corritore, 7341

ITM 734

Human Factors in Information Systems

Ch. 6: Long Term Memory

Fall 2005

Cindy Corritore, Ph.D.

Creighton University

C.L. Corritore2

LTM characteristics

• Slow but variable access speed

• Permanent (little decay)

• Infinite capacity

• Retrieval depends on …. recency, expectations, similarity of

information, connectedness, rehearsal, etc.

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Types of LTM

• Explicit and implicit conscious recollection, top-down

retrieval from multiple systems with massive integration (E)

unconscious recollection, bottom-up from single system (I) – more automatic

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Types of LTM

• Episodic and semantic self-awareness component, things that

happen to you, complex (E) stuff we know, knowledge about the

world, relationships, implicit - dictionary, thesaurus

likely stored the same way

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Types of LTM

• Declarative and procedural knowing that, explicit primarily,

relationships, integration of information (D) – knowing things and their relationships

knowing how, mostly implicit, not relational – how to do things

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Memory structures for stories, events …• Schema - framework that includes frames & scripts

become chunks for expanding memory basis for expectations

• What is Bartlett’s Schema Theory? framework for stories that affects comprehension told American Indian stories, then recall -

readjusted story elements and themes to fit their model laundry context (p 215) - calls up proper schema, fill in the blanks,

departures from normal• Helps make it easier to recall, group information• Experts have great, robust schema• Theory to explain why recall unusual/unique things better?

C.L. Corritore7

Everyday memory

• little studied

• appears to have a lot of variability eyewitness memory flashbulb memory

C.L. Corritore8

Eye-witness memory

• Effects post-event memory - questioning right after the

fact can distort (retroactive interference) verbal overshadowing - talking about it right

after happens over-writes visual memory memory in the world sketchy (Normal) weapon focus confirmation bias - affected by what you expect

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Flash bulb memory

• what were you doing when heard about 911 disaster?

• Why is this theory felt to be inaccurate? not consistently or regularly found

• Richness …..

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Ericsson and Kintsch LT-WM

• postulate using LTM as sort of working memory (STM) in areas of expertise able to use LTM for reliable storage and build fast

retrieval cues for fast recalluse it like an extension of STMmust be able to store into LTM very quickly (learned

skill for a narrow domain)must be well-known so expert can anticipate degree to

which item will need to be recalled– selective storage

associate info with retrieval cue (part of a retrieval structure)

– so can go straight to the itemSTM only has to hold one node of the structure

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LTM processes

• Storage rehearsal

• Retrieval Forgetting Recognition vs recall Frequency and recency effects

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Storage- Rehearsal

• Memorization involves storing the information and one or more access paths

• Good memories are rich semantic networks with many (unique) access paths

• Learning is aided by meaningfulness, structure, familiarity and concreteness

• Active memorizing requires effort, motivation• Passive memorizing - unpredictable, often episodic, context

sensitive• Similar items interfere if they are not separated during

memorizing - learning transfer effects - old interfere with new; new overwrite old

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Facilitating Memorization

• Structure information to help chunking - use categories, ordering, associations

• Encourage reasoning during memorizing - active memory

• Help access by multiple pathways - memorizing tricks e.g. keywords, cognitive aids, mnemonics, link to image memory (rooms)

• Make associations clear and keep them consistent

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Facilitating Memorization

• Make separate and recognizable contexts for recall - important for script / skill memory

• Increase depth of encoding Richness Visualization Uniqueness InteractionOld chinese proverb:

• Recognition

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Visualization & memory example

improve your memory exercise – memory pegs

1 bun 6 sticks

2 shoe 7 heaven

3 tree 8 gate

4 door 9 wine

5 hive 10 hen

Dix et al.

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Facilitating Memorization: Mnemonics

• cognitive mnemonics ABC’s with tune on old olympus mountain tops a finn and

german viewed some hops (12 crainial nerves: OOOMTAFAGVSH)seems to be more to remember?

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Facilitating Memorization: Mnemonics

• check out: http://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/cognition/tutorials/index.html

• mnemonic for Norman principles:

visibility, feedback, cognitive model, affordance, mapping

My fat cat ate veggies

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Retrieval - Theories of forgetting• repression (Freud) - bad experience• interference (proactive or retroactive)

previous learning/memories interrupt– espc if similar stimuli – belong to same category– eye-witness and post-incident questioning

doesn’t explain how it works• cue-dependant

forget because info not there anymore or *can’t access it

encoding specificity principle (cue-dependant)retrieval a func. of overlap between information

present at retrieval and info stored in memory – includes contextual info

Recognition dependant on internal cues only (not external context)

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Recall vs. recognition• Knowledge in the World Theory is GUI’s - Alan Kay developed

in 1960’s Steve Jobs in late 1970’s from Xerox Parc keep knowledge in world to supplement head knowledge recall vs. recognition remember just enough detail to get by

exceptions rather then norms experts not expert in knowledge in the head as much as expert in

how to locate needed knowledge in the world

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Design implications

• Reduce cognitive load!!!

• Type of user novice, expert, intermittent user

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Design implications

• Mental models natural extensions of schema - support schemas metaphors - desktop/office match system information structure with familiar

memory structures so user can use their schema

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Design implications

• Design interfaces that help users ‘grow’ good mental models meaningful and familiar command names (eg. from task

world) balance this with existing conceptual models of item

names (ie. cut, copy)• Incorporate closure (finish) on tasks

helps build mental model helps identify chunks for memory when become an expert

• Consistency - to build mental model; don’t have to remember as much

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Design implications

• Rich encoding - multimedia interaction context?

• May just be to ‘remember your site’ http://www.pulse3d.com/pulse/ http://www.jordans.com/roomplanner.asp

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Design implications

• Focus on recognition rather than recall interface contains prompts/information studies on computer experts found they

don’t have better recall, but high recognition of what is and isn’t available on interface and where to find it (maps)

GUI’s combination of recognition (menu’s) and recall (quick keys)

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Design implications

• Place the burden of remembering on the machine, not the human

• Don’t require user memory (eg. between

screens)

• Don’t have computer ask for info it can derive

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Design implications

• Design minor messages, alerts, warning to be minimally disruptive prevent user from forgetting data stored

in short term memory

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readings

• Lagerkvist – Mnemonic interfaces brain map

• Fass et al – Messy Desk

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readings

• Attention and memory (last week) Horvitz et al – Models of Attention Brudisch et al – Considering Attention Shell et al – ECSGlasses and Pliances Vertegaal et al – Attentive Cell Phones Lewis et al – VisualID’s Oulasvirta

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Evaluate these

• http://happydeluxe.com/

• http://www.google.com vs http://www.yahoo.com

• http://www.northcantonmedical.org/

• http://www.enchantedharp.com/