andenvironmental variability in Soybean. Agron.J. 47: 314-18

Kumar, S., Shahi, J. P., Singh, J and Singh, S. P,2006. Correlation and path analyis in earlygeneration inbreds of Maize (Zea mays L.).Crop Improvement 33: 156-160.

Morries, M. L., Risopous, J and Beck, D. 1999.Genetic changes in future recycled Maizeseed. A review of the evidence CIMMYT econ.Working paper no.99-07 Mexico D.E. CIMMYTP.1.

Saidaiah, P., Satyanarayana, E and Sudheer Kumar,S. 2008. Association and path coefficientanalysis in Maize (Zea mays L.). AgriculturalScience Digest 28: 2

Shinde, S. A., Shelki, D. K and Sawargaonkar, G. L.2009. Intercharacter associations and pathanalysis of yield components in rabi Maize.International Journal of Plant Sciences 4: 49-51.

VIJAY et al

109

Paddy cultivation and productivity in AndhraPradesh has been on the forefront in the entirecountry. The rice varieties released by Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University in view of the areaoccupied, require cost effective and environmentallyfriendly storage methodologies with minimuminterference with seed quality and storabilityparameters.

In many countries both fumigation withchemicals and heat sterilization have been appliedfor safe storage with varying degree of success.However, such applications run with disadvantageslike toxic residue accumulation with potentialenvironmental hazards and altering seed potential toremain viable and vigorous for longer periods ofstorage. In this context, gamma radiat ionadministered at sub lethal doses can be availed asan effective alternative technology to sanitize theseed before storage with minimum deterioration ofseed quality and storability. Effectiveness of selectedsub lethal gamma radiation dose in maintaining theseed quality and storability parameters during anextended period of ambient storage under farmer’scondition need to be ascertained. Therefore, thepresent study was carried out to investigate changesin seed quality and storability parameters ofpromising rice varieties at different doses of gammaradiation stored under farmer’s conditions for ninemonths.

The seed of four rice varieties (i.e. Two long grainvarieties: Tellahamsa, Sumathi; and two mediumgrain varieties: Sambamahsuri and Swarna) werecollected from Seed research and Technology Centreand Agricultural Research Institute, Rajendranagar.They were packed in HDPE bag (700 guage) andwere exposed to selected doses of gamma radiation(0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 Gy) in GC 5000 radiationchamber with CO60 source having 2.61 KGy hr -1

EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON GERMINATION PARAMETERS INPROMISING RICE CULTIVARS DURING LONG TERM STORAGE

L.VIDYA KUMARI, M. SREEDHAR, S.VANISREE and K. KESHAVULUDepartment of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture,

Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030



dose rate. The lab experiment was conducted inFactorial Completely Randomized Design andreplicated thrice.

Data at bi-monthly intervals on germinationparameters were generated for a period of nine monthsafter storage and the changes during storage wererecorded.

Germination test was conducted on pure seedfraction using 100 seeds in four replicates followingbetween paper (BP) method at 250C temperature and93+2 per cent relative humidity (ISTA, 1985). Fieldemergence potential of seeds from each treatmentwas measured as per the method suggested byShenoy et al. (1990). Three hundred seeds in eachtreatment were sown in three replications of hundredseeds each on raised bed (4 x 1 m) of red loamy soilwith a spacing of 10 cm between the rows. Thenumber of seeds germinated in each row wascalculated on 10th day and field emergence (%). Dailygermination counts were performed until no furthergermination was observed for seven days. An indexof the speed of germination was calculated by addingthe quotients of the daily counts divided by the numberof days of germination (Maguire, 1962). Peak valueand coefficient of velocity of germination ( Czabater,1962) were computed using relevant formulae.

Germination parameters are good indicatorsof field performance of a seed lot. Lab germinationdata provides an estimate of viability under favourableambience, while field emergence gives an idea aboutability under real time situations. Parameters likespeed of germination, peak value and coefficient ofvelocity of germination evaluate the efficiency ofgermination in terms of time taken to complete thetotal process of germination.

Interaction effects of gamma doses, varietiesand storage period presented in Table 1, suggested


110

that germination percentage differed significantlyduring storage. At 50 Gy in Sambamahsuri highestpercentage of germination (99) was recorded followedby 98 percent in other treatments of Sumathi / 0, 50,100 Gy, Tellahamsa / 50, 100 Gy, Sambamahsuri /100 Gy and Swarna / 100 Gy during first bimonthlyperiod. Among all above treatments Sambamahsuri/ 100 Gy , Swarna / 100 Gy, Tellahamsa / 50 Gy andSumathi / 50 Gy maintained the higher germinationpercentage up to 4th bi-month of storage (97, 97, 96and 94% respectively) and were significantlysuperior to corresponding 0 Gy values (93, 92, 92and 90% respectively) and remaining treatments.These results were in accordance with findings ofWang and Yu (2011) who reported that after 22 monthsof long-term storage, germination rates of irradiatedrice variety were higher than that of non-irradiatedsample. These changes in germination rates wereattributed to self-repair mechanism of irradiatedorganism.

The above results of germination capacity ofrice varieties were validated using the data obtainedfrom the field emergence studies. Field emergencegives accurate and reproducible results in predictingthe planting value in field condition. Interaction effectsof gamma doses and varieties were significant duringall bi-monthly intervals of storage. The fieldemergence ranged from 83 per cent (at 200 Gy inTellahamsa and Sumathi) to 94 per cent(Sambamahsuri / 100 Gy) at the end of 4th bi-monthindicating the deleterious effect of higher gammadose. Dhakal and Pandey (2001) stated thatdegradation of seed membrane and food reserves at0 Gy in all test varieties was due to natural ageing.Further, damage caused by free radical productionat higher doses of gamma exposure could haveplayed a major role in the gradual decline of seedgermination.

Among interaction effects which weresignificant (Fig.1), maximum speed of germinationof 43.9 were recorded at Swarna 50 Gy after 1st bi-month and decreased to 37.4 at the end of 4th bi-month. Among other superior treatments,Sambamahsuri /100 Gy (43.4), Tellahamsa / 50 Gy(42.8) and Sumathi / 50 Gy (42.70) in 1st bi-month,got reduced to 36.8, 36.7 and 36.4 respectively atthe end of 4th bi-month storage. These treatments

were significantly superior to their 0 Gy and remainingtreatments during first and fourth bimonthly studies.Lower speed of germination observed at 200 Gy inTellahamsa (32.1), Sambamahsuri (32.3) and Sumathi(32.8) at end of 4th bi-month storage indicating theretarding influence of higher doses, which could beattributed to diminished metabolic activity andincreased susceptibility to stress. Further, enhancedspeed of germination upto 100Gy was presumablydue to higher germination caused by stimulatory effectof lower gamma doses.

Among significant interaction effects (Table2), higher peak value of 32.7 was registered forSambamahsuri at 100 Gy at 1st bi-month and retainedmaximum value (24.3) at the end of the 4th bi-monthand was followed by Swarna /100 Gy (24.5),Tellahamsa / 50 Gy and Sumathi / 50 Gy (19.60)which got reduced to 19.4, 16 and 18.8 respectivelyat the end of 4th bi-month storage. These treatmentswere significantly superior to their corresponding 0Gy and remaining treatments during first and fourthbimonthly studies. In each rice genotype lower peakvalue of germination was observed at 200 Gy(Tellahamsa 15.0; Sumathi 17.8 and Swarna 18.2)at the end of 4th bi-month of storage indicating thedeleterious effect of the dose on the progress ofgermination.

Similarly, for coefficient of velocity amongsignificant interaction effects (Fig.2), Swarna at 100Gy showed 42.1% at 1st bi-month and recordedmaximum co-efficient of velocity of germination (38.2)at the end of the 4 th bi-month followed bySambamahsuri /100 Gy (42.4), Tellahamsa / 50 Gy(41.9) and Sumathi / 50 Gy (41.7) which got reducedto 36.1, 36.1 and 36.3 respectively after nine monthsof storage.

In this context, Chaturvedi et al. (2012)while working on the effects of gamma irradiation ongermination of rice indicated that storage period incombination with higher doses of gamma radiationhad not only resulted in drastic reduction ingermination percentage but also prolonged the periodfor completion of the germination process. The resultsfrom this study alos indicated that long duration finegrain varieties like Sambamahsuri and Swarnacompleted the process of germination incomparatively quick time than short duration long

VIDYA et al

111

Tabl

e 1.

Ger

min

atio

n (%

) as

influ

ence

d by

the

inte

ract

ions

am

ong

stor

age

peri

od, g

amm

a do

ses

and

varie

ties

Fig

ures

in p

aren

thes

es in

dica

te a

ngul

ar tr

ansf

orm

ed v

alue

s

S

1= T

ella

ham

sa

S2=

Sum

athi

S3=

Sam

bam

ahsu

ri S

4= S

war

na

G0=

0 G

y G

1= 5

0G

y

G2=

100

Gy

G3=

150

Gy

G4=

200

Gy

EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON GERMINATION PARAMETERS IN RICE

112

Tabl

e 2.

Pea

k va

lue

of g

erm

inat

ion

as in

fluen

ced

by th

e in

tera

ctio

n am

ong

stor

age

peri

od, g

amm

a do

ses

and

vari

etie

s

a= T

ella

ham

sa

S2=

Sum

athi

S3=

Sam

bam

ahsu

ri S

4= S

war

na

G0=

0 G

y G

1= 5

0 G

y

G2=

100

Gy

G3=

150

Gy

G4=

200

Gy

VIDYA et al

113

grain varieties viz., Tellahamsa and Sumathi thusconfirming the greater ability to buffer the effects ofstorage under the influence of gamma radiation.

Finally, it could be concluded that gamma doseof 50 Gy for Tellahamsa, Sumathi and 100 Gy for

Sambamahsuri, Swarna was found to be mosteffective in sustaining the optimum seed germinationduring long term storage under the influence ofgamma radiation.

REFERENCES

Chaturvedi, A., Sreedhar, M., Singhal, R. K.,Venubabu, P., Pavan Kumar, D and Aparna,M. 2012. Effect of Gamma Irradiation onGerminat ion of Rice Oryza Sativa L.International Journal of Bio-resource andStress Management 3(1):018-021.

Czabator, F.J. 1962. Germination value: An indexcombining speed and completeness of pineseed germination. Forensic Science. 8:386-396.

Dhakal, M.R and Pandey, A.K. 2001. Storagepotential of niger Guizotia abyssinica Cass.seeds under ambient conditions. Seed Scienceand Technology. 29:205-213.

ISTA. 1985. International rules for seed testing andannexes. Seed Science and Technology.13: 13 – 15, 299-355.

Maguire, J.D. 1962. Speed of germination in selectionand evaluation for seedling emergence andvigour. Crop Sciences. 2 (1): 176-177.

Shenoy, V. V., Dadlani, M and Seshu, D.V. 1990.Associat ion of laboratory assessedparameters with field emergence in rice. Thenon-anoic acid stress as a seed vigour test.Seed Research. 18 (1): 60-69.

Wang, J and Yu, Y. 2011. Effect of gamma irradiationpre-treatment on embryo structure and long-term germinating characteristics of rice seed.International Agro Physics. 25 (4): 383-388.

Fig 1. Speed of germination as influenced by theinteraction among storage period, gammadoses and varieties

Fig 2. Co-efficient of velocity of germination asinfluenced by the interaction amongstorage period, gamma doses andvarieties

EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON GERMINATION PARAMETERS IN RICE

114

The nutritional information on food labelshelps the consumers to choose variety of foods andmaintain a healthy diet with low saturated fat andcholesterol. Nutritional labeling is found to affect theconsumer’s purchasing behavior significantly. Someevidence reveals that provision of nutrition informationon food labels helps the consumers to make healthyfood choices (Anderson and Zarkin, 1992).

If the labels on food products are not providedwith sufficient nutritional information, the consumersmay not be aware of nutrient contents present in thefood product which show the effect on their buyingdecision. Given this background, the study wasplanned to find out the influence of nutritionalinformation on food labels on consumer buying.

The purpose of present study was to find outwhether consumers are influenced by the nutritionalinformation while purchasing the food products. Thetwin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad wereselected purposively as a study area. Exploratoryresearch design was followed and 120 sample ofconsumers were selected from the very popularsupermarkets located in the study area. The toolselected for collecting the information was aninterview schedule. The independent variablesselected for the study were age, gender, occupation,number of years of education, marital status,occupation, income, percentage of share in totalshopping, percentage of responsibility in total familymoney handling, knowledge about the label andpurchase decisions of consumers.

Frequencies and percentages werecalculated for the profile of the respondents on thevariables. Chi square analysis was done to find outthe association between independent and dependentvariables of the study.

INFLUENCE OF NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION ON FOOD LABELS ONCONSUMER BUYING

SWETHA KODALI, NEERAJA TELAPROLU and P. RADHA RANIDepartment of Resource Management and Consumer Sciences,

College of Home Science, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Saifabad - 500 004



The mean age estimated was 26 years withstandard deviation of 5.08. Comparatively largerproportion (65.8%) of the sample was in the age groupof 22 to 31 years. Nearly one-fifth (18.3%) of thesample was in the age group of 18 to 21 years. Theremaining 15.8 per cent of the sample was in the agegroup of 32 to 45 years. Female consumers werefound to be higher in proportion (56.7%) compared tomale consumers (43.3%). The difference betweenmale and female consumers was found to benegligible. Beus and Dunlap (1992) found that femalesare more likely to use nutritional labeling than malesand have shown that sex play a major role in buyingbehavior.

The variable ‘education of the respondents’ wasmeasured in terms of number of years of education.The mean number of years of education was foundto be 16.39 with a S.D of 2.08 years. Nearly (70.3%)were found to be with post graduate level of education.Only 10 per cent of the sample had above 18 yearsqualification.

Higher proportion (70.8%) of consumers who werebuying ready to eat meal food products wereunmarried consumers and (27.5%) of the consumerswere married consumers. Among the total sample,comparatively higher proportion (50%) was found tobe employees and students formed forty percent ofthe sample, the remaining being house wives.

The income details of the respondents wasgathered. The respondents were asked to statewhether their monthly income was above Rs 50,000or between Rs 20,000 and 50,000. Nearly (57.5%) ofthe sample were found to be from the middle incomegroup where as 42.5% of the sample were from thehigher income group. Nayga (1997) showed thatincome has a significant effect on the use of


115

nutritional labeling, where as Caswell and Padberg(1999) revealed that income does not necessarilyindicate a higher willingness to pay for nutritionalinformation on food items.

The percentage of share of responsibility inthe family shopping of the respondents wascategorized as total responsibility, majorresponsibility, moderate responsibility, very lessresponsibility and negligible responsibility and thepercentage given accordingly was 100%, 75%, 50%and 25% for the responsibilities. The respondentswere asked to indicate their share in total familyshopping in terms of percentage. Total responsibilityof family shopping was shouldered by 37.5 per centof the sample. Only 5.8 per cent indicated very lessresponsibility. Three fourth of the consumers werefound to be either taking total or major responsibilityin total family shopping and were more concernedwith the nutritional information on the food productwhile purchasing.

The percentage of responsibility in the totalfamily money handling of the sample was studied.From the distribution of the sample by percentage ofresponsibility in total family money handling, it wasobserved that (39.1%) of the respondents were eithertaking total or major responsibility in family moneyhandling. As the sample consisted mostly unmarriedstudents and employees it was evident that younggeneration by virtue of their employment were stayingaway from family and shouldering responsibility ofthe total money management.

The mean score of the knowledge level aboutthe label was found to be 9.16 with a standarddeviation of 1.56. Only half (51.6%) of the sample

chosen for the study had possessed good amount ofknowledge regarding the label features andregulations. Slightly more than one third of thepopulation (38.3%) scored between 7 and 9 marksonly. Ten percent of the respondents scored below 6marks. Almost half of the sample did not possessadequate knowledge regarding label features andregulations. It is evident that almost half of the sampleamong the consumers who scored less than 10 werelacking appropriate knowledge on label features andregulations. The findings of the study were contraryto the study conducted by Prathiraja andAriyawardana (2003) where 86% of respondents hadknowledge about the nutritional labels on foodproducts, while 14% did not have knowledge aboutnutritional labels.

The decision for purchasing ready to eat foodproducts was studied under four heads, viz; need,price, quality or attraction. Among the four factors,attraction for the product on the spot that influenced70 per cent of the respondents always. 60.8 per centof respondents mentioned need for the product asthe influencing factor for purchasing food productsalways, while price always was considered by only26.6 per cent. Slightly more than one fourth of thepopulation mentioned that quality of product neverinfluenced to seek the nutritional information (Table1). But the study conducted by the Prathiraja andAriyawardana (2003) revealed that twenty five percentwere buying the product based on the quality. In thepresent investigation, attraction towards the productand need were the factors that always influenced morenumber of consumers to prefer the nutritionalinformation while buying the product

Table 1. Distribution of Sample by purchasing decisions while selecting ready to eat meal food productsN=20

Purchasing decisions

Frequency of purchasing

Always Sometimes Never

% % %

Purchasing based on need 60.83 39.16 -

Purchasing based on price 26.66 65.83 7.5

Purchasing based on quality 10.00 59.16 30.86

Attraction for the product 70 22.5 7.5

INFLUENCE OF NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION ON FOOD LABELS ON CONSUMER BUYING

116

Table 2. Association between influence of nutritional information on food labels on consumer buyingand selected variables of the study

N=20

Independent variable Nutritional information on food label

χ 2 value Prob Age 14.1765 0.0088* Gender 2.0419 0.1530 Number of years of education 6.2658 0.0436* Marital status 3.4106 0.3325 Occupation 8.1936 0.0847* Income 0.8184 0.3656 Percentage of share in total family shopping 5.0346 0.1693 Percentage of responsibility of the respondent in handling family money

6.4657 0.0910

knowledge on label features and regulations 7.7060 0.0212* Purchasing decision based on need 2.1043 0.1469 Purchasing decision based on price 3.0284 0.222 Purchasing decision based on quality 1.7134 0.4246 Purchasing decision based on attraction for product 4.4632 0.1074

*- Significant at a probability level of < 0.05

REFERENCES

Anderson, D.W and G.A. Zarkin. 1992. Consumerand Producer Responses to Nutritional LabelChanges. American Journal of AgricultureEconomics. 74:1202-1207.

Beus, C and R. Dunlap. 1992. Understanding PublicConcerns about Pesticides: An EmpiricalExamination. Journal of Consumer Affairs.25:260 - 275.

Caswell, J.A and Padberg, D.I. 1999. Toward a MoreComprehensive Theory of Food Labels.American Journal of Agricultural Economics.74:460 - 468.

Influence of nutritional information on foodlabels on consumer buying and selected independentvariables of the study was found out by chi squaretest.

Highly significant association was foundbetween the dependent variable and age, numberyears of education, occupation and knowledge onlabel features and regulations, whereas there was no

association with other independent variablesTable 2).

As per this study, young consumers weremore influenced by the nutritional information on foodlabel while purchasing the product compared to adultconsumers. Highly educated consumers wereseeking the nutritional information.

Nayga, R.M. 1997. Impact of Socio-DemographicFactors on Perceived Importance of Nutritionin Food Shopping. Journal of ConsumerAffairs. 31(1):1-9.

Prathiraja, P.H.K and Ariyawardana, R. 2003. Impactof Nutritional Labeling on Consumer BuyingBehavior. Sri Lankan Journal of AgriculturalEconomics. 5: 11-21.

Independent Variable Nutritional informationon food label

SWETHA et al

117

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the world’s mostwidely grown cereal and is staple food in manydeveloping countries (Morries et al, 1999). It occupiesa position of prominence in the world economy ascommodity for trade. In India a major part of grainproduced is utilized as feed followed by humanconsumption. Quality Protein Maize (QPM) could bea good source of protein for the people who havelimited access to other protein sources like meat,egg and milk. Discovery of opaque-2 (o2) and floury(fl2) mutant opened up possibilities for improvementof protein quality with 70-100% higher lysine andtryptophan, which later lead to the development ofquality protein maize (QPM). In this context existenceof genetic diversity among genotypes or parents isvery much desired. Estimating variability in apopulation forms an effective tool for the breeder todesign his testing procedures for identifying superiorgenotypes. Heritability is index for calculating theinfluence of environment on expression of thegenotype and genetic advance would be helpful inassessing nature of gene action.

The materials for the present studycomprised of sixty-three quality protein maizegenotypes (numbered from BQML-101 to BQML-163)obtained from Maize Research Centre, ARI,Rajendranagar. The experiment was carried out atCollege Farm, College of Agriculture, ANGRAU,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during rabi 2008-09 in arandomized block design with three replications. Eachgenotype in each replication consisted of a singlerow of fifteen plants with a spacing of 75cm X 20cm. Five representative plants were tagged at randomfrom each line for recording observations on sixteentraits viz., days to 50 per cent tasseling, days to 50per cent silking, plant height, ear height, days tomaturity, ear length, ear girth, number of kernel rowsper ear, number of kernel per row, 100-seed weight

VARIABILITY IN YIELD AND ITS COMPONENT TRAITS IN QUALITY PROTEINMAIZE GENOTYPES (Zea mays L.)

K. VIJAY KUMAR, M. R. SUDARSHAN, KULDEEP SINGH DANGI and S. MADHUSUDAN REDDYDepartment of Genetics and Plant breeding, College of Agriculture,

Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30



(g), ear weight (g), shelling (%), protein content (%),oil content (%), starch content (%) and grain yieldper plant (g).

The estimates of genetic coefficient ofvariability (GCV), phenotypic coefficient of variability(PCV) together with heritability estimates would givebest picture about the extent of advance to selection(Burton and Devane 1953). The data was analysedstatistically and the various parameters like PCV,GCV, heritability and genetic advance were workedout as per Singh and Chaudhary (1985).

Analysis of variance revealed that thedifference among the genotypes were highlysignificant for all the sixteen characters studied (Table1). Based on the mean performance the genotypesBQML-110, BQML-105 and BQML-119 gave highestgrain yield per plant. The other high yielding entrieswere BQML-106 BQML-136 and BQML-120, while theleast grain yield was recorded for the genotype BQML-161. High yielding genotypes along with high proteincontent are BQML-106, BQML-105, BQML-110,BQML-136 and BQML-119 (Table 2).

The estimates of PCV, GCV, heritability,genetic advance (GA) and GA as percent of meanfor different characters are represented in (Table 3).The GCV as well as PCV were higher for grain yieldper plant followed by ear weight, numbers of kernelsper row, ear height. The other characters such asplant height, ear length, 100 grain weight, oil content,ear girth, number of kernels rows per ear, days to 50per cent tasseling, days to 50 per cent silking, shellingper cent, days to maturity and starch content hadsmall values for GCV and PCV.

The PCV was the highest for grain yield perplant (30.82%) followed by ear weight (27.65%) andnumber of kernels per row (22.24) while rest of thecharacters showed low phenotypic coefficient


118

variation. Allard, 1970 suggested that GCV would bemore useful for the assessment of inherent or realvariability as it exhibits the heritable portion only. Theestimates of GCV for different characters were lessthan those of PCV. It is evident, therefore, that theinfluence of environment on the expression of thesecharacters was considerable in this study. The rangewas the maximum for plant height (239.33) followedby ear weight (141.00), days to maturity (122.00) andgrain yield per plant. Range was minimum for oilcontent followed by protein content, ear girth andnumber of kernels rows per ear. Similar results werereported by Salami et al., (2007).

The heritability estimates were found to bemoderate to high for all the characters studied and itranged from 59.34 for number of kernels rows perear to 97.80 days to 50 per cent tasseling. Highestimates of heritability were recorded for days to 50per cent tasseling, days to 50 percent silking, plantheight, ear height. High values of heritability indicatedthat in the present study all characters are heritableexcept number of kernel rows per ear, and oil content

(%). High heritability estimates are helpful in makingselection for superior genotypes on the basis ofphenotypic performance of quantitative characters.Similar results were observed by Satyanaryana et al(2003) and Neha Singhal et al (2006).

In the present study, highest geneticadvance as percentage of mean was observed forgrain yield per plant (56.62) followed by ear weight(50.20), while starch content (4.06) had lowest geneticadvance. Four out of sixteen characters days tomaturity, shelling percent, protein content and numberof kernel rows per ear had moderate genetic advance.Similar results reported by Kabdal et al. (2003) andNeha Singhal et al (2006). High heritability coupledwith genetic advance arises due to additive geneeffects (Panse and Sukhatme 1985). High heritabilityestimates but low genetic advance as per cent ofmean suggested that high heritability of thesecharacters was due to non-additive gene effects andtheir interactions (Panse and Sukhatme 1985), hence,high heritability alone cannot be relied upon for makingimprovement through simple selection procedures.

S.No. Character Mean sum of squares

Replications Treatments Error df 2 62 124

1. Days to 50 % tasseling 4.6** 118.62** 0.88 2. Days to 50% silking 2.68 121.75** 1.01 3. Plant height (cm) 53.53 2631.35** 38.13 4. Ear height (cm) 16.86 657.08** 13.48 5. Days to maturity 8.57 157.29** 3.87 6. Ear length (cm) 3.3* 17.74** 0.74 7. Ear girth (cm) 0.7 6.00** 0.5 8. No. of kernel rows / ear 1.33 6.01** 1.11 9. No.of kernels / row 12.58 78.51** 6.45

10. Ear weight (g) 175.13* 1470.64** 63.26 11. 100 seed weight (g) 0.77 37.44** 0.77 12. Shelling % 0.15 82.17** 4.07 13. Protein content (%) 0.03 3.37** 0.24 14. Oil content (%) 1.07* 1.72** 0.27 15. Starch content (%) 2.96** 7.22** 0.5 16. Grain yield / plant (g) 172.57* 1071.00** 41.57

Table 1. Analysis of variance for sixteen characters in Quality Protein Maize (Zea mays L.)

** Significant at 1 per cent level *Significant at 5 per cent level

VIJAY et al

119

VARIABILITY IN YIELD AND ITS COMPONENT TRAITS IN QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE GENOTYPES

120

VIJAY et al

121


122

Tabl

e 3.

Est

imat

ion

of v

aria

bilit

y, h

erita

bilit

y an

d ge

netic

adv

ance

as

per c

ent o

f mea

n fo

r six

ty-t

hree

QP

M g

enot

ypes

(Zea

may

s L.

).VIJAY et al

123

REFERENCES

Burton, G. W. and De Vane, E. H. 1953. Estimatingheritability in tall fescue (festuca arundanacea)from replicated clonal material. AgronomyJournal 45: 478-481.

Kabdal, M. K., Verma, S. S., Ahmed, N andPanwar, H. B. S. 2003. Genetic variabilityand correlation studies of yield and itsattributing characters in maize (Zea maysL.). Agricultural Science Digest 23: 137-139.

Morries, M. L., Risopous, J and Beck, D.1999.Genetic changes in future recycled maizeseed. A review of the evidence CIMMYT econ.Working paper no.99-07 Mexico D.E. CIMMYTP.1.

Neha Singhal, Verma, S. S., Baskheti, D. C and AnilKumar 2006. Heritability, genetic advance,correlation and path coefficient estimation inhigh quality protein maize (Zea mays L.). AsianJournal of Bio Science 1(2): 54-56.

Panse, V. G and Sukhatme, P. V. 1985. Statisticalmethods for Agricultural workers. Fourthrevised edition.

Salami, A. E., Adegoke, S. A. O and Adegbite, O.A. 2007. Genetic variability among maizecultivars grown in Ekiti-State, Nigeria. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 2 (1): 09-13.

Satyanarayana, E., Shanti, P., Rekha, P. M andKumar, R. S. 2003. Studies on the identificationof suitable parents from high old maize (Zeamays L.) germplasm for making potential singlecross hybrids. Research on crops 4(3): 348-354.

Singh, R. K and Chaudhary, B. D. 1985. Biometricalmethods in quantitative genetic analysis.Kalyani Publishers. New Delhi.


124

The seed yield of greengram is low; theproductivity of this pulse crop is to be stepped up byevolving high yielding varieties. Therefore, to bringabout improvement in this crop, a thorough knowledgeof breeding behaviour of character is very essential.Correlation studies indicate the magnitude ofassociation between pairs of characters and are usefulfor selecting genotypes with desirable combinationsof characters thereby assisting the plant breeder incrop improvement. Grain yield is a complex characterand is controlled by many factors. A direct selectionfor desirable types should not only be restricted tograin yield alone but other components related to grainyield. The knowledge of the interrelationship of grainyield with other important characters is necessary todetermine which of these characters could be usedfor high grain yield. Correlation coefficient has beenemployed for this purpose. However, the correlationcoefficient between two characters does notnecessarily imply a cause and effect relationship.The inter-relationship could be grasped best if acoefficient could be assigned to each path in thediagram designed to measure the direct influenceamong them. Path coefficient analysis is a statisticaltechnique of partitioning the correlation coefficientsinto its direct and indirect effects, so that thecontribution of each character to yield could beestimated. Therefore, the present investigation wasundertaken to find out the correlation and pathcoefficient of mungbean genotypes and identify thepromising genotypes.

The field experiment was laidout in RBD withthree replications to evaluate 60 greengram genotypesduring kharif 2012 at college farm located at collegeof agriculture, ANGRAU, Rajendra nagar, Hyderabad.Each genotype was grown in 3 rows of 5 m lengthwith a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 10 cmbetween plants with in row.

CORRELATION AND PATH ANALYSIS IN GREENGRAM(Vigna radiata (L.) WILCZEK)

SRIKANTH THIPPANI, K. B. ESWARI AND M. V. BRAHMESWAR RAO Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,

Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030



The replication wise mean values of ten randomlyselected plants were used for computing phenotypicand genotypic correlation coefficients as well as directand indirect effects for eleven characters viz., daysto 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height (cm),number of primary branches per plant, number ofclusters per plant, number of pods per cluster, numberof pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, 100-seed weight (g), pod length (cm) and seed yield perplant (g). Correlation coefficients were worked out byusing method described by Johnson et al., (1955).The path coefficient analysis was carried outaccording to the procedure described by Dewey andLu (1959).

Information regarding the nature and extentof association of morphological characters would behelpful in developing a suitable plant type, in additionto the improvement of yield, a complex character forwhich direct selection is not very effective. Thus, itis important to explore the possibility of increasinggrain yield by indirect selection of some componenttraits. Any unfavourable association between thedesirable characters may lead to limited geneticadvance. To study the inter-relationship ofcontributing characters and seed yield, genotypic andphenotypic correlation coefficients were computedfrom the estimates of variances and co variancesfor all possible combinations of characters studied(Table 1). Grain yield per plant was found to bepositively and significantly correlated with the plantheight, numbers of pods per cluster and number ofseeds per pod at both genotypic level and phenotypiclevel.. These results are in accordance withVenkateswarlu (2001), Priya and Reddy (2008),Rahim et al. (2010), Reddy et al. (2011) and Khanparaet al. (2012). So improvement in seed yield is possibleby taking above characters as criteria in selectionscheme.


125

Tab

le 1

. G

enot

ypic

and

Phe

noty

pic

corr

elat

ion

coef

ficie

nts

in G

reen

gram

(Vig

na ra

diat

a (L

.) W

ilcze

k).

* si

gnifi

cant

at

5% le

vel

*

* s

igni

fican

t at 1

% le

vel

P=P

heno

typi

c le

vel

G =

Gen

otyp

ic le

vel

CORRELATION AND PATH ANALYSIS IN GREENGRAM

126

Tabl

e 2.

Est

imat

ion

of d

irec

t (bo

ld) a

nd in

dire

ct e

ffec

ts o

f yie

ld a

nd it

s co

mpo

nent

s in

gre

engr

am (V

igna

radi

ata

(L.)

Wilc

zek

Gen

otyp

ic r

esid

ual e

ffect

= 0

.806

3 a

nd P

heno

typi

cal r

esid

ual e

ffect

= 0

.904

2

P

=Phe

noty

pic

leve

l

G

=G

enot

ypic

leve

l

* S

igni

fican

t at 5

per

cen

t lev

el a

nd *

* S

igni

fican

t at 1

per

cen

t lev

el

THIPPANI et al

127

Path coefficient analysis accommodate anassistance for categorizing the total correlation intodirect and indirect effects. The results of path analysisshowed (Table 2) that number of pods per clusterhad maximum and positive direct effect on seed yieldfollowed by seeds per pod, plant height, pod lengthand 100-seed weight at genotypic level. The negativedirect effects on grin yield by days to 50% flowering,days to maturity, primary branches per plant andnumber of cluster per plant. These results areagreement with Dhuppe et al. (2005) for days to 50%flowering; Priya and Reddy (2008) for plant height;Dhuppe et al. (2005) for number of primary branchesper plant; Priya and Reddy (2008) for number of podsper plant; Roopa Lavanya and Bini Toms (2009) andPriya and Reddy (2008) for number of seeds per pod;Sirohi et al. (2007) for pod length; and Upendra Kumar

et al. (2005), Priya and Reddy (2008), Roopa Lavanyaand Bini Toms (2009) and Reddy et al. (2011) for100-seed weight. Path analysis revealed that numberof pods per cluster had high direct effect, therefore,simple selection for this character would be useful tomaximum seed yield. Considering all the aspectstogether it is apparent from path analysis thatmaximum effects as well as appreciable indirectinfluences were exerted by plant height, number ofpods per cluster and number of seeds per pod towardsseed yield per palnt. These characters also exhibitedsignificant and positive association with seed yieldper plant. Hence, they may be considered as themost important yield contributing characters andappropriate prominence should be placed on thesecomponents while breeding for high yielding types ingreen gram.

REFERENCES

Dewey, D. R and Lu, K. H. 1959. A correlation andpath coefficient analysis of components ofcreated wheat grass seed production. Agron.J. 51: 515-518.

Dhuppe, M. V., Madrap, I. A., Chandranker, G. Dand More, S. S. (2005). Correlation and pathanalysis in mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.)Wilczek). Journal of Soils and Crops. 15 (1):84-89.

Haritha, S and Reddy S. M. (2002). Correlation andpath coefficient analysis in mungbean (Vignaradiata (L.) Wilczek ). Legume research. 25(3):180-183.

Johnson, H. W., Robinson, H. F and Comstock, R.E. (1955). Estimates of genetic andenvironmental variability in soybean.Agronomy Journal. 47: 477-483.

Khanpara, M. D., Vchhani, J. H., Jivani, L.L.,Jethava, A. S and Vaghasia, P. M. (2012).Correlation and path co-efficient analysis ingreengram (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). AsianJournal of Biological sciences. 7 (1): 34-38.

Priya, M. S and Reddy, K. H. P. (2008). Characterassociation and path analysis in twenty oneF3 progenies of mungbeen (Vigna radiata (L.)Wilczek). Journal of Research. ANGRAU36(1): 16-20. 8ref.

Rahim, M. A., Mila, A. A., Mahmud, F., Zeba, N andAfrin, K. S. (2010). Genetic variability,

character association and genetic divergencein mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). PlantOmics Journal. 3 (1): 1-6.

Roopa lavanya, M and Bini Toms (2009). Associationand relationship among yield contributingcharacters in mungbeam. Journal of FoodLegumes. 22(1): 65-67.

Sirohi, S. P. S., Dhama, S. K., Singh, S. P., NitinKumar and Bahuguna, D. K. (2007). Correlationand path coefficient analysis in mungbean(Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). Progressiveresearch. 2 (1/2): 129-131.

Reddy, D. K. R., Venkateswarlu, O., Obaiah, M. Cand Jyothi, G. L. S. (2011). Studies on geneticvariability, character association and path-coefficient analysis in greengram (Vignaradiata (L.) Wilczek). Legume Research.34(3): 202-206.10 ref.

Upendra Kumar, Singh, S. P and Vikas (2005).Variability and character association inmungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). Newagriculturist. 16(1,2): 23-28.

Vikas Paroda, V. R. S and Singh, S. P. (1998).Phenotypic correlation and indirect relation ofcomponent characters with seed yield inmungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) overenvironments. Ann. of Agric. Res. 3(2): 11-215.

CORRELATION AND PATH ANALYSIS IN GREENGRAM

128

In the present day context where in emphasison use of organic fertilizer in agriculture, greenmanure is the cheapest and best source of improvingsoil fertility and maintaining the health of an agro-ecosystem. Dhaincha is an ideal green manure cropas it is quick growing, succulent, easily decomposableand produces high amount of bio mass with lowmoisture requirements. It can be grown in the saltaffected soils and also in ill drained soils. It is quickgerminating and fast growing crop and bears morenumber of nitrogen nodules which fix atmosphericnitrogen. Though the value of green manure crops insupplying nutrients is well proved, green manuringpractices have not been widely adopted by the farmersdue to multiple factors. Among the constraints, non-availability of good quality seed at the appropriatetime is the foremost one. A lot of work on its utilityas green manure crop has been done. But no seriousefforts were made to increase the seed production ofDhaincha.

For maximizing seed production, an optimumplant density per unit area is an importantmanagement tool. There is a tendency to neglectthe mineral nutrition of nitrogen fixing legume cropswhose exceptional capacity to produce seeds,biomass and protein depends on the availability ofadequate nutrients especially phosphorus. Thenodulation and nitrogen fixation require highphosphorus status in the host plant.

A field experiment was conducted at CollegeFarm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar,Hyderabad on sandy clay loamy soil. The soil isslightly alkaline in soil reaction(pH7.6), medium inorganic carbon(0.45 %), low in available nitrogen (l76kg ha-1) and medium in available phosphorous (5l.7P205 kg ha-1) and potassium (294 K2O kgha-1). Thetreatments comprised of three row spacings (30 cm,

INFLUENCE OF ROW SPACING AND PHOSPHORUS LEVELS ON SEEDPRODUCTION OF DHAINCHA (Sesbania aculeata)

B. VENKANNA, B. JOSEPH, K.B. SUNEETHA DEVI and A. SIVA SANKARDepartment of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,

Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030



45 cm and 60 cm with a plant population ofl,66,666,1,11,111 and 83,333 plants ha-1 respectively.) andthree phosphorus levels (0 kg, 25 kg and 50 kg ha-1).The gross plot size was 28.8 m2 (7.2 m x 4.0 m).The experiment was laid out in a randomized blockdesign with factorial concept and replicated thrice. Abasal dose of 20 kg nitrogen and phosphorus as perthe treatments was applied. Irrigation was given asand when required after giving due weightage torainfall. A total of five irrigations were given duringthe crop period. The total rainfall received was 10mm which was distributed in three rainy days. Noserious pest and disease incidence was observedexcept root rot at 60 DAS hence drenching of copperoxy chloride 50 % WP was done to control the rootrot. The crop was weeded twice to keep the plotsweed free. The data was taken at 30, 60, 90 DASand at harvest. The crop was cut, dried, threshed,seed yield was recorded and finally B:C ratio wasanalyzed. The crop was sown on 8th Nov, 2012 andharvested on 7th March 2013.

The results revealed that row spacings andphosphorus levels significantly influenced the growthparameters, yield attributes and yield of Dhainchacrop.

Effect of row spacing

Among the three different row spacings (30,45 and 60 cm) studied, Dhaincha sown at wider rowspacing of 60 cm recorded more number of podsplant-1, number of seeds pod -1 than closer rowspacings of 30 and 45 cm. Higher seed yield (2l23kg ha-1) was recorded at row spacing of 30 cm closelyfollowed by that from 45 cm (1887 kg ha-1), while thelowest seed yield of 1742 kg ha-1 was observed atwider row spacing of 60 cm. The improved per plantyield attributes at 60cm row spacing has not reflectedin per hectare seed yield of Dhaincha. Though, all


129

the yield attributing characters were higher at widerspacings, these improvements were not sufficient tocompensate the loss in plant population per unit areafrom closer row spacing. Similar increase in seedyield at closer spacing was also reported bySangeetha et al.(2011), Shastri et al. (2007),Yaragoppa et al. (2003) and Parlawar et al. (2001).

Higher gross returns, net returns andB:Cratios were obtained at closer row spacing of 30cm followed by 45 cm, while the lowest at 60 cm.

Effect of phosphorus levels

Among the three different phosphorus levels(0, 25 and 50 kgha-1 studied, Dhaincha with 50 kg ha-

1phosphorus application performed better in terms ofnumber of pods plant-1, seedspod-1 and seed yieldkgha-1 than the other phosphorus levels (0 and 25 kgha-1)Similar findings were also obtained by Singh andGangaiah (2012), Rengalakshmi and Purushothaman(1999)and Parlawar et al. (2001).

Higher gross returns, net returns and B:C ratiowere obtained at 50 kg ha-1 phosphorus applicationthan lower levels (0 and 25 kgha-1). But B:C ratioobtained at 50 kg ha-1 phosphorus application was atparwith.25 kg ha-1.These results are similar to thefindings of Parlawar et al. (2001).

The study revealed that growth, seed yieldha-1, gross monetary returns, net monetary returnsand benefit: cost ratios were recorded significantlyhigher with row spacing of 30 cm andP205application@ 50 kg ha-1. However B: C ratio of 25 kg P205 ha-

1was at par with 50 kg P205ha-1. Yield attributes weresignificantly highest for row spacing of 60 cm and 50kg P205ha-1. Row spacing of 30 cm along withapplication of 25 to 50 kg P205 had can be consideredas an optimum management technique for obtainingincreased seed yield of Dhaincha.

Treatment No. of pods

plant-1

No. of seeds plant-1

Seed yield

Kg ha-1

Gross returns Rs ha-1

Net returns Rs ha-1

B:C Ratio

Row Spacing

S1 - 30cm

S2 - 45cm

S3- 60cm

SE(m)±

CD at 5%

18.37

23.53

27.64

0.4

1.25

26.04

26.57

26.93

0.18

0.55

2123

1887

1742

50

150

53097

47194

43555

1253

3758

40522

34894

31405

1253

3758

3.2

2.8

2.5

0.1

0.2

Phosphorus levels

P1- 0 kg ha-1

P2- 25 kg ha-1

P3- 50 kg ha-1

SE(m)±

CD at 5%

22.02

23.28

24.20

0.4

1.25

23.02

26.82

30.13

0.18

0.55

1732

1896

2125

50

150

43305

47402

53138

1253

3758

31863

35061

39897

1253

3758

2.7

2.8

3.0

0.1

0.2

S x P

SE(m)±

CD at 5%

0.72

NS

0.31

NS

86

NS

2171

NS

2171

NS

0.17

NS

Table 1. Influence of row spacing and phosphorous levels on yield and yield attributes of Dhaincha(Sesbania aculeata)

INFLUENCE OF ROW SPACING AND PHOSPHORUS LEVELS ON SEED PRODUCTION

130

REFERENCES

Parlawar, N.D., Girl, D.G., Adpawar, R.M andYadgirwar, P.V. 2001. Influence of seed rate,row spacing and phosphate level on seed yieldand economics of dhaincha SesbaniaaculeataL.PKV Research Journal. 25(2): 68-72.

Rengalakshmi, R and Purshothaman,S.l999.Effectof season, spacing and phosphorus on seedproduction of Sesbania species. MadrasAgricultural Journal. 86(4-6): 232-235.

Sangeetha, R., Yakadri, M., Srinivasaraju, M and Sairam, A. 2011. Seed yield of Dhaincha Sesbaniaaculeata as influenced by sowing dates andplant densities during rabi season. Journal ofResearch, ANGRAU. 39(4): 57-58.

Shastri, A.B., Desai, B.K., Pujari, B.T., Halepyati,A.S and Vasudevan, S.N. 2007. Studies onthe effect of plant densities and phosphorusmanagement on growth and seed yield of sunhemp Crotalaria juncea L. Karnataka Journalof Agricultural Sciences. 20(2): 359-360.

Singh, H and Gangaiah, B. 2012.Seed production ofdhaincha Sesbania aculeata as influenced bynitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. IndianJournal of Agronomy. 57(4): 397-402.

Yaragoppa, S.D., Desai, B.K., IIalepyati, A.S andPujari,B.T.2003. Influence of plant densitiesand phosphorus management on growth andseed yield of Sesbania aculeata (Wills.) Poir.Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences.16(2): 297-299.

VENKANNA et al

131

The search for jobs is all the more difficultbecause of the fact that the rank of jobless andunderemployed was already high and is steadilyincreasing. Due to recent trends of globalization andprivatization there is growing suspicion and securingfull time Government employment may remain onlya dream. Agricultural graduates are no exception tothis situation. Even after the available many avenuesin private and public sector still the number ofunemployed agricultural graduates is growing up. Inorder to utilize the potential of the unemployedagricultural graduates in the process of agriculturaldevelopment of the country, Government of India haveinitiated schemes to support the graduates to set uptheir own agri-business units for his/her owndevelopment and helping the others with theirservices. It is a universally accepted fact that theattitude of an individual plays an important role indetermining his behaviour with respect to a particularobject. Attitude is the pre-disposition of action (Sherifand Cantril, 1945). It is degree of positive or negativeaffect associated with some psychological object(Thurstone and Chave, 1929). Thus, attitude in thestudy was operationally defined as “the degree ofpositive or negative feelings of agricultural graduatestowards perusing self employment in agriculture. Aftergraduation an agricultural graduates with the right andpositive attitude towards self employment canmotivate himself/herself to use available resourcesand government support in establishing his/her ownagri-business unit. Keeping these aspects in viewthis study has been undertaken to construct anattitude scale to measure the attitude of theagricultural graduates towards self employment.

METHODOLOGY

i. Selection of type of attitude scale: Formeasuring the attitudes, different type of scaleswhich were developed by Thurstone, Likert,

SCALE CONSTRUCTION FOR MEASURING THE ATTITUDE TOWARDSPURSUING SELF EMPLOYMENT IN AGRICULTURE

KADIRI MOHAN1 and P.RAMESHKUMAR REDDYExtension Education Institute, Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030



Guttman and Bagardus were available and inthis study Likert method of summated ratings(Likert’s Technique, 1932) procedure wasfollowed.

ii. Collection of attitude stimuli: A set ofstatements broadly covering the area of selfemployment in agriculture were collected fromthe available literature and through interactionwith the extension experts and agriculturalgraduates who are private, government and selfemployed. A tentative list of 60 statementsconsisting of 32 negative and 28 positivestatements were drafted keeping in view of theapplicability of statements suited to the area ofstudy.

iii. Editing the statements: Each statement wasedited considering the 14 informal criteriasuggested by Thurstone & Chave (1929) andEdwards and Kilpatrick (1948).

iv. Item analysis: For the purpose of preparationof final scale 60 statements were administeredto 60 agricultural graduates who just passed outduring 2007-08 academic year from College ofAgriculture, Rajendranagar, ANGR AgriculturalUniversity, Hyderabad. The respondents wereasked to indicate their degree of favourablenessor unfavourableness with each item on 5 pointcontinuum scale. Scoring was given for positivestatements as 5,4,3,2 and 1 and for negativestatements as 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. Thetotal individual scores of each respondent for 60statements were computed by summing up theirscore for all statements and arranged indescending order. Further, the respondents weredivided into 4 groups, comprising 15 respondentsin each group. The top 25 per cent wereconsidered as the highest group and bottom 25


132

S.No. Statements SA A UD DA SD

1 I would like to use my talents and skills in my own enterprise

2 Every agricultural graduate should start his/her own agriculture business unit without thinking of any other avenues of employment after graduation

3 Own agribusiness unit is more remunerative and rewarding to a student of agriculture when compared to other graduates

4* I will be more recognized when I work with a good organization rather than self employment

5 Self employment in agriculture is having lot of scope and opportunities

6* It is easy to grow professionally when I work with a reputed organisation

7* Being a graduate in agriculture, it is below prestige to take up farm related self employment

8* Self employment is highly uncertain and involves risk

9 I wish to be a job provider rather than job seeker

10 Being a agriculture graduate, I find it is prestigious in the society if I start my own agriculture enterprise

11* Efforts will be wasted if I go for self employment which is highly unsecured

12* Government service is only the best available career for an agricultural graduate

13* Working with any organization gives me more scope to perform and concentrate fully on work

14 I would like to contribute something to farming community with my own self employment enterprise

15 Being a graduate in agriculture, it is easy to accept challenge of pursuing self employment in agriculture

16 If all agricultural graduates pursue agricultural related self employment it will boos agriculture growth of the country

17* I don’t possess the required entrepreneurial and managerial skills to take up agricultural related enterprises

18* I would like to enjoy the position and authority working in an private / Government organization rather than going for self employment

19* Person who does not fit for jobs only will opt for self employment in agriculture

20 Being a agricultural graduate I am fully equipped with the abilities required to set up own agri-business

21* Self employment will never be a career for young agricultural graduate

22 I want to become a role model to other agricultural graduates by succeeding in my own farm related enterprise

23* All other enterprises are profitable when compared to agricultural enterprise

24 Agricultural related self employment will give me more satisfaction then other self employment avenues

* Negative statements

MOHAN1 and REDDY

133

per cent scores as the lowest group and weretaken for evaluation of individual statements. The‘t’ values for each statement were calculatedusing the formula suggested by Edward (1967)

v. Selection of the statements for final scale:All the 60 statements were then arrayed on thebasis of their ‘t’ value. From these, 12 positiveand 12 negative statements were selected forthe final scale with their scale value more than1.75.

vi. Validity and Reliability: The validity of thescale was examined with the help of contentvalidity to determine how well the contents ofthe scale represented the subject matter understudy. As all the possible statements coveringthe universe were selected by discussion with

extension experts and officials of the agriculture,the present scale satisfied content validity.Reliability of the scale was calculated by test-retest method. The reliability coefficient (r) wasfound to be 0.84 indicating that the attitude scalehas precision, accuracy and can be used formeasurement.

FINAL ATTITUDE SCALE

The agricultural graduates have differentoptions about self employment. The followingstatements show some such differences. Pleaseindicate by putting tick ( Ö ) mark in the appropriatebox with whether you Strongly Agree (SA), Agree(A), Undecided (UD), Disagree (DA) or StronglyDisagree (SD) with these statements.

REFERENCES

Edward, A.L. 1967. Techniques of Attitude scaleconstruction. Vakils, Feffer and Simons Inc,New York.

Edwards, A.L and Kilpatrick, F.P. 1948. A techniquefor construction of Attitude Scale. J.App.Psycho. 32:374-384.

Likert, R.A. 1932. A technique for the measurementof attitude. Arc. Psychology.

Sheriff and Cantril 1945. Psychology of attitude.Psychology Review 52.

Thurstone, L.L and Chave, E.J. 1929. TheMeasurement of attitude. Chicago UniversityPress, USA.pp 39-40.

SCALE CONSTRUCTION FOR MEASURING THE ATTITUDE

134

The trial was conducted at the AgriculturalResearch Station, Tandur during 2010-11 winterseason with four different spacings viz, 45x20 cm,45x30 cm, 60x20 cm and 60x30 cm and with fourvarieties SSF-708, A-1, NARI-63 and SSF-773 in splitplot design. Plant height, number of branches /plantdid not exhibit any significant difference with rowspacing and genotypes. Safflower crop when flankedat 45 (cm) rows recorded maximum number ofcapitula per plant (39.4) and seed yield of 1386 kg/ha. Similarly gross returns of Rs 30492/ha, net returnsof Rs 23892/ha and benefit cost ratio 4.62 was higherwith 45x30cm spacing. Among the safflower entriestested SSF-708 has produced significantly higherseed yield of 1295 kg/ha which was on par withAnnegeri-1 (1252 kg/ha). Similarly gross returns ofRs 28490 /ha, net returns of Rs 23892/ha and benefitcost ratio 4.62.

Safflower is one of the important oilseedcrops cultivated in India since ancient times. It isalso cultivated in countries like USA, Mexico,Aregentina and China. India occupies first positionin cultivation of safflower area, the productivity ofsafflower crop is lower (630 kg/ha) than the worldaverage (859 kg/ha). In India It is cultivated in anarea of 2.71 lakh ha with a production of 1.71 lakhtones and productivity of 632 kg/ha (DOR AnnualReport, 2010). Even though the productivity increasedto three folds for the past three decades the presentproductivity of 632 kg/ha is still very low underimproved methods of cultivation.

Safflower is an important winter seasonoilseed crop grown in Andhra Pradesh, Maharastraand Karnataka. In Southern Telangana Zone ofAndhra Pradesh it is cultivated as fallow crop orcontingent oilseed crop. It is imperative to adjust allinputs and management practices to the stored

RESPONSE OF SAFFLOWER (Carthamus Tinctorius L.) GENOTYPES ANDPLANT DENSITIES ON YIELD COMPONENTS, YIELD AND ECONOMICS UNDER

RAINFED CONDITIONSP. SATISH, C SUDHAKAR and C.SUDHARANI

Agricultural Research Station, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural UniversityTandur, Ranga Reddy- 501141



moisture for ensuring efficient moisture use undervaried seasonal conditions in the arid and semi aridtropics. To reach the maximum yield in addition tooptimum plant density, consistent distribution ofplants and consequently the structure of plant canopyand elite genotypes are great importance. Patel etal. (1994) stated that highest grain yield for 30, 45and 60cm rows were obtained for narrow row of 30cm. Hence, the present investigation was carried outto find the optimum row spacing in different safflowervarieties.

The field experiment was conducted atAgricultural Research Station, Tandur during thewinter season (2010-11). The experiment comprisedof four row spacings 45x20 cm, 45x30 cm, 60x20cm and 60x30 cm and four varieties SSF-708, A-1,NARI-63 and SSF-733 laid out in split plot designwith two replications. The soil of the experimentalsite had pH of 7.83 with low, medium and highnitrogen, phosphorus and potassium respectively.The safflower crop was grown during October andharvested in the month of march. All therecommended cultural practices were followed. Seedyield and yield components were recorded.

The study revealed that the plant height and numberof branches were not influenced by plant geometry(Table 1). Safflower crop when flanked at 45 (cm)rows recorded maximum number of capitula per plant(39.4) and seed yield of 1386 kg/ha. Similarly grossreturns of Rs 30492/ha, net returns of Rs 23892/haand benefit cost ratio 4.62 was higher with 45x30cmspacing than 60 cm row spacing. The crop flankedwith 60 cm rows spacing succumbed to moisturestress and reduced the yields than 45cm rows.Among the safflower entries tested SSF-708 hasproduced significantly higher seed yield of 1295 kg/ha which was on par with Annegeri-1 (1252 kg/ha).

135

Treatments Spacing

Plant height (cm)

No of branches/ plant

No of capitul

a / plant

Seed yield kg/ha

COC Rs

Gross return

Rs

Net return

Rs

BCR

S1 45 X 20 (cm) 83.2 10.6 31.2 1129 6600 24838 18238 3.76

S2 45 X 30 (cm) 82.6 10.7 39.4 1386 6600 30492 23892 4.62

S3 60 X 20 (cm) 81.0 10.5 32.5 1119 6600 24618 18018 3.73

S4 60 X 30 (cm) 84.0 11.9 31.4 1095 6600 24090 17490 3.65

SE m± 1.5 1.0 1.5 62

CD 5 % NS NS 5.2 215

Entries

SSF-708 82 10.5 31.6 1295 6600 28490 21890 4.32

Annegeri-1 83 11.2 39.1 1252 6600 27544 20944 4.17

NARI-63 83 11.5 32.3 1069 6600 23518 16918 3.56

SSF-733 82 10.5 31.6 1113 6600 24486 17886 3.71

SE m± 1.6 0.4 1.4 57

CD 5 % NS NS 3.9 166

Interaction

SE m± 3.0 2.1 2.9 124

CD 5 % NS NS NS NS

Table.1 Effect of row spacing and safflower varieties on yield components, yield and economics

REFERENCES

DOR Annual Report 2010 Annual Report of AICRPon Oilseeds-Safflower, 2010-11 Directorateof Oil seeds Research, Rajendranagar,Hyderabad

Gholamreza Zefie, Hossein Shamshi and FarjamFazeli 2012 Effect of planting density onyield and yield components of safflower(Carthamus tinctorius L.) cultivars in springplanting. Journal of Oilseeds Research(Special issue) pp 224-226.

Similarly gross returns of Rs 28490 /ha, net returnsof Rs 23892 / ha and benefit cost ratio 4.62 washigher with 45x30cm. This may be due toperformance of a variety varies from region to region,place to place under varied environmental conditions.

Interactions were found non significant.The resultscorroborate with the findings of Gholamreza Zefei etal (2012). While, Somangouda et al (2012) stated thatthe yield attributes and yield response was uniformunder varied planting system.

Patel, ZG, Menta, SC and Roy, VC 1994 Responseof safflower to row spacing and nitrogenphosphorus fertilizers nad vertisols of southGujarat, Indian Journal of Agronomy, 39: pp699-700

Somangouda, G., Halagalimath, SP., Kambrekar,D.N., Bsawarajappa, MP and Harish Babu BN2012. Effect of plant density on yield, yieldcomponents and economics in safflower(Carthamus tinctorius L.) under rainfedconditions. Journal of Oilseeds Research(Special issue) pp 203-204.

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136

SENSORY PROPERTIES OF GUAR-GUM INCORPORATED TOMATO SAUCE E. SHARATH and K. UMA MAHESWARI

Department of Foods and Nutrition, Post Graduate and Research Centre,Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural university, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030



Gaur gum is a white to creamy coloured freeflowing powder and free from extraneous matter. Itsability to suspend solids, to bind water by hydrogenbinding and form strong tough films accounts for itswide application in various industries. Industrial gradeguar gum is used in paper, textile processing,explosive, detergent, drilling fluid, ceramic and paintindustries. I ts purif ied grade is used inpharmaceutical, dielectric, cosmetic and foodindustries. ( Kaur and Iqbal bhatra, 1984). A studywas carried out to know the sensory qualitycharacteristics of guar gum incorporated tomatosauce, as guar gum is a colloidal substance whichincrease the consistency and maintain the textureof the sauce.

Tomato sauce was prepared as per thestandard receipe procedure of Srivastava,1994 (Fig

1) . The hydrocolloid (guar-gum) was incorporated at0.2 and 0.5%, in both 100g of sauce. Each samplein hot condition was poured in poly propylenecontainer, and sealed. The sample was stored atambient temperature (20-22oC) for 24 hours beforethe analysis. The Sensory evaluation of developedtomato sauce was carried out by using 9 point hedonicscale. (Marek Sikora et al., 2007). The product wasstored for one month and again sensory propertiesevaluation was done.

Tomato sauce prepared by incorporatingdifferent levels of guar gum was subjected to sensoryevaluation, before and after the storage period of onemonth. Sensory evaluation was done for freshlyprepared sauce and again after the storage period ofone month. The data was presented based on themean scores of 10 semi trained panelists.

Table 1. Mean sensory scores of tomato sauce prepared by incorporating different levels of guar-gumbefore and after storage

Attribute Tomato sauce SEd ± CD (5%) Before storage Control G1 G2

Colour 9.00 8.33 8.16 0.38 0.94 NS Flavour 9.00 7.66 7.50 0.47 1.15 Taste 9.00 7.80 7.60 0.47 1.15 Aroma 9.00 8.10 8.00 0.47 1.15NS Consistency 8.00 8.50 8.83 0.38 0.94 NS Overall acceptability 9.00 7.66 8.10 0.47 1.15

After storage period ( one month)

Colour 9.00 8.33 8.16 0.38 0.94 NS Flavour 9.00 8.20 8.16 0.38 0.94 NS Taste 9.00 8.16 8.20 0.38 0.94 NS Aroma 9.00 8.10 8.00 0.47 1.15 NS Consistency 8.00 8.50 8.83 0.38 0.94 NS Overall acceptability 9.00 8.24 8.40 0.38 0.94 NS


137

Fig 1. Standard recipie procedure for the preparation of tomato sauce (Srivastava,1994)

Each value represents the average of threedeterminations

C- Control sauce

G1- Tomato sauce with 0.2% guar-gum concentration

G2- Tomato sauce with 0.5% guar-gum concentration

SENSORY PROPERTIES OF GUAR-GUM INCORPORATED TOMATO SAUCE

NS- Non Significant at 0.05% level of probability.Addition of guar gum did not affect the colour of thesauce. After one month of storage period, the meansensory score of colour remained same. There wasno deterioration of colour during the storage periodwhich determines that the sauce can be stored forlonger period.

Among the tomato sauce samples, thecontrol sample had highest mean sensory score forflavour and the score decreased for the saucesprepared using guar gum, the decrease was noticedwith both the concentrations of guar gum used. Afterstorage period, the mean sensory score of flavourfor control sample remained same while that of guargum incorporated samples improved. At the initialstage the guar gum flavour has dominated the sauce,but as the sauce was stored the guar gum flavourdecreased due to which the acceptance scores wereincreased. Statistically significant difference was notobserved in mean flavour score after storage.

The mean sensory score of taste was highestfor control sample and lowest for both G1 and G2samples. The addition of guar gum has reduced thetaste of the tomato sauce. After storage period, themean sensory score for taste in guar gumincorporated sauce samples improved while the tasteof control sample remained the same. The taste ofguar gum which was dominating the initial stage wasreduced due to which the taste of sauce improved.

Statistically significant differences were not observedin mean taste scores.

Significant differences were not observed inmean aroma score even after one month of storageperiod, there was no change in the aroma. MarekSikora et al. (2007) also reported similar results onrheological and sensory properties of dessert saucesthickened by starch–xanthan gum combinations.

Consistency was the main property of sauceand was directly proportional to the total solid contentpresent in the sauce. The consistency of saucesamples was found to be unaffected with the additionof guar gum to the samples, as the differences insamples were found to be not significant statistically.The sensory scores of consistency remained thesame even after storage period. There was no effectof storage on the consistency of the sauce.

Among the tomato sauce samples, themean overall acceptability score was highest for thecontrol sample and lowest for G1. After the storageperiod, the overall acceptability was found to improvein the samples prepared using guar gum and all thesamples were comparable with each other for theoverall acceptability.

The evaluation suggested that 0.5% of guar-gum incorporated sample was best suited forpreparation of tomato sauce as it did not affect thequality and also improved the consistency.

REFERENCES

Marek Sikaro., Stainslaw Kowalski., Piotr Tomasikand Marek Sedy. 2007. Rheological andsensory properties of dessert saucesthickened by starch-xanthan gum. Journal ofFood Engineering. 79:1144-1151.

Perminder Kaur and Iqbal S. Bhatia (1984). Proteinsand trypsin inhibitor activity of guar seed. J.Sci. Food Agic. 35: 987-995.

Srivastava, R.P.1994. Tomato processing. Fruits andVegetable preservation. Indian Council ofAgricultural Research, New Delhi. PP: 253-265.

SHARATH and UMA

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Abdul Salam, M and Mazrooe, S.A. 2007. Water requirement of maize (Zea mays L.) as influenced byplanting dates in Kuwait. Journal of Agrometeorology. 9 (1) : 34-41

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Bind, M and Howden, M. 2004. Challenges and opportunities for cropping systems in a changing climate.Proceedings of International crop science congress. Brisbane –Australia. 26 September – 1 October2004. pp. 52-54

(www.cropscience 2004.com 03-11-2004)

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