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6/26/2019
ItisahardknocklifeAmusementsandPastimeActivitiesonBoardoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany’sShips
MasterThesisColonia landGlobalHistory,20ECTS
LeidenUnivers ity
LizedeKlerk
StudentNumber:1545493
Dr.A.M.C.vanDissel
Words:17.957
2
TableofContents
Introduction......................................................................................................................3Historiography...........................................................................................................................4Methodology.............................................................................................................................7
Chapter1InstitutionalizedRitualsoftheVOC.................................................................10Signallingandcommunication..................................................................................................12SeaBaptism.............................................................................................................................17
Chapter2TrialsandRewardsonBoard...........................................................................22Theatricalityofpunishments....................................................................................................23Rewards...................................................................................................................................28
Chapter3ReligiousRitualsoftheSeafaringPersonnel....................................................31InstitutionalizedReligion..........................................................................................................32ExceptionalReligiousRituals....................................................................................................36
Chapter4MusicandPastimeAmusements.....................................................................40SingingandShantying..............................................................................................................41PlayingMusicalInstruments.....................................................................................................44PlayandPastime......................................................................................................................47
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................54
Bibliography....................................................................................................................58PrimarySources.......................................................................................................................58
Archives.......................................................................................................................................58Objects.........................................................................................................................................59
PrintedSources........................................................................................................................59Literature.................................................................................................................................61DatabasesandWebsites..........................................................................................................66
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Introduction
“Playisolderthanculture,forculture,howeverinadequatelydefined,always
presupposeshumansociety,andanimalshavenotwaitedformantoteachthem
theirplaying.”1
- JohanHuizinga
Playhasbeenpartofmankindlongbeforetheexistenceofsocietiesallovertheworld.
Duringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcentury,differentsocietiesinnorthernEuropewere
expandingtheirterritoriesandinfluence.Tradingcompaniesplayedacrucialroleinthisage
ofexploration.TheDutchEastIndiaCompany,theVOC(VerenigdeOost-Indische
Compagnie)wasoneofthemostdominanttradingcompaniesinthisperiod.Itwas
establishedbytheDutchgovernmentandLand’sAdvocateJohanvanOldenbarneveltin
1602tooptimizetheDutchtradewithAsia.2TheCompanyprovidedtheDutchnotonlywith
atradingroutetoAsia,whichwasanenormouseconomicadvantage,italsoaidedthe
expansionoftheDutchauthoritytooverseasterritories.BecauseoftheCompany,the
DutchRepublicbecameoneofthemostpowerfulentitiesduringthisperiod.3Foucault
observesthat“theboathasnotonlybeenforourcivilization,fromthesixteenthcentury
untilthepresent(1980s),thegreatinstrumentofeconomicdevelop,buthasbeen
simultaneouslythegreatestreserveoftheimagination.Theshipistheheterotopiapar
excellence.”4Evidently,theDutchEastIndiaCompany’sshipswerevitalintheCompany’s
endeavours,butFoucaultintroducesanotherfascinatinginsight:theCompany’sshipwasa
heterotopia–“afloatingpieceofspace,aplacewithoutaplace,thatexistsbyitself,thatis
closedinonitselfandatthesametimeisgivenovertotheinfinityofthesea…”5This
approachsuggeststhattheshipconstitutesasociety,withitsownfunction,rules,customs
andmanners.Heterotopia’sexistineverycultureaccordingtoFoucault,butwhichaspects
1J.Huizinga,HomoLudens,AStudyofthePlay-ElementinCulture(Oxon1949)1. 2F.S.Gaastra,DeGeschiedenisvandeVOC(Haarlem1982)19.s3JohnP.McKay,BennettD.Hill,JohnBuckleretal.,AHistoryofWesternSociety(Bedford2014)456,569;Gaastra,DeGeschiedenisvandeVOC,127-128.4MichelFoucaultandJayMiskowiec,“OfOtherSpaces”,Diacritics,Vol.16,No.1(1986)27.5Idem,22-27.
4
ofculturepersistedandtransferredtoaheterotopia?6Thisthesiswillexaminetheculture
anditsfunctiononboardoftheVOCships,andlikeHuizingasuggested‘play’,preceding
culture,isvitalinanyexaminationofculture.Therefore,andmorespecifically,thisthesis
willtakeanindepthlookatthefunctionofonespecificaspectsofculture:varioustypesof
amusements,including‘playing’,ritualsandmusic.Whichamusementsandpastime
activitieswereavailableonboardoftheVOCships,travelingtoandfromAsiabetween
1650and1800,andhowdidtheycontributetotheoperationoftheship?
ThereareseveralreasonswhythisresearchisfocusedontheVOC-ships.Firstand
foremost,alothasbeenwrittenaboutlifeonboardoftheCompany’sshipsingeneral,
however,thesubjectmatterofthisthesishasfallenbehindinthehistoriography.Sincethe
VOCwassuchanextraordinaryandsignificantorganisationinthehistoryoftheNetherlands
itishighlyrelevanttoinvestigatethisaspectoftheirenterprise.Moreover,theCompany’s
ships,withtheirworkforce,ingeneralwereamongthelargestshipsintheRepublic.7The
greatdiversityofavailablesourcesoftheDutchEastIndiaCompanyalsohelpednarrowing
downthesubject,incorporatingtheAdmiraltyorWestIndiaCompany,wouldbetoobigof
anprojectforthisthesis.
Historiography
TheDutchEastIndiaCompany’shistoryhasbeenthesubjectofagreatvarietyofscholarly
research.IntheCompany’sgeneralhistoriesconsiderableattentionispaidtothose
employedontheCompany’sships.Amainfocusofthisquantitativeresearchisthe
economicalandgeographicalbackgroundofthesepeopleinemployment.VOChistorian
FemmeS.Gaastra,alsocoversthisinhisgeneralhistoriesabouttheCompany.8Moreover,
GaastrawasoneoftheleadingscholarsontheresearchprojectTheDutchEastIndia
Company'sshippingbetweentheNetherlandsandAsia1595-1795,devotedtosurveying
andaccumulatingalltheinformationfoundintheCompany’slogbooksonvoyagestoand
fromAsia.Theycompiledanonlineaccessibledatabase,basedonthissurvey,with
significantinformationonthepeopleonboardtheCompany’sships,dividedintofour
6Idem,24.7JaapR.Bruijn,Zeegang:ZeevarendNederlandindeachttiendeeeuw(Zutphen2016)11,49-50.8FemmeS.Gaastra,GeschiedenisvandeVOC–opkomst,bloeienondergang(Zutphen2009)88-100.
5
categories:seafarers,soldiers,craftsmenandpassengers.9Intheintroductoryvolume
publishedoftheproject,thebackgroundofthepeopleonboardoftheshipsisbriefly
discussed.JustlikeothergeneralhistoriesoftheVOC,themainfocusisontheeconomical
andgeographicalbackgroundofthoseonboard.10BruijnandGaastradoshowthatmany
foreignerswereemployedonboardoftheCompany’sships,whichisrelevantforthis
research,becausetheyshowthattensionscoulddevelopbetweentheDutchagainstothers
–mostoftentheFrench.11
Asstatedabove,theCompany’slabourforcehasbeenquiteextensivelyanalysed,
mainlyfocusingonthecontroloflabourandviolenceonboardoftheCompany’sships.12
Historianshavepaidlittleattentiontoactuallifeonboardoftheships.Publicationsthatdo
incorporateadiscussionofeverydaylifeonboardmainlyfocusonthreecomponents:Rules
andPunishments,FoodandDrinkandIllnessandDeath.HetGroteVOCBoekisaperfect
example,attheveryendofthisveryelaborateissueonthehistoryoftheCompany,one
chapterofonlyafewpagesdiscussesexactlythesethreesubjects.13Inthearticle
“CalamitousVoyages”,RichardGuyalsoaddressesthesetopicsinananalysisoffour
accountsofshipwreckandmutinyofVOC-ships.Heshowshowthesestorieswerepartof
theVOC’sauthoritariandiscourse.14Controllingthelabourforcewasratherimportant,as
onecanimagine,fortheDutchEastIndiaCompany.Desertionwasaseriousissue,Wezel
9J.R.Bruijn,F.S.GaastraandI.SchöfferwithassistancefromA.C.J.Vermeulen,Dutch-AsiaticShippinghttp://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/das/index_html_en(Accessed06June2019);J.R.Bruijn,F.S.GaastraandI.SchöfferwithassistancefromA.C.J.Vermeulen,Dutch-AsiaticShippinginthe17thand18thCenturies:VOLUMEIIOutward-boundvoyagesfromtheNetherlandstoAsiaandtheCape(1595-1794)(TheHague1979).10J.R.Bruijn,F.S.GaastraandI.SchöfferwithassistancefromA.C.J.Vermeulen,Dutch-AsiaticShippinginthe17thand18thCenturies:VOLUMEIIntroductoryVolume(TheHague1987);DanSleigh,JanCompagnie–TheworldoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany(1980CapeTown).11J.R.Bruijn,F.S.GaastraandI.SchöfferwithassistancefromA.C.J.Vermeulen,Dutch-AsiaticShippinginthe17thand18thCenturies:VOLUMEIIntroductoryVolume(TheHague1987)152-158.12Forexample:StoyanVSgourevandWimvanLent,“Whentoomanyarenotenough:HumanresourceslackandperformanceattheDutchEastIndiaCompany(1700–1795)”,HumanRelations,Vol.70,No.11(2017)1293-1315;JanLucassen,“AMultinationalanditsLaborForce:TheDutchEastIndiaCompany,1595-1795”,InternationalLaborandWorking-ClassHistory,No.66,(2004)12-39;MattiasvanRossum,WerkersvandeWereld:Globalisering,arbeidenintercultureleontmoetingentussenAziatischeenEuropesezeeliedenindienstvandeVOC,1600-1800(Hilversum2014);JaapR.BruijnandFemmeS.Gaastra,Ships,SailorsandSpices:EastIndiaCompaniesandtheirshippinginthe16th,17thamd18thcenturies(Amsterdam1993);FilippoCarloWezelandMartinReuf,“AgentswithPrinciples:TheControlofLaborintheDutchEastIndiaCompany,1700to1796”,AmericanSociologicalReview,Vol.82,No.5(2017)1009–1036;J.R.BruijnandE.S.vanEyckvanHeslinga,Muiterij–oproerenberechtingopschepenvandeVOC(Haarlem1980);HermanKetting,Leven,werkenrebellieaanboordvanOost-Indievaarders(1595-1650)(Amsterdam2002).13RonGulaijandGerritKnaap,HetGroteVOCBoek(Amsterdam2017)197-201.14RichardGuy,“CalamitousVoyages:thesocialspaceofshipwreckandmutinynarrativesintheDutchEastIndiaCompany”,Itenerario,Vol.39,No.1(2015)117-140.
6
andReufshowthatsocialbondsweremosteffectiveinpreventingdesertionintheirarticle
“AgentswithPrinciples”.15Theriskofmutiniesalsowasoneofthedangerstheships’
officersencounteredonboardonthevoyagetoAsia.Throughacompilationofseveralcase
studies,Muiterij–oproerenberechtigingvandeVOCshowsthatmutinywasnotas
uncommonfortheDutchEastIndiaCompanyaspreviouslythought.16
Atthestartofthetwentiethcenturyonescholar,J.deHullu,wrotefiveground-
breakingarticlesconcerninglifeonboardoftheVOC-ships.Hewasthepioneerinthisfield
ofresearch:thehistoriesofthoseonboardoftheCompany’sships.Notonlydoeshelook
atRulesandPunishments,FoodandDrinkandIllnessandDeathlikemostofthescholars
afterhim.Healsowroteone,relativelyshort,articleonthesubjectofamusementson
boardoftheCompany’sships,herewithhewasthefirstonetodoso.17J.R.deBruijnandJ.
LucassenanalysedthearticleswrittenbyDeHulluandpublishedanallcompilingworkin
1980.Untilthen,onlyonemorescholarhadlookedattheamusementsonboardofthe
Company’sship–C.A.Davidsanalysedtheseafarers’songsintheseventeenthand
eighteenthcenturies.However,Davids’researchisnotsolelydevotedtotheDutchEast
IndiaCompany,evaluatingforexamplewarshipsaswell.18Comparatively,IanWoodfield
haswrittenaboutEnglishmusiciansinthisperiod,focusingmainlyontheBritishEastIndia
Company.19NowadaysscholarshiponthesubjectofamusementsonboardoftheDutch
EastIndiaCompany’sshipsisstillveryscarce.Inrealityonlyonescholar,HermanKetting,
hasfocusedsolelyonlifeonboardoftheCompany’sships.Focusingontheperiodbetween
1595and1650,hethoroughlyanalysedvariousaspectsofthislife,includingamusements
andpastime.JaapR.BruijnhasrecentlypublishedavolumeonsailorsintheRepublicinthe
eighteenthcentury.Inanelaborateexamination,incorporatingemploymentondifferent
kindsofships,heonlybrieflydiscussespastimeactivitiesonboardoftheCompany’sships.
Moreover,hedoesnotinvestigatethefunctionoftheseactivities.20Focusingonculturallife
onboardofshipsinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturydoesexist,HansKrabbendamhas
15FilippoCarloWezelandMartinReuf,“AgentswithPrinciples:TheControlofLaborintheDutchEastIndiaCompany,1700to1796”,AmericanSociologicalReview,Vol.82,No.5(2017)1009–1036.16J.R.BruijnandE.S.vanEyckvanHeslinga,Muiterij–oproerenberechtingopschepenvandeVOC(Haarlem1980).17J.R.BruijnandJ.Lucassen(eds.),OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie:vijfartikelenvanJ.deHullu(1980Groningen).18Idem,45.19IanWoodfield,EnglishMusiciansintheAgeofExploration(Stuyvesant1995).20Bruijn,Zeegang.
7
researchedculturalaspectsonboardofthetrans-Atlanticpassengershipsbetween1840
and1960.Heshowedthatpassengershadlittlefreedomtocontributetotheritualson
board,theywerepredominantlyregulatedbythefirms.21Inthehistoriographythere
appearsandeficiencyonthissubjectfortheperiodbetween1650and1840.AfterKetting’s
periodofresearch,theDutchEastIndiaCompanyexistedforcircaanother150years.
FollowingthepathDeHullulaidoutacenturyagoforhistorianstofollow,whichfew
haveactuallydone,thisresearchwillbeanindepthexplorationofthevarioustypesof
amusementsonboardoftheVOC-shipsbetween1650and1800.Notonlydoesthisthesis
contributetothegeneralhistoriographyaboutlifeonboardoftheCompany’sships,italso
fillsthegapinresearchabouttheDutchEastIndiaCompany,recognizedbyBruijnand
Lucassen,anditfillsthegapinthetimelinementionedabove.Herewithitwillfurther
completethehistoriographyofthefunctionofamusementsandpastimeactivitiesonboard
oftheDutchEastIndiaCompany’sships.Previouslyitwasmentionedthatresearchonlife
onboardoftheCompany’sshipsmainlyfocusedonthreesubjects:order,controloflabour,
andviolence.Mutiniesforexamplewerenotuncommon.Contributingtothislineof
researchontheDutchEastIndiaCompany,inthisthesiswewillinvestigatewhethervarious
typesofamusements,somemoreobviousthanothers,helpedincontrollingthelabour
forceandhowitaffectedthedifferencesbetweenrank,classandnationality,onboard.
Methodology
Aspreviouslymentioned,themainquestionofthisresearchisasfollows:which
amusementsandpastimeactivitieswereavailableonboardoftheVOCships,travelingto
andfromAsiabetween1650and1800,andhowdidtheycontributetotheoperationofthe
ship?Firstitisnecessarytomakeafundamentaldifferentiationbetweeninstitutionalized
amusementsandpastimeamusementsoractivities.Althoughthereisonecrucial
distinction,bothprovidedthoseonboardwithadistractionfromtheeverydayproceedings
andhardshipsonaCompany’sship.Theinstitutionalizedamusementswereorderedfrom
above,theywereregulated,sailorswereobligedtoengageintheseamusements.Opposite
theinstitutionalizedamusementsarethepastimeamusementsoractivities,thesewerenot
21HansKrabbendam,“RituelenopReis,CulturelevormgevingaanboordvanNederlandsetrans-Atlantischepassagiersschepen,1840-1960”,TijdschriftvoorZeegeschiedenis,Vol.34,No.2(2015);SjoerddeMeerandJoostSchokkenbroek,Hoogtij:Maritiemeidentiteitinfeesten,traditiesenvermaak(Zutphen2013)11.
8
partofthe‘official’labourorobligationsoftheseafarers.Thevoluntaryaspectoftheselast
amusementsandactivitiesisimportanttotakeintoconsideration,incontradictiontothe
institutionalizedamusements.
Inordertoanswerthemainquestionthisthesisisdividedinfourchapters,each
accommodatingoneoffoursubcategories;Rituals,TrialsandReward,Religion,andMusic
andPastime.Thefirstthreechapterswillargueinfavourofqualifyingthesesubcategories
aspartoftheamusementsonboard,afterwhichinthefourthchapterwewilldiscussthe
possiblymore‘expected’kindsofamusements.Thefirstchapterwillbedevotedtoritual,
becausethroughoutthisresearchseveralritualswillberevealedthatplayavitalrolein
providingvarioustypesofamusements.Tohelpusunderstandtheseritualsandtheir
function,itisnecessaryfirstdefineexactlywhataritualis,afterwhichwewilldiscussthe
functionofritual.Afteratheoreticaldiscussionoftheconceptof‘ritual’,thefirstchapter
willalsoincludeadiscussionofsomeritualsthatcouldnotbecategorizedinoneofthe
othersubcategories.
Varioustypesofsourceswereconsultedforthisresearch.Amongtheprimary
sourcesareseveralVOCdocumentsthatareavailableforconsultationintheNational
ArchivesinTheHague.22Travelaccountswrittenfromtheperiodbetween1650and1800
serveasamajorsourceofmaterial,andthereforetheyarefundamentalforthisresearch.
Germantravelaccountsprovedtobeveryuseful,mostlywrittenbylowlyoruneducated
Companyservantsandsoldiers.Theyprovideinvaluableinsightsintothemechanismsofthe
DutchEastIndiaCompany,becausetheywerewrittenfroman‘outsiders’perspective.The
Dutchtravelaccountsusedforthisresearchweremainlywrittenbyhighereducated
22NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:4983,Verordeningbevattendegedragsregelsvoordescheepsofficieren,bootsgezellenensoldatenvanschepen,1744;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:4981,ReglementvandeHerenXVIIvoorhetaannemenvanscheepsvolkenmilitairen.Gedrukt,1692;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:4985,ResolutiesvandeHerenXVIIbevattendeordersvoordescheepsofficierenvanvertrekkendeschepen.Gedrukt,1760-1786;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:6934,InventarissenvangoederenvanoverladenVOC-militairenen–zeelieden,1718-1719,1743-1744;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:11397,ArtikelbriefvandeVOCvan1742september4,metgewaarmerkteverklaringenvanbeljuwenburgemeestervanMiddelburgoverhetvoorlezenvandezebriefaaninVOC-dienstnaarIndiëvertrekkendeofficierenenzeevolkendeeedvantrouwdaaropdoorhenafgelegd,1766-1794;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:14328,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-GeneraalvoordeVOC.Gedrukt,1658;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:14329,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaalvan1742september4,metaanvullingenvan1747oktober11eninstructiesvandeHerenXVIIvoordegezagvoerders,chirurgijnsenpredikantenopdeschepen,1728-1763.
9
servantsworkingfortheVOC.ComparedtotheGermantravelaccounts,theseDutch
accountswereboundtothecensorshiplawsoftheCompany.Therefore,theGerman
accountsareindispensable,presentinguswithcriticalinformationwhichwasleftoutofthe
Dutchaccounts.23Archaeologicalevidence,thatwasaccessibleandrecorded,foundonthe
VOC-wreckswasalsoconsultedforthisresearch.Althoughmanyarchaeologicalprojects’
recordsremainyetinaccessible,somehavebeenpublishedordigitized.24Acompleteand
comprehensivedatabaseorresearchguidetoconsultdoesunfortunatelynotexist.Also,a
lotofarchaeologicalfindingsstillneedtobedocumented.Subsequently,thesource
materialfromarchaeologicalfindingsinthisresearchwasdependentuponthoseaccessible
records.Itisnecessarytoacknowledgethattheselimitationstotheavailablesource
material.Also,partoftheDutchEastIndiaCompanyarchivesisstoredinLondon,theseare
notaccessibleforonlineresearch.25Thisturnedouttobeonedisadvantage,becausethis
archivedoescontainrelevantinformationwithregardstotheamusementsonboardof
VOC-ships.
Thismethodologicalapproach,ofcombiningmulti-lingualliterature,printedand
primarysources,andarchaeologicalfinds,isratheruniquecomparedtotheprevious
historiographyonthissubject.Previousscholarswritingaboutlifeonboardofthe
Company’sships,likeKettingandDeHullu,havenotyetcombinedthearchaeological
evidencewiththetravelaccountsandothersources.Thismethodwillallowusto,througha
comprehensiveanalysisoftheavailablesourcematerial,identifythevariousamusements
andpastimeactivitiesandtheirfunction
23NigelPenn,“TheVoyageOut,PeterKolbandVOCVoyagestotheCape”inEmmaChristopher,CassandraPybus&MarkusRediker,ManyMiddlePassages:ForcedMigrationandtheMakingoftheModernWorld(Berkeley2007)73-74.24JeremyGreen,ThelossoftheVerenigdeOostindischeCompagniejacht“VerguldeDraeck”,WesternAustralia1656:anhirstoricalbackgroundandexcavationreportwithanappendixonsimilarlossofthefluit“Lastdrager”(Oxford1977);JerzyGawronski,BasKistandOdiliaStokvisvanBoetzelaer,Hollandiacompendium:acontributiontothehistory,archaeology,classificationandlexicographyofa150ft.DutchEastIndiaman(1740-1750)(Amsterdam1992);WendyvanDuivenvoorde,TheBataviaShipwreck:anarchaeologicalstudyofanearlyseventeenth-centuryDutchEastIndiaman(AnnArbor2008);BrunoE.J.S.Werz,‘Eenbedroefd,enbeclaaglijckongeval’:DewrakkenvandeVOC-schepenOosterlandenWaddinxveen(1697)indeTafelbaai(Zutphen2004);HansH.vanRooijandJerzyGawronski,VOC-schipAmsterdam:Gebleeven–opdekustvanSussextusschenHastingsenBeachyheadgestrand(Haarlem1989);RijksdienstvoorhetCultureelErfgoed,Collectiecatalogushttp://cultureelerfgoed.adlibsoft.com/search.aspx(Accessed29May2019);Rijksmuseum,Rijksstudiohttps://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/rijksstudio(Accessed29May2019).25Nationaalarchief,SailingLetters,1672-1830.https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/index/nt00424?searchTerm=(Accessed25June2019).
10
Chapter1InstitutionalizedRitualsoftheVOC
Beforedelvingintothevariouskindsofamusementsonboardoftheshipsandtheir
function,itisfundamentaltounderstandhowtheseweregenerallyofaritualisticnature;
wewillseethatritualsand‘amusements’areofteninherentlyrelated.Thiswasespecially
thecasewiththeinstitutionalizedamusements,andtobeabletounderstandthese
ritualisticinstitutionalizedamusements,itisessentialtounderstandthefunctionofrituals
onboard.Inthefirstpartofthischapterwewillbrieflyexploresomeofthetheoretical
frameworkofthesocialfunctionofrituals,placingthisincontextoflifeonboardofthe
Company’sships.Thereafterwewilldiscussnumerousinstitutionalizedrituals,clarifyingand
supportingthesocialfunctionofritualsonboard.
First,itisnecessarytospecifytheconceptof‘ritual’inthecontextofthisthesis.
RitualinLatinmeans‘structure’or‘ceremony’,definedinTheConciseOxfordDictionaryof
WorldReligionsas:“Actionsrepeatedinregularandpredictableways,bothinreligiousand
secularcontexts”.26Thisdefinitionservesasaperfectstartingpointforthisthesis.Thus
ritualsarerepetitive,ritualalsois“astylizedperformancesthatsymbolicallyenactand
maintainasocialorder.”27Existinginallsocieties,culturallyritualsaremarkedasspecial,
andsociallymostritualssupportexistingpowerstructures.Ifperformedpublicallyrituals
areasocialdramaattheleast.28
CatharinaM.Belldiscussesthedifferentapproachestothemeaningandfunctionof
ritualwithinsociety.Accordingtothesocialfunctionalisticapproach,whichoffersapartial
explanation,ritualsareusedforregulatingandstabilizingthesystemofsociety.Here,rituals
togetherwithreligionaresocialmechanisms.29Thisapproachisparticularlyinteresting
26JohnBowker,“Ritual”,TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofWorldReligions(2003)https://www-oxfordreference-com.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2443/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-6117?rskey=sZhAeH&result=6(Accessed29May2019).27LuisA.Vivanco,“Ritual”,ADictionaryofCulturalAnthropology(2018)https://www-oxfordreference-com.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2443/view/10.1093/acref/9780191836688.001.0001/acref-9780191836688-e-316?rskey=sZhAeH&result=2(Accessed29May2019).28JohnBowker,“Ritual”,TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofWorldReligions(2003)https://www-oxfordreference-com.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2443/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-6117?rskey=sZhAeH&result=6(Accessed29May2019);LuisA.Vivanco,“Ritual”,ADictionaryofCulturalAnthropology(2018)https://www-oxfordreference-com.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2443/view/10.1093/acref/9780191836688.001.0001/acref-9780191836688-e-316?rskey=sZhAeH&result=2(Accessed29May2019).29CatherineM.Bell,Ritual:PerspectivesandDimensions(Oxford2009)29.
11
whenappliedtotheVOC-ships.ThepeopleonboardoftheVOC-shipsformacommunity,a
society–collectivelytheyareresponsiblefortheshipsvoyage,veryindividualhadtheir
responsibilitiesandplayedapartinthiscollectivewhole.Applyingthefunctional-
structuralisticapproachfromBelltothissociety,ritualrelatedactivitiesbenefitedand
improvedthesocialorderonboard.30
OtherstudiesonthefunctionofritualcorrespondwithBell,arguingfurthermore
thatevenritualisticactionsintrinsicallyhaveameaning,ratherthansolelytheiroutcome.31
PsychologistsLiberman,KinzlerandWoodwardstateintheirarticlethat“ritualshave
inherentlysocialfunctions.Inparticular,manyritualisticactionsderivetheirmeaningbased
ontheconventionalityofritual.”32Thissuggeststhatthecustomaryaspectofritualprovides
ritualwithasocialfunctionofimprovinggroupdynamics.Exactlythispreservationof
cohesionwasofvitalimportancefortheVOC-ships,becauselifeonboardoftheEastIndia
Company’sshipswastough.Three-hundredmenspendovertwohundreddaystogetheron
aship,thesizeofapproximatelyfourtenniscourts.33Thesevereworkingconditionsdidnot
improvematters,thereforetensionsandfrustrationscouldquicklydevelop.34Takingthese
circumstancesintoconsideration,itisnotsurprisingthatmanyrituals,havingasocial
function,wereinfactobligatory–imposedupontheseafaringpersonnelbyhigher
administrators.35Itisimportanttonotethatseafarersdidnothaveavoluntarydecisionto
30Idem,59.31Forexample:HarveyWhitehouseandJonathanA.Lanman,"TheTiesThatBindUs:Ritual,Fusion,andIdentification,"CurrentAnthropology,Vol.55,No.6(2014)674-695https://doi.org/10.1086/678698;QuentinD.Atikinson,HarveyWhitehouse,“Theculturalmorphospaceofritualform:Examiningmodesofreligiositycross-culturally”,EvolutionandHumanBehavior,Vol.32,No.1(2011)50-62https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.09.002;DavidJ.Parking,“Ritual”,InternationalEncyclopediaoftheSocial&BehavioralSciences,Vol.20(2015)717-720https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.12141-5.32ZoeLiberman,KatherineD.Kinzler,AmandaL.Woodward,“Theearlysocialsignificanceofsharedritualactions”,Cognition,Vol.171(2018)42-51http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2017.10.018.33JaapR.BruijnandFemmeS.Gaastra,ShipsSailorsandSpices,EastIndiaCompaniesandtheirshippinginthe16th,17thand18thcenturies(Amsterdam1993)194;DanSleigh,JanCompagnie,TheworldoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany(Tafelberg1980)48.34MattiasvanRossum,WerkersvandeWereld–Globalisering,arbeidenintercultureleontmoetingentussenAziatischeenEuropesezeeliedenindienstvandeVOC,1600-1800(Hilversum2014)309.35NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:4983,Verordeningbevattendegedragsregelsvoordescheepsofficieren,bootsgezellenensoldatenvanschepen,1744;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:11397,ArtikelbriefvandeVOCvan1742september4,metgewaarmerkteverklaringenvanbeljuwenburgemeestervanMiddelburgoverhetvoorlezenvandezebriefaaninVOC-dienstnaarIndiëvertrekkendeofficierenenzeevolkendeeedvantrouwdaaropdoorhenafgelegd,1766-1794;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:14328,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-GeneraalvoordeVOC.Gedrukt,1658;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:14329,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaal
12
participate,theseactionsofaritualisticnaturewerepartof‘everyday’operationofthe
ship.Theotherrituals,thoseperformedoutsideoftheofficialproceedings,andpastime
amusementswillbediscussedinlaterchapters.First,wewilltakealookattheregulated
andlegislatedrituals,somewerepartofthedisciplineorreligiononboard,thesewillbe
discussedinchaptertwoandthree.Inthisfirstchapterwewilldiscussritualsthatcannotbe
subdividedintothosecategories.Canwequalifytheritualsofsignallingand
communication,andtheseabaptism,asinstitutionalizedamusements?
Signallingandcommunication
Someofthemoststrikingritualisticactions,partoftheproceduresonboard,belongedto
anelaboratecommunicationsystemoftheCompany’sship.Crucialactorsinthesewerethe
trumpetersanddrummersinserviceoftheCompany.Beforewecanunderstandtheir
actualroleonboard,weneedtotakealookatvariousaccountsoftheiremploymenton
boardofaCompanyship.WasadrummeroratrumpeteremployedoneveryCompanyship
thatsailedout?
EversincethefirstshipswerecommissionedtotraveltoAsiaforthetradeofspices,
towardstheendofthesixteenthcentury,trumpetersanddrummerswereappointedtothe
ships,takingpartinthisendeavour.36IntheDutchEastIndiaCompany’semploymentof
thesetrumpetersanddrummers,animportantdistinctionismade;thetrumpeterswere
partoftheseafarers,whiledrummerswerepartofthemilitaryofficersonboard,not
officiallypartoftheships’crew.However,theReglementterVergaderingevande
Seventiene(1692)andtheInstructievoordeHoofd-OfficierenterZee(16November1744)
showthatnotonalltheCompany’sshipsatrumpeterordrummerwasappointed.This
actuallydependeduponthesizeoftheship,onlythoselongerthan100footwouldneeda
trumpeterordrummer.37Presumably,thevastmajorityofCompany’sshipshadeitherone
orbothonboard.Henssen’sresearchshowsinfactthatthiswascertainlythecaseforthe
KamervanZeeland(‘Zeelandchamber’),thesecondtolargestindependentestablishment
van1742september4,metaanvullingenvan1747oktober11eninstructiesvandeHerenXVIIvoordegezagvoerders,chirurgijnsenpredikantenopdeschepen,1728-1763.36RalphJohanGerardHenssen,TrompettersenTamboersindeZeeuwseZeevaarttentijdevandeRepubliek:PlichtenenPraktijken(Ridderkerk2011)73-75;IanWoodfield,EnglishMusiciansintheAgeofExploration(Stuyvesant1995)17-18.37Henssen,TrompettersenTamboers,73-75.
13
oftheVOC.Between1671and1794onlyon23%oftheoutboundships,fromatotalof794
ships,atrumpeterordrummerwasabsent.Moreover,onalmost300shipsbothadrummer
andatrumpeterwereappointed.38TheVOC-shiptheAmsterdam,fromtheKamervan
Amsterdam(thelargestkamer),forexample,a150footlongspiegelretourschip,a
trumpeter(MachielFlaming)andadrummer(JohannisSluijters)wereonthepayroll.39
Incomparisontoothersonboard,thewagesoftrumpetersanddrummerswere
meagre,furthermore,drummersmadeconsiderablelessthantrumpeters.Thisisshownina
survey,partoftheresearchprojectDutch-Asiaticshippinginthe17thand18thCenturies,on
“wagespaidbytheVOCtoseafaringpersonnelonshipssentoutbythechambers.”40This
mightbeexplainablebecausedrummerswerepartofthemilitaryofficersonboard,
howeverbylookingattherolesthesedrummersandtrumpetershadonboardoftheships
wemightfindanotherexplanation.Lookingattheirdutiesandtaskswillalsohelpus
determinewhetherornottheyprovidedsomedistractionsfromthearduouscircumstances
onboardoftheCompany’sships,andconsequentlywhethertheirendeavoursqualifyas
institutionalizedamusements.
Severalkindsofsourcespresentusanswersontheactualroleoftrumpetersand
drummersonboardoftheships.JohannChristianHoffman,aGermanreligiousservantin
serviceoftheCompany,describesinhistravelaccountthattheyencounteredtremendous
fogontheirjourneybacktotheNetherlands.Tryingtoholdthefleettogethertheyused
canonfireandthedrumstokeeptheirposition.41Henssenstatesinhispublicationthat
trumpetersanddrummersdidnotofficiallyhadadutytosignincaseofmistyweather
specifically,theydidhavetoincaseofemergency.42InanOrderandZeyn-Brieff,from
Hoffman’stravelaccount,itiscommandedhowever,inthe12tharticle,thatdrumsshould
soundcontinuouslyincaseofdarkorfoggyweather:“Beydunckelodernebblichten
Wetter,…,solleinjedesSchiffbeysolchemduncklenGewitterjedeStundezumwenigsten
38Idem,73-76.39HansH.vanRooijandJerzyGawronski,VOC-schipAmsterdam:Gebleeven–opdekustvanSussextusschenHastingsenBeachyheadgestrand(Haarlem1989)26.40Bruijn,GaastraandI.Schöffer,Dutch-AsiaticShippingVOLUMEI,210-211;NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:4981,ReglementvandeHerenXVIIvoorhetaannemenvanscheepsvolkenmilitairen.Gedrukt,1692.41JohannChristianHoffman,ReisenachdemKaplande,nachMauritiusundnachJava:1671-1676;ReisbeschreibungenvonDeutschenBeamtenundKriegsleutenimDienstderWest-undOst-IndischenKompagnien1602-1797(Haag1931)100-101.42Henssen,TrompettersenTamboers,92.
14
einenCanonschußundjedehalbeStunde5à6Mußqueten-Schössethunundnebendem
continuedieTrummelrürhenlassen.”43ThisprovesthatHenssen’sstatementisnotentirely
correctwithregardtothesignallingdutiesduringmistyweather.Hewashoweverright
abouttheofficialdutyoftrumpetersanddrummerstosoundincaseofemergency.This
requirementwasdeclaredintheArtikelbrief(aletterofrightsandobligationsofseafaring
personnel):“ZowanneerintydvannooddeTrompetwordgesteken,ofdenTrommel
geslagen,zaleeniegelyk,metalledilligentievoortkomenoplijfstraffen,omzigterstond
onderzynquartierindefensietestellen,enalzometgeodeordredenVyandte
resisteren,…”44
Notonlywasthismusicusedincommunicationstosafeguardthevoyageoftheship.
Musicalcommunicationswerealsousedintheordinaryprocedurestoregulateeverydaylife
onboard.IanWoodfield,inhisresearchontheBritishEastIndiaCompany,usestheDutch
EastIndiaCompanyforacomparativeperspective.Hesupportstheclaimthatmusicwas
usedforsignallingontheDutchCompany’sships.OntopofthatWoodfieldarguesthat
“thoseonboardweresubjecttoacarefullyorderedroutineofdailylifeinwhichmusic
playedasignificantpart.”45Trumpetersanddrummerswereusedincommunicationsignals
forthestartofeverydayevents,forexampletocommunicatethechangingoftheguards,
mealtime,andtoannouncethearrivalofvisitors.46NicolaasdeGraaf,forexample,
describesthesedutiesinhisaccount;“DeTamboersentrompetterszijnverpligt‘smorgens
en‘savondtdewagtteblasenenopdetrommelteslaan;gelijkzijookgehoudenzijnte
doenwanneer‘tkajuytsvolkaantafelis.Desgelijkszijnsyookgehoudenteblasenso
wanneereenigvaartuygvanboordvaartofaanland,ofvanandereschepenaanboord
komt.”47Bruijnarguesthattrumpetersonlyincidentallyplayedtheirinstrumentsto
announcethestartorendoftheday.48Thisappearstobeanunderstatement,welearned
fromHeeck’saccountthatitwasactuallyexpectedofthetrumpeterstoplayatthose
moments.Soundsfromthetrumpetsanddrumswereusedtosignalandcommunicateon
43Hoffman,ReisenachdemKaplande,79.44HendrikHoogenberk,DeRechtsvoorschriftenvoordeVaartopOost-Indië1595-1620(Utrecht1940)203;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:11397,ArtikelbriefvandeVOC1766-1794;Henssen,TrompettersenTamboers,92.45Woodfield,EnglishMusicians,39.46Henssen,TrompettersenTamboers,92-93;PeterKolbe,NaaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyvingvandeKaapdeGoedeHoop(Amsterdam1727)12.47NicolaasdeGraaff,MarijkeBarend-vanHaeftenandHettyPlekenpol,Oost-IndiseSpiegel(Leiden2010)118.48Bruijn,Zeegang,105.
15
board,theyregulatednotonlytheseafarers’workbutalsoaspectsofeverydaylifeon
boardwerecontrolledbymusic.Thisisnotsurprisingconsideringthatthesoundofmusic
musthavebeendistinctfromtheconstantrustleoftheseaandthehustleandbustleon
board.
SeveralartefactswerefoundonVOC-shipwrecksthatwereusedbythetrumpeters
ordrummersonboard.Theseartefactsprovethatmusicalinstrumentswereindeed
commonlyusedonboard,supportedbythelistofequipment.Attheship-wreckofthe
Hollandia,afragmentofatrumpetmouthpiecewasfound.TheHollandia,a150-footEast
Indiaman,wasbuiltin1742,onthewharfinAmsterdam.Thisshipsetsailin1743butnever
madeittoIndia,theshiphitarockneartheScillyIsles,whileitisstillunknownwhatexactly
wentwrong,theshipwrecked.Inthearchaeologicalevidencefromthesitealotofobjects
wererecoveredfromthesite,amongwhichwasthisfragment.49Amongtheartefactsfound
onanotherVOC-shipwreck,theVerguldeDraeck(1656),areacoupleofwooden
drumsticks.50
AspartoftheresearchontheHollandia,OdiliaStokvis-vanBoetzelaercompileda
lexiconoftheequipmentthathadtobeonboardoftheEastIndiamen.Averyimportant
sourceweretheEastIndiaCompany’sequipmentbooks,theseservedasakindofcheck-list.
Intheserecordsnotonlyadrumandatrumpetarelisted,alsothedrum’saccessoriesare
specified–kasjemet1trompet(casewith1trumpet),vatmet1tromentoebehoren(cask
with1drumandfittings),trom-bandmetfranje(drumcarryingbandwithfringe),andkasje
mettromvellen(casewithdrumheads).51Ontopofthesemusicalinstrumentstwolarge,
painted,tinspeakingtrumpetsandtwosmallonesofthesamesortwerealsolisted,these
trumpetsallowedonetobeheardandunderstoodaboveloudnoisesoratgreat
distances.52Theregularityandpredictabilityoftheuseofmusicalsignalsand
communicationsqualifythemasrituals,eventhoughtheywereorderedfromhigher
officials.Thesymbolismbehindtheseritualshelpedmaintain,andpossiblyevenimprove,
socialorder.Throughtheseritualsseveralaspectsoftheships’operationwereorganized.
49JerzyGawronski,BasKistandOdiliaStokvisvanBoetzelaer,Hollandiacompendium:acontributiontothehistory,archaeology,classificationandlexicographyofa150ft.DutchEastIndiaman(1740-1750)10-11,437.50JeremyGreen,ThelossoftheVerenigdeOostindischeCompagniejacht“VerguldeDraeck”,WesternAustralia1656:anhirstoricalbackgroundandexcavationreportwithanappendixonsimilarlossofthefluit“Lastdrager”(England1977)234.51Gawronski,KistandStokvisvanBoetzelaer,Hollandiacompendium,78-79,178-179.52Idem,156.
16
Notonlythetrumpetsanddrumswereusedtosignalandcommunicatewiththerestofthe
shipandothers,cannons,brieflymentionedpreviouslyalready,playedasignificantrolein
thisaswell.WhentheCompany’sshipsleftoneplaceorarrivedelsewhere,cannonshots
werefired.Theseactionstoowereofaritualisticnature,becauseoftheirpredictabilityand
regularity,partoftheofficialproceduresonboard.Thefollowingexampleswillshowthe
variousmomentstheships’canonswereusedonthevoyageinthiskindofmanner.
ElliasHesse,aGermanlabourerinserviceoftheCompany,describesinhistravel
accountthatcannonswerefireduponleavingtheIndies,settingsailbacktoHolland:
“…Daraufgiengenwirden27.Ditto,nachdemvorheroitzterwehnterAdmiraldurcheinen
Canon-SchußundmitderblauenFlaggedasordinari-Zeichengegeben,imNahmenGottes
mitdergantzenFlottezumerstenmahlunterSeegel.”53Similaraccountsaregivenbyothers
whokeptajournalwhileontheirjourneytotheIndiesononeoftheCompany’sships.54
AnotherexampleisGijsbertHeeck,asurgeon,travelingontheshipDeVereenigde
ProvintiëninNovember1654.Intheverybeginningoftheaccounthementionsthree
cannonshotsbeingfired,leavingtheshipyardinVlissingen,andsettingsailtotheIndies.
UpontheirarrivalinCapeVerde,almosttwomonthslater,theyfiredthreecannonshots
againtoannouncetheirarrivalatoneoftheislands.Theywerewelcomedwithtwocanon
shotsinreply.Continuingontheirjourney,passingthroughtheCape,onroutetoBatavia,
thereareseveralsimilarmentionsofcannonshotsusedtosalute,eithertoannouncetheir
ownarrivalordeparture,ortowelcomeorsend-offothers.ArrivinginBataviatheyagain
dischargedthreecannonshots,confirmingtheirsavearrival,answeredfromtheBatavia
CastlewithcannonshotswelcomingtheminBatavia.55Asimilaruseofcannonsisdescribed
inthetravelaccountofJohannChristianHoffman,yetherethefleetiscommandedtouse
cannonshotsformutualcommunication.Towardstheendof1775thereturn-fleet,
Hoffmanhadjoined,setsailbacktoHolland.Hoffmanwritesthatalltheheadsoftheships
receivedanOrderandZeyn-Brieff(OrderandSignallingletter)fromtheAdmiral.Acopyof
thisorderistranscribedinhistravelaccount.ThroughthisorderthedirectorsoftheEast
53EliasHesse,Gold-BergwerkteinSumatra:1680-1683;ReisbeschreibungenvonDeutschenBeamtenundKriegsleutenimDienstderWest-undOst-IndischenKompagnien1602-1797(Haag1931)127.54MarijkeBarend-vanHaeftenandE.S.vanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC:deopenhartigedagboekenvandezustersLammensenSwellengrebel(Zutphen1996)55-112,121-161.55GijsbertHeeckandO.Dekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn:‘dagelijkseaantekeningen’vandereisnaarOost-Indiëin1654doorGijsbertHeeck(1619-1669)(Bunschoten2001)22-69.
17
IndiaCompanyinstructtheshipsofthefleet,tryingtosecuretheirjourneybacktothe
fatherland.Severalcommandsaregivenonthemutualcommunicationofthefleet,here
cannonshotswereusedtotransmitvariouskindsofinformationtofellowfleetmembers,
dependingupontheamountofshotsfiredandotherkindsofsignalsthataccompaniedthe
shots.56Onemightquestionwhethertheaforementioneddescriptionoftheuseofcannon
shotscanbeconsideredasrituals.However,thesetravelaccountshowthattheregularity
andpredictabilityofthesekindsofsalutes,whichdistinguishthemfromtheuseofcanons
inbattle.Alsothewelcominganddepartingcanonsalutes,containingatheatricalelement
aswell,canbeconsideredastributescelebratingthearrivalordepartureofaship.Because
ofthewaytheseregulationswereperformeditwouldbereasonabletoconsiderthemas
rituals,partoftheofficialproceduresonboard.
Theritualsofcommunicationandsignallingmentionedabovewereofgreat
importanceinthefunctioningoftheship.Theyhelpedregulatingeverydayproceedingson
boardandannouncedseveralspecificsituations,forexamplethearrivalofvisitorsonboard
ormealtimes.Althoughatfirstonemightnotconsiderthesesasinstitutionalized
amusements,mostoftheseritualsdefinitelywerebecausetheyprovidedtheseafarerswith
adistractionfromtheirworkonboard,announcingmealtimes,sunriseandsundown,and
‘special’occasion,salutingother.Also,thetheatricalityofthesalutesonboardpossible
amusedthoseonboardaswell.
SeaBaptism
Indispensablefortheargumentofthisthesisistheritualofthe‘seabaptism’,partofthe
‘official’proceduresonboardofaVOC-shipforthoseonboarditwasofgreatimportance
duringthevoyage.Inthefollowingpartofthischapterwewilldiscusswhythiswasthe
case.Beforeitispossibletodiscussthemeaningandsymbolismofthisritual,and
determinewhyitcouldbeconsideredasaamusement,itisnecessarytoexaminetheritual
itself.Whatexactlywastheseabaptism,andwhathappenedduringtheritualonboardofa
Companyship?
Theseabaptismisveryoldandcommonpracticeamongseafarers.Theritual
inauguratednew,firsttime,sailorsintotheship’scommunity.DuringthevoyagetoAsia,
56Hoffman,ReisenachdemKaplande,76-86.
18
rawrecruitsonboardoftheCompany’sshipswerebaptizedaroundtheBarlengas,angroup
ofislandsinfrontofthePortuguesecoast.57Theyweredroppedintosea,fromthehighyard
ontheforemast,tosubsequentlybeheistedbackonboard.58Thisexactprocessisdescribed
byGijsbertHeeck:“…hetvanoudsbekendstaandezgn.dopenbijdeBerlengas,zijndeeen
kleineilandjeindeSpaansezeevoordePortugesekust.Iedereenmoestzichdaarnamelijk
driemaalachtereenvandehogerainhetwaterlatenvallen.”59TheVOCmadeeffortsto
abandonthisritualin1616,imposingreplacementritualsthroughanartikelbrief.60Dutch
scholarJanLucassenwrites:“TheVOCprohibitedthetraditionalbaptismatseaandother
“ritualsofrebellion”andreplacedthemwithcelebrationstobeinitiatedexclusivelybythe
thoseinchargeoftheship.Ratherthanthecarnivalesqueconductthatmightvictimize
superiorsaswell,additionalfoodanddrinkwasdistributed.”61Thattheritualcouldexpose
socialtensions,betweenthesailorsandtheirsuperiors,wasexactlywhyitwasprohibited
provedresearcherHenningHenningen.62However,otherscholarsarguethatthis
prohibitioncouldactuallybethecauseforsocialtensions,betweenthecommonseafarers
andthehighercommanders,onboard.63Thisisveryinteresting,theoldritualofthesea
baptismwasprohibitedbecauseitchallengedsocialorderonboard,butcompletely
abandoningthefestivitydidnotimprovematterseither.Hereitisimportanttomakea
differentiationbetweenthesymbolismoftheritualandthewaytheseabaptismwas
actuallycarriedout.Toprotectthesocialorderandcohesiononboardtheritual,withits
symbolism,wasnotcompletelyabandoned,onlythewayitwasperformedchanged,and
thereforetheritualwasstilleffectiveinmaintainingsocialorder.
Interestingly,somescholarsarguethattheoldcommonpracticeoftheseabaptism
neveractuallydisappearedontheCompany’sships,despiteitsabandonment.RichardGuy
claimsthattheVOCwasunsuccessfulincompletelyabandoningthesecommonpractices.64
Althoughtheremightbeuncertaintywhetherornottheprohibitionactuallyabandonedthe
57HermanKetting,Leven,werkenrebellieaanboordvanOost-Indievaarders(1595-1650)(Amsterdam2002)168-175.58Guy,“CalamitousVoyages”,120.59HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,33-34.60Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,173.61JanLucassen,“AMultinationalanditsLaborForce:TheDutchEastIndiaCompany,1595-1795”,InternationalLaborandWorking-ClassHistory,No.66,(2004)31.62HenningHenningsen,CrossingtheEquator:Sailors’BaptismandOtherInitiationRites(Copenhagen1961).63Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,173.64Guy,“CalamitousVoyages”,120.
19
oldritualoftheseabaptism,thereappearstobenotraceofitsperformanceinthetravel
accountsconsultedforthisresearch.WhichisnotsurprisingbecausetheArtikelbrieven
fromthesecondhalfofthesixteenth-andseventeenthcenturyclearlystatethatthe
officersonboardoftheCompany’sshipswerenottopermitortoleratesuchritual–they
wereorderedtopreventandprohibittheseabaptism.Instead,theseafarerswouldbe
givenwine,whichwasalsospecificallyproclaimedintheArtikelbrief.65EventhoughHeeck
mentionstheoldritualoftheseabaptisminhistravelaccount,itappearstobean
referencetotheoriginofthecurrentritualofdistributingextrawineamongseafarers.“Aan
iederebakwerdanderhalvekanFransewijngegeven.Ditgebeurdeopbevelvande
bewindhebbersderVOCwegenshetvanoudsbekendstaandezgn.DopenbijdeBerlengas…
Bijweigeringechterkonmenzichdanmetgeldbijzijnmaatsvrijkopen.Daarvelengeen
geldhaddenenlieverdereiszoudenstaken,danzichvanderalatenvallen,onstonden
dikwijlsmoeilijkheden.Omdezeredenenwerddewijnuitgedeeld,waarmeemenzichdan
konvrijkopen.”66Altogetheritishighlylikelythatbetween1650and1800theoldpractice
oftheseabaptismwasnolongerperformed.However,theritualoftheseabaptism
definitelycontinuedaftertheprohibitionoftheoldcommonpractice,butthewayitwas
performedchanged.
Theritualalsocelebratedanotherspecialmomentforthoseonboard.Becausethe
firstpartofthevoyagetoAsiawasquiteadangerousone,theseabaptismalsowasa
“traditionthatmarkedtheship’sescapefromthe‘narrowseas’betweenEnglandand
continentalEurope,anditsfirstentryontotheopenocean.”67Passengersonboardofthe
Company’sshipsalsowereawareofthis.TheLammenssisters,travelingonboardofthe
CompanyshipAdrighemin1736,wrote:“sijonsverseekeren,nuinlangnietbanghoevente
weesen,wantsijnnuindevastepassaat(denoordoostpassaat),…ooksooistvandaagden
tijtvandoopen,wantsijnreedsdeBarrels(deeilandengroepBarlengas)gepasseert,ditsijn
sooplaisiertjesdaarmendentijtsaldienenmededoortebrengen,totnogtoeishetaltoos
agterop,sooalssijhetnoemenineenseergeodearmonie…”68Thisshowsthatpeopleon
65NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:11397,ArtikelbriefvandeVOC1766-1794;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14328,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaal1658;Hoogenberk,DeRechtsvoorschriften,215.66HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,33-34.67Guy,“CalamitousVoyages”,120.68Translation:“Theyassureus,wedon’thavetobescaredanylonger,becausewehavepassedthe‘north-eastpassage’…todayisalsothetimeforbaptisms,becausewealreadypassedtheBarlengas,thesepleasures
20
boardoftheVOC-shipsusedthesepracticesformarkingandrecordingprogress,inthiscase
theritualwasusedtomarkthecrossingofadangerouspassageofthejourneytothe
Indies.69Hereanothersymbolisticelementofthisritualrevealsitself,thisritualwasinfacta
ritedepassage,comparabletotheterritorialritedepassageofArnoldvanGennep.70This
interpretationoftheseabaptismdoesalsoapplytotheoldpracticeoftheseabaptism.
Variousscholarshavecharacterizedseveralelementsoftheritesdepassageintheold
practice.OneinterpretationoftheseabaptismisdescribedbyRichardGuy,whoadopted
thisfromhisprivatecommunicationwithColinDewey.Thenovicesailorsexperiencedhow
itwouldbeiftheshipsunk,theritualcanbeseenasasimulationofsuch,italsoshowedthe
importanceoftheunityoftheship,bothasacohesivephysicalunitandasasocialunit.The
survivalofeveryoneonboarddependeduponthecoordinatedactionsofthecommunityas
awhole.HermanKettingshowsmanyscholarsagreethat,throughthesymbolismofthe
baptismritual,newcomerswerewelcomedintotheshipscommunity,whilesimultaneously
partingwithhisprevioussocialpast.71Althoughtheoldritualwasmostlikelynotcarriedout
anymore,thesymbolismofitremained,andalsoitprovidedtheseafarerswithamoment
tocelebratethesavepassageofyetanotherpartofthevoyage.Thisritualthereforeispart
oftheinstitutionalizedamusementsonboardoftheships.
Westartedthischapterwithabriefexaminationofthemeaningofritualinthecontextof
theVOCships.Notonlytheperformanceoftheritualsimprovedsocialorderonboard,but
wehaveseenthatritualsintrinsicallywereveryvaluable.Thesheerpresenceofritualson
boardcouldbenefitgroupdynamicsandsocialcohesion,whichwasagreatpriorityon
boardoftheCompany’sships.Thisissupportedbythereasonwhytheoldritualofthesea
baptismwasprohibited,aswehavediscussedlaterinthischapter.Thegovernorsofthe
VOCabandonedtheoldritualbecauseitwasofgreatdangertothesocialorderonboard,
tensionscouldeasilyarisebetweensailorsandofficers,theirsuperiors.Instead,still
respectingtheritualanditssymbolism,extraprovisionswerehandedouttotheseafarers.
shouldhelpuspassthetime,tillnowitisalwaysatthebackoftheship,liketheycallit,veryharmonious.”Source:Barend-vanHaeftenandVanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC,66.69Guy,“CalamitousVoyages”,120.70ArnoldvanGennep,TheRitesofPassage(London1965)15-25.71Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,168-175,278;Guy,“CalamitousVoyages”,120,138.
21
Theritualoftheseabaptismdistractedthesailorsfromeverydaylifeandorderonboard,as
wehaveseeninthetravelaccountsofvariousseafarers.Thisveryaspectoftheritual
improvedsocialcohesion,becauseitwasamomentofcelebrationforeverybodyonboard,
regardlessoftheirrankornationality.Furthermore,itwasa‘ritedepassage’,whichgave
sailorstheopportunitytotracktheirprogress.Becauseofthesefeaturesoftheseabaptism
itispossibletoqualifyitaspartoftheinstitutionalizedamusementsonboard.
Acloserlookattheroleoftrumpeters,drummersandthefiringofcanonsprovided
uswithsomeinterestinginsightsintotheofficialcommunicationandsignallingonboardof
theCompany’sships,playinganimportantroleintheeverydayproceedings.Furthermore,
thesoundsofthetrumpets,drums,andcannonscouldalsobeheardduringthearrivaland
departureceremonies.Providingtheseafarerswithadistractionfromtheirwork,these
amusementsalsocontainedanothercharacteristic.Comparabletotheseabaptism,these
kindsofcommunicationsandsignalsmightalsobeconsideredas‘ritesdepassage’,they
showedtheprogressofthevoyage.Aspreviouslymentioned,itwasessentialtopreserve
thesocialorderandsocialcohesionoftheships’community.TheArtikelbrievenregulated
theproceedingsonboard,offenderswerepunished,andinaworldwherethelevelof
violencewasmuchhigherthanwecanpossiblyimagine,thesepunishmentsarealsoquite
incomprehensible.Inthenextchapterwewillinvestigatethesepunishmentsonboardof
theCompany’sshipsandalsowewilltakealookatrewards,standingincontrastto
punishments.
22
Chapter2TrialsandRewardsonBoard
BecauselifeonboardoftheEastIndiaCompany’sshipswastough,tensionsandfrustration
couldquicklyariseanddevelopintoprolongedandseriousconflicts.72Anothercauseof
conflictwasthegreatvarietyofnationalitiesonboardoftheships,togetanideaofthe
compositionofthepersonnelemployedontheCompany’sshipswewilltakealookatthe
Amsterdam,whichstrandedin1749.Onboardwereatotalof191seafarers,127soldiers,
10craftsmenand5passengers.“ThreequartersoftheofficerscamefromtheRepublic,for
sailorsandcraftsmentheproportionofforeignerstoDutchmenwasabouthalf,andofthe
soldiersasmuchas87%camefromabroad,largelyfromGermany.”73Awidevarietyofrules
andrestrictionsweresupposedtopreservethecohesiononboard–tocontrolthelargeand
diversebodyofpeopleinsuchasmallplace.Theseruleswerewrittendowninthe
Artikelbrief,andthesocalledprovoost(‘provost’)wasinchargeofendorsingtheseorders
onboard.Ifanywerebroken,thefelonoughttobepunished.74Theseverityofthesanction
dependedupontheseriousnessoftheoffence,varyingfrommonetarypenaltiestocorporal
punishments.75Ratherthanlookingatthedifferentkindsofoffencesandpunishmentson
boardoftheships,likevariouspreviousscholarshavedone,76herewewilldiscussthe
theatricalityofthepunishmentsonboard.Consequently,arguingthatthischaracteristic
qualifiesthemtobetreatedasformsof‘amusement’aswell,whichoffersanewapproach
ofshipboardpunishmentscomparedtothecurrenthistoriography.Thereafterwewill
analysetherewards,theoppositeofpunishments,onboardoftheCompany’sships.
Investigatingtheritualisticnatureofthepunishmentsandrewardssupportstheargument
72Rossum,WerkersvandeWereld,309.73Bruijn,GaastraandI.Schöffer,Dutch-AsiaticShippingVOLUMEI,157.74NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:4983,Verordeningbevattendegedragsregels1744;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:11397,ArtikelbriefvandeVOC1766-1794;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14328,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaal1658;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14329,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaalvan1742,1728-1763;J.deHullu,“DeHandhavingderOrdeenTuchtopdeSchependerOost-IndischeCompagnie”,JournaloftheHumanitiesandSocialSciencesofSoutheastAsia,Vol.67,No.1(1913)516-540https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90001800.75BruijnandVanEyckvanHeslinga,Muiterij,18.76Idem;Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie;Rossum,WerkersvandeWereld;Sleigh,JanCompagnie;WezelandReuf,“AgentswithPrinciples”,1009–1036;VibekeRoeper,Zwartepeper,scheurbuik:kinderenopreismetdeVerenigdeOost-IndischeCompagnie(Amsterdam2002)58-66;DeHullu,“DeHandhavingderOrdeenTucht”,516-540.
23
thattheyimprovedsocialcohesiononboard.Also,itprovidesuswithanopportunityto
determinewhethertheseritualscanbevaluedasinstitutionalizedamusements.
Theatricalityofpunishments
SeveralkindsofpunishmentswereexecutedonboardoftheCompany’sships.These
punishmentswereperformedwithacertaintheatricality,theritualisticandpubliccharacter
ofthesepunishmentsservedtheirsocialfunctiononboard.Thepunishmentofkielhalen
(‘keelhaul’)hasseveralritualisticfeaturesworthmentioning.77AccordingtoHerman
Ketting,thepunishment,aswellastheseabaptism,containelementsofa‘ritedepassage’.
Inbothcasesthevictimwas‘cleansed’byplacinghimoutsideoftheshipandits
community.AccordingtoKettingitisalsopossibletoarguethatduringkielhalenthevictim
wasthrownoverboardonthe‘dirty’or‘dishonest’side,whilehewasbroughtbackintothe
shiponthe‘clean’or‘honest’side.78Hoogenberkisconvincedthatthisbrutalpunishment
hadadefiniteimpactonthepeopleonboard.79Concurrentlyheimpliesthatthis
punishmentwaspubliclyexecuted.This,infact,seemstohavebeenthegeneraltendency
forpunishmentsonboardoftheCompany’sships;allcorporalpunishmentsanddeath
penaltieswerepubliclyexecuted,allonboardwerepresent.80Thispublicfeatureof
punishments,mostofthetimethepunishmenttookplaceinfrontofthemainmast,
generatetheirexemplaryfunction(seephoto1).81EliasHessedescribesthe
aforementioned:“WieunbillichunssonderUrsach,bevorabunserSchiffer,welchenich
sonsteneinenTyrannengenennet,diearmenSoldatenundMatrosenauffdemSchiffe
bestraffenlassen,istbaldnichtzubeschreiben,vielmahlenseynddiejenigenMatrosen,
welchenureinenSchluckBrantweinzuvielgethan,vordengrossenMastgebunden,und
miteinemTauBeinsdicke200.300.JamehrSchlägebekommen,DarvondieStraffleidende
vielmahlengleichsamalstodtzuBodengesuncken,…”82Hesseexpresseshisiniquityabout
77MartinWintergerst,ReisenaufdemMittelländischenMeere,derNordsee,nachCeylon,undnachJava;ReisbeschreibungenvonDeutschenBeamtenundKriegsleutenimDienstderWest-undOst-IndischenKompagnien1688-1710(Haag1931)(2)147-148.78Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,278,284.79Hoogenberk,DeRechtsvoorschriften,219-220.80BruijnandVanEyckvanHeslinga,Muiterij,77.81Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,277-288;C.A.Davids,WatlijdtdenZeemanalverdriet:HetNederlandsezeemansliedindezeiltijd(1600-1900)(DenHaag1980)24.82Hesse,Gold-BergwerkteinSumatra,22-23.
24
theseproceedings,andabouttheskipperinparticular.Notwithstandinghisdisbelieve,this
methodofpunishmentwasactuallyorderedintheArtikelbrieven,andthereforeit
doubtlesslywasrathercommon.83However,itisworthmentioningthatthisdoesreinstate
thedistinctcontrastbetweentheskipperandthe‘common’seafarer,theskipperdisplayed
hispowerasthehighestrankingofficeronboard.
Photo1ViewofthemainmastonboardofaVOC-ship.Source:Rijksmuseum,Objectnummer:NG-1985-7-1-144,DekzichtvaneenVOC-schipnaardegrotemast,JanBrandes,1778-1787.http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.150097(Accessed24June2019).
83NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:4983,Verordeningbevattendegedragsregels1744;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:11397,ArtikelbriefvandeVOC1766-1794;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14328,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaal1658;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14329,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaalvan1742,1728-1763.
25
Notonlydidpunishmentshaveanexemplaryfunction,anotherritualisticcharacteristicof
thepunishmentsisessentialtorecognize.Intheexecutionofthepunishmentssymbolism
wasusedtoshowwhichcrimewascommitted,andtorevealtheperson’sidentity.For
example,whentheseafarerswerepunishedwithalaarzing(‘beating’)theendofathick
pieceofropewasused,whilesoldierswerebeatenwiththeirownweapon.84This
differentiationbetweensailorsandsoldierswasrootedintheanimositybetweenthetwo
groups,anattitudethathadbeeninexistenceonboardofshipsforalongtime.85
Symbolismwasalsousedtoshowthespectatorswhichcrimethepersonhadcommitted,
thiswasdonebyincorporatingtheobjectthatwasusedintheoffenseintotheactual
punishment.86Knifers,forexample,werepunishedbyusingtheirownknifetostuckthem
fasttothemainmastoftheship.87Becausebystanderscouldcapturebothfelonythevictim
wasguiltyof,aswellasthepunishment,intheblinkofaneye,theexemplaryfunctionof
punishmentwasemphasized.88So,notonlydidtheuseofsymbolismaddtotheexemplary
functionofpunishments,italsocontributedtotheirtheatricality.The‘scene’ofthe
punishmenttoldordisplayedastoryofitsown.Theseritualsofpunishmentwere
performedinfrontoftheseafarers,offeringadistractionfromtheofficialdutiesonboard,
eventhoughitmightnothavebeenapleasantportrayal.Becauseofthetheatricalityof
thesepunishmentstheycanbeconsideredasinstitutionalizedamusements.
Thistheatricalelementofpunishmentswasevenmoredistinguishableinthe
‘unofficial’,mutualjusticeamongsailors.Acoupleoftravelaccountsdescribeinorderto
passthetimeonboardoftheCompany’sshipsseveraltheatricaldisplayswere‘puton’by
thesailors.89DeHulludidsomeground-breakingresearchontheseplays,hewasthefirst
onetodescribethemingreatdetail.Heassertsthemtobemodesofentertainment,while
inallplaysthevictimgetsharmedorpunishedinonewayoranother.90Therefore,
accordingtoKetting,theseplayswerecharivari’sandwereactuallymodesofpunishment
84Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,284-289.85RoelofvanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur:DuitersindienstvandeVOC(1600-1800)(Nijmegen1997)152.86Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,284-289.87Sleigh,JanCompagnie,43.88Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,284.89Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving,12-13;DavidTappens,FunffzehenJährigeCuriöseunddenckwürdigeauchsehrgefährlicheOst-IndianischeReise-Beschreibung(Hannover1704)20-25;BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie,128-131.90BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie.
26
amongsailors,andhelpedtorestoremoralorderamongthecommunity.Likementioned
above,these‘theatricaltrials’werenotpartofthe‘official’justicesystemandpunishments
onboardoftheCompany’sships.Rather,sailorsusedthemtoresolveorsettledifferences
orfightsbetweenthemselves,withoutinterferenceoftheirsuperiors.Moreover,according
toKettingtheywereunawareoftheseevents.91DavidTappensdescribesfouroftheplays
thatwereperformedonboard,accordingtohim,outofmanythesefourwerethemost
amusing.92TheseareexactlythefourplaysthatareanalysedbyDeHullu.
Intheseplaysspectatorswereaskedtotakepartintheplay,afteralltheplayers
weregatheredeveryonewasgivenapart.Atthismomentitalsobecameclearwhowould
playtheroleofthe‘victim’–whichwouldbethepersonothersailorswantedto‘punish’,
becausehehadmisbehavedinsomesortofway.Incaseoftheotherthesmidspel
(‘smithplay’),someonefromthepublicwas‘invited’,considerablesocialpressurewasused
tocompeltheperson,toplaytheroleofvictim.Again,thepersonselectedwasnotthe
most‘friendly’or‘mostenjoyable’sailor.93Inallfourplaystheoneperson,thatwas
‘chosen’togetpunished,washumiliatedononewayoranother.Generallythetormentwas
quitepainful,theperson’sfaithandsufferdependedontheintentionsoftheother
players.94Forinstance,thethirdplayTappensdescribesiscalledthePaardendiefstalspel
(‘playofhorse-robbery’).Inthisplaytworobbersarecaughtandsentencedtodeath,one
willbehanged,theotherwillbebeheaded.Incaseofthefirst,aropeisputaroundthe
player’swaist,andheishoisted,aroundthreefeet,upintheair–suspendedbetween
heavenandearth.Aftertheotherplayergetspunished,bysmudginghiminexcrements,the
firstplayer’slowerbodywasstrippednakedandsmudgedwithtar.95
WhenwecomparethisdescriptionofthePaardendiefstalspelwiththetravel
narrativeofPeterKolbe,anotherGermaninserviceoftheCompany,thereareafewstriking
similarities,whichpreviousscholarshavenotyetacknowledged.Firstandforemost,healso
atteststhatamusementsamongsailors,simultaneouslywereawayofprosecution,which
validatesKetting’sargument.Kolbealsodescribesthat,topunishsomeone,theywere
91Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,251.92Tappens,FunffzehenJährigeCuriöse,20-2593Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,251-253.94BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie,128-131.95Tappens,FunffzehenJährigeCuriöse,20-25;BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie,129-130;Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,252.
27
suspendednakedintheair,whichwasalsothecasewiththePaardendiefstal.Another
amusementofthesailorswaspaintingthebehindsofsomeonnozeleenonbedreve(‘silly
andinconvenient’)fellowsblack.“Detydkortingenwaarmededitonedachtzaamvolkzich
vermaakt,bestaanonderanderen,datzeeenigeonnozeleenonbedreveonderhaar
uitkippen,dewelkezenaaktuitkledenenderzelfverbillenzwartmaken;ofzedoenophare
wyzerecht,namentlyk,zehangenzodanigennaaktenoponderdearmen,ookmakenze
zomwylenhaareigeaangezichtzwart,omanderen,opwelkezehetgemunthebben,onder
schynvanhemtekussen,ookzwarttemaken…”96AlthoughKolbedoesnotrelatethe
amusementswiththeplaysmentionedbefore,neithermentionsthem,thereisa
considerablepossibilitythattheyareconnected.Apossibleexplanationforthiscouldbe
thatKolbewasauniversitygraduatewithadoctorateinastronomy.Comparedtotheother
Germanvoyagerswhowroteatravelaccount,hewasthemosteducated.Ontopofthat,he
receivedtheblessingandpatronageofNicolasWitsen,whowasnotonlytheMajorof
Amsterdam,butalsoadirectoroftheCompanyandoneofthemostinfluentialmeninthe
VOC.97Therefore,Kolbewasnotjustasoldieroranothersailoronboard,whichis
supportedbythefactthatKolbehadhisowncabinontheship,commonsoldierswerenot
asfortunate.98Doubtlessly,Kolbehadadistinguishedposition,differentfromtheother
sailorsandsoldiers.Possiblyhewasnotawareofeverydetailoftheseamusements,alsoit
ishighlylikelythathisdescriptionwascensored.Itiscertaintosaythatthesetheatrical
punishmentsamusedtheseafarers.
Anotherscholar,NigelPenn,considerstheeventsdescribedbyKolbeaspartsofyet
another‘ritedepassage’fornovicesailors.Whatappearstobeanarrativeofseveralkinds
ofamusements,punishments,andpleasures,Pennmistakenlyinterpretsasadescriptionof
onesinglecontinuouscelebrationorritualuponapproachingtheCapeVerdeIslands.Then
heconcludesthat“suchinitiationshadacquiredafargreatersignificancesincetheVOChad
abolishedthetraditionalcrossing-the-lineceremoniesforshipstraversingtheequator.”99
AlthoughtherewereritualsandfestivitiesonboardoftheCompany’sshipscelebratingthe
passageofacertainpointonthejourney,aswehavediscussedinthefirstchapter,the
96Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving,12.97Penn,“TheVoyageOut”,73-74;Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving.98Penn,“TheVoyageOut”,75.99Idem,77-78.
28
specificamusementsKolbedescribes,werenotpartofthis‘ritedepassage’,theywere
theatricalpunishments.Oppositetheritualisticandsymbolisticpunishments,rewardswere
giventotheseafaringpersonnelonvariousoccasions,oftenpartofspecificcelebrations,
likethepassingofacertainpointinthejourney.Intheremainderofthechapterwewill
discusstheserewardsandlookattheirfunctiononboardoftheCompany’sships.
Rewards
Extraprovisionsoftenformedtherewardsgiventotheseafaringpersonnelonboardofthe
Company’sships.Here,wewillexaminetherewardsthatwerepartoftheinstitutionalized
amusements.Meaningthattheserewardswerepartoftheproceedingsonboard,andthe
captainorcommanderdecidedtheserewardstobedistributed.Nonethelessdidthey
providetheseafarerswithdistractionsfromtheeverydayroutineanddutiesonboardof
theCompany’sships,thereforetheyarevitalforthisresearch.
Likementionedabove,rewardsonboardoftheCompany’sshipsprimarilyconsisted
ofadditionalprovisions.Thisisdemonstratedinthevarioustravelaccounts,showingthat
theserewardswereoftendistributedinrelationtopassingaspecificordangerouspartof
thejourneytoAsia.Firstofall,wecannotignoretheextraprovisionsthatweredistributed
aspartofthenewritualoftheseabaptism,whichwehavediscussedintheprevious
chapter.Thiswasnottheonlytimethepassageofadangerouspartofthevoyagewas
celebrated.AftersafelypassingthedesertedislandofMartinVaz,apassagewithmany
dangerousshallowwaters,Hessedescribesthatalltheseafaringpeopleonboardreceived
Spanishwineanddoubletheamountoffoodasrefreshments.100GijsbertHeeckdescribesa
similarinstanceinhistravelaccount.Tocelebratethesafepassingofthedangerouscliffsof
Albrolhos,everybodyontheship’screwreceivedwine.101NicolaasdeGraafwritesan
almostidenticalpassageinhistravelaccount:“…,endeschadelijkedroogtenAbrohollos
voorbyzijndedieaandeBrasiliseKustop18gradenzuyderbreetezyngelegen,word,
volgensgebruyk,aanyederbaksvolkeenflapkanSpaansewijngegeven…”102Intotalthere
weretwoAlbrolholsreefsonthejourneytoBatavia,one,likementionedabove,atthe
BraziliancoastandoneofoffWesternAustralia.AlbrolholsinPortugueseliterallymeans
100Hesse,Gold-BergwerkteinSumatra,24.101HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,49.102Barend-vanHaeftenandVanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC,145.
29
‘openyoureyes’or‘watchout’.103Thesereefswerenotoriousamongstsailors,andsafely
andsuccessfullypassingwasreasonforcelebration,likethetravelaccountsshow.These
celebrationswere‘ritesdepassage’becausetheymarkedthesuccessfulcompletionofyet
anotherpartofthevoyagetoAsia,ensuringprogressthroughtheseas.104Thereforethey
canbeconsideredasritualsaswell.
DeHulluarguesthatthesefestivitieswereevengranderthanthoseassociatedwith
theseabaptism,discussedinthefirstchapter.AccordingtoDeHullu,ontopoftherewards
mentionedabove,eitherfreshmeatwascookedandservedfortheoccasionorsomeother
kindofextratreat.105Moreover,freshmeatwasonlyservedonspecialoccasions,several
animalslikechickensandsheepwerekeptonboard,orfreshfishwascaughtonthe
journey.106Also,severaljubilanteventsamplifiedthecelebration–peopledanced,sang,
anddressedup.Otherthantheplaysmentionedinthepreviouspartofthischapter,
comedicperformanceswereputonforthisoccasion.107Howeverelaboratethese
celebrations,thefactremainsthatrewardswerehandedouttoalltheseafarersupon
passingthesekindsofdifficultpassagesofthevoyage,andwerepartofthe‘ritesde
passage’.Onseveralotheroccasionstheship’screwreceivedrewardsaswell.
Oneoftheseoccasionswasthecelebrationoftheskipper’sbirthday,againextra
foodanddrinkwasserved.108Whichalsoreinstateshissuperiorpositiontotherestofthe
personnelonboard.Hessedescribesthiscelebration,asa‘Cajuyts-Gäste’(‘Cabinquest’),
Hessewaspartofthiscelebration.Thecaptaintreatedallthequestswitha‘special’meal,
insteadofbeerorwinetheyweretreatedwithstrongerspirits,insteadofbreadtheywere
servedriceandratherthantheusualsaltedmeat,fishwasprepared,althoughthisstankin
thesameway.109Notonlytheskipper’sbirthdaywascelebratedonboardoftheVOC-ships,
from1747onwardsthebirthdayoftheDutchstadholder,wasalsocelebratedonboard.110
103Guy,“CalamitousVoyages”,120-121;HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,49.104Guy,“CalamitousVoyages”,120-121;JohannSchreyer,ReisenachdemKaplande,undbeschreibungenderHottentotten:1669-1677;ReisbeschreibungenvonDeutschenBeamtenundKriegsleutenimDienstderWest-undOst-IndischenKompagnien1669-1677(Haag1931)13.105BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie,127.106Bruijn,GaastraandI.Schöffer,Dutch-AsiaticShippingVOLUMEI,159.107BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie,127.108VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,158.109Hesse,Gold-BergwerkteinSumatra,143.110J.R.Bruijn,SchippersvandeVOCindeachttiendeeeuwaandewalenopzee(Amsterdam2008)182.
30
Therewardswediscussedabovewerepartofcelebrationsorritualsthatwerepartofthe
‘official’proceedingsonboard.Mostoftentheseafarerswererewardedwithextra
provisions,a‘feast’,comparedtotheireverydaymeals.Theserewardsandcelebrationsnot
onlywereadistractionfromthehardshipsofeverydaylifeonboardoftheships,theyalso
symbolisedoccasionsforsailorstokeeptrackoftheprogressofthevoyage,similarlytothe
ritualoftheseabaptismfromthepreviouschapter.Notonlythesymbolismofthe
celebrationsqualifiesthemtobeconsideredrituals,butalsotheirregularityand
predictability.Thisritualisticnatureoftheseeventsindicatesthattheyalsohadasocial
function,benefitingsocialorderandcohesiononboardoftheCompany’sships.
Toprotectsocialorder,punishmentswerepartofthejusticesystemonboard.First,
theritualisticnatureofsomeofthepunishmentsdeserveafinalremark.Thepunishments
wereregulatedthroughtheArtikelbrief,becauseofthewaytheywereperformed,these
regulationsbecomerituals.SincethepeopleonboardofaCompanyshipforma‘society’
andeveryindividualhadtheirresponsibilities,asmentionedinthefirstchapter,rituals
improvedsocialorderonboard.Applyingthistothepunishmentsonboard,whenone
disregardedtheirresponsibilityanddisruptedthecohesion,theritualisticnatureofthe
punishmentscouldrestorethisverydisruptionofsocialorder.Wehavepreviouslyseenthat
boththe‘official’and‘unofficial’punishmentscontainedtheatricalelements.Thevisible
andunmistakablesymbolismusedinthe‘official’punishmentsdemonstratesthis,whilethe
‘unofficial’punishmentsliterallytookformofatheatricalplay.Becauseofthesetheatrical
elementsitispossibletoqualifythepunishmentsas‘amusing’,becauseitdefinitely
distractedtheseafarerswithadistractionfromtheireverydaypursuits.Everybodyonboard
oftheshiphadtobepresentwhiletheoffendersreceivedtheirpunishment,andontopof
that,punishmentswereperformedinthecentreoftheshipsoitwashardtomiss.This
ritualisticandtheatricalnatureofpunishmentsservedtoimprovesocialcohesion,even
thoughthiswasnegativereinforcement,meaningthatitwasintheformofapunishment
ratherthanareward.
Incaseofthechivari’sperformedbelowdeckcertainlyamusedthembecausethey
wereperformedintheirtimeoffofduty,whichwillbediscussedmoreelaboratelyinthe
fourthchapter.Thechivari’simprovedsocialcohesionamongthosebelowdeck,thelower
rankingsailorsandsoldiers,becauseitgavethemtheopportunityrestoremorality,andthe
bothforeignersandDutchmenwerepresentduringtheseperformances.
31
Chapter3ReligiousRitualsoftheSeafaringPersonnel
ReligionintheDutchRepublicwasacentralfeatureofeverydaylife.Itiscommonly
acknowledgedamongscholarsthattheRepublic,withahegemonicReformedChurch,was
tremendouslytoleranttowardsotherreligiouscommunitiescomparedtoothercountriesin
Europe.Awell-developedcivilauthorityexistedtokeepthepeaceinthisareaof
considerablereligiousdiversity.111Religionwasdeeplyembeddedintoeveryaspectof
Dutchsociety,forexample,poorreliefandsocialcontrolwerepredominantlyorganizedby
thechurch.112Ontopofthat,thedirectorsoftheVOCwereDutch‘politicians’,andsince
theReformedChurchwasthe‘official’churchoftheRepublic,theVOCultimatelywasa
Christiancompany.113Thereforeitisnotsurprisingthatreligionalsoplayedanimportant
roleforthegovernorsoftheVOC,infact,pastorswereonthepayrolloftheCompany.They
weresendtotheCompany’sestablishmentsoverseasto,amongotherthings,preachandto
providepastoralcareforthoseinserviceoftheCompany.114Biblesandpsalmbookswere
alsoamongtheCompany’sgoodsshippedtoBatavia.115Moreover,pastorsand
ziekentroosters(‘comfortersfortheill’)werealsoemployedonboardoftheVOC-ships
travellingtoAsia.SincetheCompanywasaChristianemployer,pastoralorspiritualcare
wasnaturallythereaccordingtoSchutte.116Inthischapterwewillexaminethefunctionof
religiononboardoftheCompany’sships.Whatreligiousritualsdidoccurandwhatwasthe
influenceofreligionanditsritualsoneverydaylifeonboardoftheship?Inordertoanswer
thesequestions,firstwewilldelveintothesubjectofthepresenceofreligiousactivityon
board,lookingatordinaryprayers,anditsregulations.Thenwewillexaminetheroleand
tasksofthepastorsandziekentroosters.Afterwhichwewillinvestigateirregularprayers
andotherreligiousritualsonboardoftheCompany’sships.Itisimportanttoemphasize
thatthesubjectofreligiousactivitiesonboardoftheCompany’sshipsisoftendisregarded,
111R.Po-ChiaHsiaandHenkvanNierop,CalvinismandReligiousTolerationintheDutchGoldenAge(Cambridge2002)5.112KarelDavidsenMarjolein’tHart,DeWereld&Nederland–Eensocialeeneconomischegeschiedenisvandelaatsteduizendjaar(Amsterdam2011)137-151;Roeper,Zwartepeper,scheurbuik,39.113GerritJ.Schutte,“ChristendomenCompagnie”inLeonardBlusséenIlonkaOoms,KennisenCompagnie–DeVerenigdeOost-IndishceCompagnieendemoderneWetenschap(Amersfoort2002)87-90.114FemmeS.Gaastra,GeschiedenisvandeVOC(Zutphen2009)115Bruijn,GaastraandI.Schöffer,Dutch-AsiaticShippingVOLUMEI,181.116Schutte,“ChristendomenCompagnie”,90.
32
oratleastneglected,inthegeneralhistoriographyabouttheVOC,whiletheCompany’s
religiousendeavoursoverseashavebeenresearched.117Itisnecessarytoexplorethis
subjectbecausereligionplayedsuchanimportantroleinsociety.Didreligiousritualsbring
asenseoffamiliarityonboardoftheCompany’sships,similartotheroleofreligionin
society?Likewise,insomewaytheymightalsohaveplayedasignificantroleinprotecting
thesocialorderonboard,justlikeonland.Anddidtheyprovidetheseafarerswitha
distractionfromtheeverydayhardshipsofthevoyage?Thesearequestionwewilltryto
answerinthischapter.
InstitutionalizedReligion
Oneofthemostimportantsourcestodeterminethereligiousactivitiesonboardofthe
VOC-shipsaretheArtikelbrieven.Beforedelvingintoacloseexaminationoftherulesand
regulationsthattheseprescribed,itisimperativetomentionthattheseruleswerelaid
upontheseafaringpersonnelfromabovebytheHerenXVII.Thismeansthatthese
Artikelbrievenprovideuswithaveryimportant,butonlyaone-sided,accountofreligionon
board.Interestingly,Schuttedescribesthatmanyauthorsfromthetimearequitenegative
abouttherelationbetweentheCompanyandChristianity,theCompany’sservants
supposedlydidnotliveaChristianwayoflife.118Thesameattitudeisexpressedinthemore
contemporarychurchhistoriography.119Apossibleexplanationfortheseviewscouldbethat
theseauthorsareindifferenttothedistinctionbetweentheChristianreligiononboardand
theChristianreligionintheDutchcoloniesintheEast.BecauseinrelationtheChristianity
onboardoftheVOCshipsitisnotdifficulttoarguethatreligionplayedalargeroleinthe
everydayproceedings.JustthesheerfactthattheArtikelbrievenactuallyregulated
Christianworshiponboarddemonstratesthis.Anyway,Schuttedoesnotagreewiththe
anachronisticapproachofpastwritersandhistorians.HearguesthattheCompanywas
117Forexample:Gaastra,GeschiedenisvandeVOC–opkomst,bloeienondergang(Zuthpen2009).118Schuttebasedthisstatementon:MarijkeBarend-vanHaeften,Oost-Indiëgespiegeld:NicolaasdeGraaff,eenschrijvendchirurgijnindienstvandeVOC(Zutphen1992);RoelofvanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur:DuitersindienstvandeVOC(1600-1800)(Nijmegen1997).119Schutte’ssources:C.A.L.vanTroostenburgdeBruyn,DeHervormdekerkinNederlandschOost-IndiëonderOost-IndischedeCompagnie(1602-1795)(Arnhem1884);C.W.Th.BoetzelaervanAsperenenDubbeldam,DeGereformeerdekerkeninNederlandendezendinginOost-IndiëindedagenderOost-IndischeCompagnie(Utrecht1906);Idem,DeprotestantschekerkinNederlandsch-Indië.Haarontwikkeling1620-1939(’sGravenhage1947);L.Knappert,Schetsvaneenegeschiedenisonzerhandelskerken(overdrukuitArchiefvoordeKerkgeschiedenisxxi(1929)1-46,81-148;’sGravenhage1929).
33
establishedaccordanttotherulesofanearly-moderntheocracy.120Thiswasindeedthe
case,aswehaveseenintheopeningofthischapter.
Throughouttheperiodbetween1650and1800manyArtikelbrievenwereissued,
althoughtheweresomealterationstotherulesandregulationsrelatedtoreligiousactivity
onboard,thebottomlineremainedunchanged.Inthefollowingwewillexamineseveralof
theserulesandregulationstopaintthepictureofmandatoryreligiousactivityonboardof
theCompany’sships.OnesectionoftheArtikelbriefalwayscontainedseveralrulesand
regulationsabout,andfor,religion,pastorsandziekentroosters,onboard.In1658itstarts
witharuleaboutabusingGodsname,followedbyanothersimilarrulethatregulatesthe
supremacyofthepastor’steachings.Athirdnotionisespeciallyvaluableforthisresearch
becauseitliterallyinformsusaboutthereligiousactivitiesonboard.Regulatingthe
everydayprayersonboard,theruledeterminesthattheseprayersweresupposedtotake
placeinthemorning,beforetheearlymeal,andintheevening,beforedinner.Theactual
contentoftheseprayerswillbediscussedinalaterstadiumofthischapter.Allonboard
needtobepresentattheseservices.121Immediatelyafterthisfollowsaregulationwhich
stateshowtodisciplinethosethatneglectedtoattendtheseservices.Lastly,itis
administeredthatnopersonisallowedtoprovokeorstartreligiousdisputes.122Like
previouslymentioned,theserulesandregulationsforreligioninotherArtikelbrievenwere
considerablysimilar.123Thetravelaccounts,likePeterKolbe’s,confirmthepresenceof
religiononboardoftheCompany’sships:“…gelykzulks(bedestonden)dagelijkstweemalen,
namelykdesmorgensen‘savondsvoordeneetenopuitdrukkelykbevelvandeIllustre
Compagniegeschiedenmoet,alswelketendieneindezooveelinnotengezette
GereformeerdeNederduitschePsalmboekenaandenKapiteinmedegeeft,dathyaanzijn
volkiedereenboekvoornietmetaluitdelenkanenmoet.”124Notonlydoesherecognize
thattheCompany’sgovernorsorderedtheeverydayprayersonboard,healsoindicates
thatpsalmbooksweredistributedamongtheseafaringpersonnel.JohannJacobSaar,
120Schutte,“ChristendomenCompagnie”,87-89.121“Voortssoowanneer‘smorgensvoordeVroech-kost,ende‘savontsvoor‘tAvontmael,vanyemantdaertoeghecommitteertzijnde,deGebedengesproocken,ofteGodesWoortgelesenwort,saleenyedelijck,vanwatqualiteythyzy,sichschicken,om‘tselvemeteerbiedingetehooren.”Source:NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14328,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaal1658.122Idem.123Forexample:NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:4983,Verordeningbevattendegedragsregels1744;NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:11397,ArtikelbriefvandeVOC1766-1794.124Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving,26.
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anotherGermantravelingonboardofaCompanyship,reportsthesame.125Anotherpiece
ofevidencethatsupportsthisisthefactthatontheinventorychiefcarpenterJacob
Hartman,whopassedawayin1744,apsalmbookwasfoundinhisgrotekist(‘largechest’)
–theluggagethatseafarerswereallowedtotakeonboard.126Returningtotheservicesand
prayersonboardoftheCompany’sships,Kolbe’sdescriptionalsoprovidesuswithacrucial
insight:thereligiononboardwasReformedChristianity–thechurchwiththemost
authorityintheRepublic.Thiswasforeverybodythesame,eventhoughsomeseafarers’
religiousbeliefsweredifferent.127Thesedescriptionssupporttheclaimthatthelifeofthe
Company’sservantsonboardwasreligious,moreoveritshowsthatreligiousritualsgranted
abreakfromthetoughlabouronboard.
WehaveseenthatoneoftherulesintheArtikelbrievenstatedthatitwasnot
allowedtoinsultthepastorordisregardhissacredness.OnmanyshipsoftheVOCapastor
orziekentroostertravelledappointedby,andinserviceof,theCompany.128Inthefollowing
section,wewilllookatseveralexamplesofthesereligiousministerspresentonboard,after
whichitispossibletodelvedeeperintotheiractualroleandfunctiononaCompanyshipto
seewhatroletheyplayedintheinstitutionalizedreligiousamusements.
Firstitisworthmentioningthatoneofthetravelaccountsconsultedforthis
researchwaswrittenbyJohanChristianHoffman,whowasreligiousservantofthe
Companyhimself.Althoughhedoesnotspecifywhatkindoffunctionhehadonboardof
theship,itshowsthatreligiousofficialsembarkedonthevoyagetoAsiaontheCompany’s
ships.129Yet,wasthisacoincidenceordidreligiousservantsalwaysaccompanytheshipson
thevoyagetotheEast?FromtheVOCOpvarendendatabasefromNationalArchivewecan
extractsomevaluablequantitativeinformation:atleast2318ziekentroosters,427pastors
and67krankenbezoekerswereemployed,between1699and1794,bytheDutchEastIndia
Company.130TheVOC-administrationofthepersonnelonboardoftheirshipswasquite
125JohannJacobSaar,ReisenachJava,Banda,CeylonundPersien;ReisbeschreibungenvonDeutschenBeamtenundKriegsleutenimDienstderWest-undOst-IndischenKompagnien1644-1660(Haag1930)15.126NationaalArchief,1.04.02VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie,Inventarisnummer:6934,InventarissenvangoederenvanoverladenVOC-militairenen–zeelieden,1718-1719,1743-1744.127Bruijn,Zeegang,96.128Roeper,Zwartepeper,scheurbuik,39.129Hoffman,ReisenachdemKaplande,vii.130NationaalArchief,VOC:Opvarenden,1699-1794.https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/index/nt00444?searchTerm=ziekentrooster&activeTab=nt_sub_list_legacy(Accessed24june2019).
35
extensive,foreveryshipthatsetsailadocumentwascomposedlistingeverypersonon
board,includingtheirfunction.Ontheselistswecanalsofindthereligiousservants,for
exampleontheVOC-shipWaddinxveensailingfromCaapdeBoneEsperancein1696a
ziekentroosterswasonboard.131AresolutionfromtheHerenXVIIinNovember1692
resolvedthattheziekentroostersonboardwerepaidasalaryof30gildersamonth,whilea
pastor’swagewasthreetimesashigh–90gildersamonth.132Thisresolutionshowsthat
ziekentroosterswereemployedonboardoftheCompany’sshipsiftheamountofpeopleon
boardexceeded150.Except,whenapastorswasalreadyappointedtoaship,thenthe
presenceofaziekentroosterwaspossiblyexcused.133
GijsbertHeeckmentionsaziekentroosterinthedescriptionofhisvoyageatleasta
coupleoftimes.Inoneofthesereferenceshedescribes,thattogetherwiththe
ziekentrooster,hewenttovisitanothershiptolistentoapastor’ssermon.“Ikbensamen
metdeziekenbezoekernaarhetschipAmersfoortgeweestomnaardepreekvaneenhier
pasaangekomenpredikantteluisteren.HijpreekteuitLucas23vers34:“EnJezuszeide:
Vadervergeefhethun,wantzijwetenniet,watzijdoen.”134Theziekentroosterinthiscase
didnotreadthesermonhimself.Itisimportanttopointoutthatziekentroostersdidread
sermonstothoseonboard,itactuallywasoneoftheirseveraltasks.However,theywere
notallowedtowritetheirownsermons,thatwassolelythepastors’prerogative.Another
maintaskoftheziekentroosterwastalkingtothepoorlyandhelpingthemtosayaprayer.
NicholaasdeGraaff’sdesciptionoftheziekentroosters’dutiesandtasksconfirmsthis:“De
krankenbesoekerofsieketroostersbedieningeis‘smorgens‘tmorgen-en‘savonds‘t
avondgebeduiteenboekjetelesseneneenversoftweeuiteenpsalmtesingen.Sondaags
moetdeselveeencapittelofpredicatielesen,envoornaardeselveeenpsalmofversof
tweesingen.Soiemandsiekisengevaarlooptvantesullensterven,moetdesieketrooster
deselvetroosteneneenigechristelijkegebedenvoorlesen.”135Comparedtothepastors,
whowererankedamongthemostimportantofficersonboard,theziekentroosterswere
131Werz,‘Eenbedroefd,enbeclaaglijckongeval’,189-195;VanRooijandGawronski,VOC-schipAmsterdam,26.132Thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatovertheperiodof150years(1650-1800)thesalaryofthese‘officers’remainedunchanged,theziekentroosteremployedonboardoftheAmsterdamin1749forexamplewaspaidasalaryof24gildersamonth.Source:VanRooijandGawronski,VOC-schipAmsterdam,26.133NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:4981,ReglementvandeHerenXVII1692.134HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,22,118.135DeGraaff,Barend-vanHaeftenandPlekenpol,Oost-IndiseSpiegel,115.
36
lowerrankingofficersandassistantstothepastors.136TheLammenssisterswritethat
approximatelytwo-hundredpeoplewerepresentatasermon,performedbythe
ziekentrooster,onboardoftheirship.Althoughthewomenwerenotimpressedwiththe
calibreofthepreachingthepassageintheirtravelaccountdoesconfirmthatthe
ziekentroostersheldreligiousonboardoftheCompany’sships.137OnSunday’sthese
religiousproceedingsweremoreelaborate,resemblingtheChristiantradition.138
Alltheseprayersandsermons,regulatedintheArtikelbrief,werepartofthe‘official’
religiousritualsonboard.Theconventionalityoftheseritualsimprovedsocialcohesion,
becauseitwasyetanothermomentallonboardweregatheredtogether,regardlessoftheir
rankornationality.Itissafetosaythattosomeextent,religiousritualsofanation’ssociety
transferredtothereligiousritualsonboard,andtheziekentroostersandpastorsplayedan
importantpartinthis.Inthetravelaccounts,reviewedforthisresearch,considerablymore
religiousritualswerementioned.Intheremainderofthischapterwewilltakealookatall
thesereligiousactivitiesonboard,rangingfromcelebrationsofreligiousfestivitiesto
blessingsorfunerals.
ExceptionalReligiousRituals
Ananalysisoftheseotherreligiousritualsonboardisimportant,becauseoftheir
exceptionalityitishighlylikelythattheyprovidedtheseafarerswithmoredelight.First,we
willtakealookatthemostoccurringreligiousrituals;thebenedictionsorblessings
(dankzegging).IntheseprayerstheziekentroostersorpastorsonboardthankedGodfor
something,mostcommonlythiswouldbetheweather.MartinWintergestprovidesuswith
suchanexample:“dalehreteunsnundieaugenscheinlicheErrettung,daßmaneine
offentlicheDancksagunggegenGottthat,daßerunsnurwiedergutenWindgegeben
hatte…”139Anothercommonmomentthesebenedictionswouldtakeplacewaswhenthe
136Roeper,Zwartepeper,scheurbuik,39-40,112-114;AlbrechtHerport,ReisenachJava,Formosa,Vorder-IndienundCeylon:1659-1668;ReisbeschreibungenvonDeutschenBeamtenundKriegsleutenimDienstderWest-undOst-IndischenKompagnien1602-1797(Haag1930)16.137“Wantonsenseergeleerdenenopdetimmerschoolgegaenedominé…allesontrentdetweehondertenveertightheugtmijwelkerkengesientehebbendaervrijwatgrooterenbeterpredicationgedaanwierdenvoorminderpersoonenalshiertegenwoordigwaren…”Source:Barend-vanHaeftenandVanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC,58.138Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving,26.139Wintergerst,ReisenaufdemMittelländischenMeere,9.
37
shippassedaspecificdangerouspartofthevoyage.Togetherwithotherrituals,whichwe
havediscussedinthepreviouschapters,theseprayerswerepartofthe‘ritesdepassage’.
NicolaasdeGraaffnotestheziekentroosteronboardthankedGoduponpassingthe
Albrohollosforsavelymakingthispartofthevoyage.“Envandesieketroostereen
danckseggingegedaandatdenHemelhaarvoordieschadelijckedroogtensheeftbewaard
waardaareertijdssooveelschepenopzijnverzeyldentotnietgegaan.”140Thecelebratory
characteroftheseprayers,safelycrossingadangerouspassage,isespeciallyimportantin
thisresearchbecausethesekindsofeventsprovidedtremendousreliefforsailors,and
endorsedfaithandhope.Thereisoneimportantthingtomentioninrelationtothese
sermonsandprayers,theywereagainpartoftheinstitutionalizedreligiouspractiseson
board.Theprayersforallsuchoccasionswerewrittendowninthe‘instructionsforpastors
andziekentroosters’.141Theywerepartoftheregulatedreligiousactivitiesonboardofthe
Company’sships.
Funeralswerealsopartofthereligiousritualsonboard,becauseofthehardships
anddangersofthelongvoyageonboardoftheCompany’sships,peopleonboardwere
recurrentlyfacedwithdeath.Thepassingawayofafellowseafarerisfrequentlymentioned
inthetravelaccountsandveryoftenthedeadareburiedatsea.142Onboardofthe
Company’sshipsthefollowingritualwascarriedoutduringafuneral:firstthedeceasedwas
wrappedinapieceof(sail-)cloth,afterwhichtheywerelaiddownonaplankonthe
starboardsideoftheship.Theheadofthedeceasedwasuncoveredandaprayerwassaid,
thenonthecaptain’scommandtheplankwaslifteduptoletthebodyslideintosea.143“’s
Nachtsisdeschiemansmaat(=deonderbootsmansknecht)AamMulleruitBredaoverleden
envolgensscheepsgebruikishijopgepastewijzeoverboordgezet.”144GijsbertHeeckrefers
multipletothe‘standard’ritual,mentionedabove,usedto‘buy’adeceasedseafarerat
sea.145WhileEliasHessenotonlydescribesthese‘standard’ritualsduringafuneralofa
140DeGraaff,Barend-vanHaeftenandPlekenpol,Oost-IndiseSpiegel,145.141NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14329,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaalvan1742,1728-1763.142Forexample:Herport,ReisenachJava;Hesse,Gold-BergwerkteinSumatra;HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn;Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving.143Later,onboardofthewarshipsfromtheeighteenthcentury,thisritualwasevenmoreelaborate.Thedeceasedwascarriedaroundthemastthreetime,accompaniedbythesoundofmourningmusic.Afterwhichthepersonwassendoverboard,beforeandaftertheplankwaslifted,salvo’swerefired.Source:Davids,Watlijdtdenzeemanalverdriet,38.144HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,31.145Idem,25,31,63.
38
femalepassenger,shewasactuallyburiedinacoffinandadditionalritualslikehymnswere
partoftheceremony.146
Otherreligiousritualswereonlyoccasionallyperformedcomparedtotherelatively
commonritualsmentionedabove.Oneoftheseeventsisaratherlargecelebrationinthe
Christiancalendar–Christmas,celebratingthebirthofJesusChrist.147Travelersmention
thecelebrationintheirtravelaccounts,thoughtheydonotelaborateonanyritualsof
such.148AccordingtoDeHullu,thesailorsdidreceiveextraprovisionsonthesekindsof
‘important’Christianfestivities.149Thesheerabsenceofanykindofelaboratedescriptionof
thecelebrationinsinuatesthatthesewerenotverygrandiose.Itiscertainlypossiblethat
extraprovisionsweredistributedandimaginablethatthedailyprayersweremore
comprehensive,sinceitwasaChristiancelebration.Thisdoeshoweverconfirmthatthe
society’sreligiousritualsweretransferredtotheships.
AnunexpectedceremonymentionedinthetravelaccountfromsurgeonGijsbert
Heeckisawedding.ThepastorfromthePhenicxvisitingtheshipalsowedtwopersons
travelingonboardofHeeck’sship.Asoldiermarrieda‘black’woman(whichinitselfis
unusual,yetirrelevantforthisresearch),afterthesermontheyhaddinnerwiththe
commanderinchief,SirSterthemius.“Tevensbevestigdehij(ds.Bushoven)indehuwelijk
staatdesoldaatHansPolacqmetMagdalenavanBengalen(eenzwartevrouw)diebeiden
metonsdereisbegonnenwaren.Nadepreekblevenzijsamenmetdeandere
bevelhebberstegastbijdeheerSterthemiusenwerdengetrakteerdopgebraden
schapenvlees.”150
ReligiouslifeonboardoftheCompany’sshipswasquitesimilartothatonland.
Multipletimesadayprayerswereread;thiswasregulatedbytheArtikelbrievenissuedby
theCompany’sdirectors.Ontopofthat,lessregularreligiousrituals,likeburialsandevena
wedding,werealsoperformedduringthevoyage.ThisisnotsurprisingsincetheCompany
wasinfactaChristiantradingcompany,andtheRepublicitselfwasalsopredominantly
146Hesse,Gold-BergwerkteinSumatra,32.147Bruijn,SchippersvandeVOC,183.148Forexample:“Den25DecembrisfeyretenwirdieHeylsahmeGeburtunsersSeeligmachersJesuChristi…”Source:Hoffman,ReisenachdemKaplande,23;HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,33.149J.deHullu,“DeVoedingopdeSchependerOost-IndischeCompagnie”,JournaloftheHumanitiesandSocialSciencesofSoutheastAsia,Vol.67,No.1(1913)552https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90001801.150HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,67.
39
Christianwithreligionatthecoreofeverydaylifeofitscitizens.Notonlywerereligious
ritualspartoflifeonboardofaCompanyship,spiritualcarewasalsoprovidedtothe
seafarersincaseofillnessordeath.LifeinemploymentonboardoftheCompany’sships
wasfullofhardships,likewehavepreviouslydiscussed.Thereligiousritualsappeartohave
oftengrantedabreak,adistraction,fromthisgrind.Whichshowsthatthesetoocanbe
qualifiedasinstitutionalizedamusements.Fromvarioustravelaccountswelearnedthat
religionalsoprovidedtheseafarerswithasenseofcomfortandhope,becauseitwas
somethingfamiliarsinaworldfullofuncertainty,andofstrangeandunknownphenomena
–lifeonboardofaship.Again,thesereligiousregulationsareritualsbecauseoftheway
theyareperformedandtheroletheyplayonboard.
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Chapter4MusicandPastimeAmusements
Sofarthemainfocushasbeenonvariouskindsofdistractionsandamusementsthatwere
predominantlyinstitutionalized.Inrelationtothedrummersandtrumpetersfromthefirst
chapter,wheretheyusedtheirinstrumentsprimarilyforsignallingandcommunication,
therewasanother,lessregular,functionoftheseinstruments;playingmusic.Whetherit
wascommandedbythecaptainoraspastimeactivity,onboardoftheCompany’sships
musicplayedaconsiderablerole.Inthischapterwefirstwilltakealookatothermusical
activitiesonboardoftheCompany’sthatwerepartoftheofficialproceedingsonboard.
Then,beforeexploringothernon-institutionalizedpastimeactivities,wewillconsidermusic
asapastimeamusementonboard.Thereareseveralreasonswhyitiscrucialtoanalyse
thesemusicalendeavoursandpastimeactivities.Firstandforemost,mostofthese
momentswerenotregulatedbyanyrulesorregulationsinthewayprevious
institutionalizedamusementswere.Itisinterestingtoseewhatkindofpastimeactivities
theseafarersamusedthemselveswithintheirpastime,especiallybecausetheseafarers
wererelatively‘free’tochoosethesekindsofamusements.Thisisofgreatrelevancetothis
researchbecausethis‘free’timewasalsoagreatdangertosocialorderonboard,social
problemscouldeasilyarisewhenseafarerswereunoccupied.
MusicallifeonboardoftheEastIndiaCompanyshipshasbeenextensively
researchedbyscholarIanWoodfield.HehaswrittenanelaborateaccountontheEnglish
musiciansintheageofexploration,whichforthisresearchissurprisinglyinteresting.
Woodfieldshowsthatexperiencedmusiciansandtrumpeterswerehighlyvaluedamong
thosetravelingtotheeast,andtheDutchemployedBritishplayersbecauseoftheir
experience.Healsoprovidesuswithanaccountofthedutiesandtasksofthemusicianson
board.AccordingtoWoodfield,“onceashipputtosea,thoseonboardweresubjecttoa
carefullyorderedroutineofdailylifeinwhichmusicplayedasignificantpart.”151Confirming
whatwehavealreadyseeninthefirstchapterwiththesignallingdutiesofthetrumpeters,
themilitarymusicians.Alsoduringworshipmusicplayedanimportantrole,inthethird
chapterwediscoveredthatreligioushymnswerepartoftheprayersonboardofthe
Company’sships.However,inagreementwithWoodfield,thesewereallregulatedin
151Woodfield,EnglishMusicians,39.
41
generalorders.152Therefore,theywerepartoftheinstitutionalizedamusements.Besidethe
musicalpracticesmentionedabove,musicallifeonboardoftheCompany’sshipswasmore
sophisticated.
SingingandShantying
Firstwewilltakealookatthenon-institutionalizedmusicalpracticesduringlabouronboard
oftheCompany’sships.However,itisimportanttorealizethatstrictlyitisnotpossibleto
categorizetheseaspastimeactivitiesofsailors.Theproceedingsonboardwere
accompaniedbyallsortsofstandardchantingandshouting,orshantying,tocoordinatethe
activities.C.A.Davidsexaminedthesekindsofmusicalpractices,amongmanyothers,and
arguesthatspecifictypesoflabourrequireddifferentkindsofchanting.“Whenthemenare
engagedontoanyhardtasksandespeciallyonanyinwhichitisnecessaryforthemtomove
rhythmicallytogetheralittlechantissung.Tothenewarrivalsthischantsoundsvery
strange,butitismostuseful,especiallywhenallthemenhavetopulltogether.”153David
Tappensalsodescribesthesekindsof‘songs’andinformsthereaderforwhichactionseach
wasused.Whenforexamplethecanonswerefetched,onesang:“Afschoten,Arü
kenschoot,AkleinenGroot,Ahaalweg.”154
Evenmoreinterestingly,Tappensalsodescribesotherkindsofhymnsorsongswhich
weresungwhentheguardwaschanged,multipletimeseverydayonecouldhearthese
soundsofmusic.155AnotherGermantraveller,ChristophSchweitzeralsowitnessedthe
practiceofsingingduringthiseventin1675.156Davidsnotesthatthesekindsofritualistic
songs,partofthechangingoftheguard,werecalledakwartierlied,afterthekwartieren
(‘quarters’),inwhichtheship’screwwasdivided.Thiskwartierliedisacollectiveterm,
severaldifferentdistinctivehymnsweresungonvariouspartsoftheday,liketheroerzang
(‘helm-song’)andliedvandeprovoost(‘theprovost’ssong’).157Asectionoftheroerzang:
152Idem,39.153Davids,Watlijdtdenzeemanalverdriet,41-43;Bruijn,SchippersvandeVOC,153.154Tappens,FunffzehenJährigeCuriöse,171-172.155Idem,152.156Woodfield,EnglishMusicians,45.157Davids,Watlijdtdenzeemanalverdriet,49-54.
42
“HierzeilenwijmetGodverheven,Godwilonsonzezondenvergeven,
Alonzezondenenmisdaad,Godisonstroostentoeverlaat.
Kwaart,Kwaart,GraafMauritskwartierteroerentewaakzalgaan,
GoddieverleenonsZijnenvree,Gelukenbehoudenreisdaarmee.
GraafMauritskwartierwiltkomenboven,
VooreengoedereiswillenwijGodloven,GodlovenendenkenzijnenNaam,
KomtheruitmaatkwartierinGodsnaam…”158
AlthoughDeHullumentionsandcitesacoupleofthesesongs,heneglectstoinvestigate
theirunderlyingfunctiononboardoftheCompany’sships.Inthesongthe
Mauritskwartier159wascalledtostandguard,simultaneously,thereligiousfeatureisan
importantelementwearecompiledtoacknowledge.ThesongsfavourGodandaskhimfor
asavevoyage,thesekwartiersliedenthereforehavearitualisticfunctiononboardofthe
Company’sships.Thereligiousaspectofthesongsreferredtothecommonvaluesofthe
seafarers,asavevoyage,whichalsomakesthesongsanoteworthypartoftheritualson
board.Especially,whenwetakeinconsiderationthatthesekindsofsongsweresungthree
timeseverydaywiththechangingoftheguard.160Theritualisticshantyingandsinging
duringtheeverydayworkroutineonboardpossiblyhadanotherfunctionaswell,itmight
havebroughttheseafarersawelcomedistractionfromthehardlabouronboard.Beingable
tolistentosomethingduringtheseendeavours,thecrewatworkcouldconcentrateon
somethingotherthantheheavylabour.Thesesongsbroughtsomerelieftotheseafarers,
andincaseofthekwartierlieden,theyliterallyrelievedsailorsfromduty,announcingthe
guardtochange.
TravelingboardoftheCompany’sshipsonecouldfrequentlyherevoicessinging
somekindofsongorhymn.Notallofthesesongswerepartoftheworkingroutineofthe
seafarersliketheoneswehavediscussedabove.AlbrechtHerport,travelingonboardofa
CompanyshipfromAsiabacktotheNetherlandswrites:“Den11.(October)Sindwirdie
158BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie,56;Tappens,FunffzehenJährigeCuriöse,167-168.159OnboardoftheCompany’sshipsthecrewwasdividedinthreeparts,kwartieren:prinsenkwartier,GraafMauritskwartierandGraafErnstkwartier.Eachkwartierhad8hoursadaywheretheydidnothavetowork.Source:Bruijn,Zeegang,68.160Davids,Watlijdtdenzeemanalverdriet,49-54.
43
StraßSondadurchgesäglet,unddasLandJavaundSumatranachundnachaußGesicht
verlohren.DazumahlhateinjedermitFreudengesungen,àDieuBatavia,wirfahrennun
nachPatria.UndstelltenalsoerstlichunserenLauffnachSud-WestdenSuden.”161The
peopleonboardsang‘adieuBatavia,wearesailingnowtoPatria’,whentheylostsightof
JavaandSumatra,uponleavingAsia.Herportwritesthat‘everybody’onboardsungthis,
despitethedifferentnationalitiesoftheseafarers.Remarkably,thetwosentencesare
practicallyidenticaltothebeginningofthefirstandsecondverseoftheValet-LiedofIndia
EliasHessedescribes.
Adjeu,adjeuBatavia,
DuschöneStadtdortauffJava
Vondidrwillichnunscheiden!
VonddirunddeinerstoltzenPracht
NehmichanitzoguteNacht,
MittausendtausendFreuden.
WirfahrennunnachPatria:
FrischauffihrBrüder,Sa,sa,sa!
HiergiltkeinScharmutzieren:
AllwindeteureAnckerauff!
DurchStraatSundagehtunserLauff!
DenOrtwollnwirquittiren.162
AlthoughHessedoesnotmentionthissongwasactuallysungbyothersonboard,hedid
singittoamusehimselfwhileBataviawasstillinsight.163Thesetwoaccountsshowthatthe
departurefromAsiawascelebratedbytheseafarers.Thesongwaspartofthatcelebration
bringinggreatjoytothesingers.
OthersongsorhymnswerealsosungonboardoftheCompany’sships;somewere
even‘written’orcameinexistenceduringthevoyage.Althoughitisdifficulttodetermine
161Herport,ReisenachJava,167.162Hesse,Gold-BergwerkteinSumatra,117-126.163Idem,117.
44
thisformostofthesongs,accordingtoDavidstherearesomeexceptions.Anexampleisthe
song‘Eennieuwlied,ofhetdroevigJounael,gemaektvanheteygeScheepsvolk,vanhet
Oost-IndiesRetour-schipgenaemtGeertruy,voordekamervanEnkhuysen’,notonlydoes
thetitleofthesongconfirmthatitwaswrittenonboard,aGermantravellerconfirmsthisin
histravelaccount.Itiscertaintosaythatalotofsongs,includingthosementionedabove,
weresungregularlyonboardoftheVOCships.164Thisinsightisveryinteresting,notonly
wereseafarersamusedbysingingsongs,someapparentlyalsopassedtheirtimebywriting
songsaboutthevoyage.Although,thisprivilegeofpenmanshipwasmostlikelyexclusively
enjoyedbytheliterateseafarers.Musicdefinitelybroughttheseafarersclosertogether,
whichisshowninthesingingandshantyingonboard,inthenextpartofthischapterwe
willinvestigatewhetherthiswasalsothecaseforothermusicalendeavours.
PlayingMusicalInstruments
Thesongspreviouslydiscussedinthischapterwerenottheonlysoundsofmusiconecould
heartravelingonboardofaCompanyship.Inthefirstchapterwehavediscussedthe
primaryroleoftrumpetersanddrummersinthemusicalcommunicationsonboard.We
haveseenthatthetrumpetersanddrummersplayedtheirinstrumentsinspecial
ceremonies,forexamplewhenvisitorsarrivedandspendtimeonboard.165PeterKolbe
describesnotonlytheroleoftheseplayersinhistravelaccount,musiconboardoftheship
ingeneralisdiscussedingreatdetail.Koblewritesthatthetrumpetersplayedonmany
differentoccasions:atsunriseorsundown,atmeal-times,whenthecaptainwantstobe
amused,whenspecialguestscameonboardorasatreatforthecrew.166Music,inthese
cases,wasaninstitutionalizedformofentertainment,becauseitwasorderedthroughthe
regulations.167Evenmoreinteresting,Kolbewritesthatthoseinterestedintheartofmusic,
amongtheseafarers,wouldnotonlyplayalongsidethetrumpetertoamusethecaptain,
theysupposedlyalsogottogethertoplayforthemselves.Kolbe’saccountdoesshowthat
peoplealsobroughttheirowninstrumentonboard.Instrumentsliketheviolinortheflute
164Davids,Watlijdtdenzeemanalverdriet,70-71.165Henssen,TrompettersenTamboers,93-94.166“…enhetaanbrekenvandendagbekentmaaktdooreenigmorgen-lied,endenavonddoorhetblazenvan‘teenofanderavond-lied.Wanneerheteetenstydislaathyzichwederhoren,envoorhetoverigezoodikwylsalshetdenKapiteinbehaagt,ofwanneer‘ereenigvreemdchaloupmetOfficiersaankomt,ofaanboordgetrakteerdworden.”Source:Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving,12-13.167Henssen,TrompettersenTamboers,92-94.
45
wereplayed,otherssang,thesoundofmusiccouldbeheardfromseveralcornersofthe
ship,amusingtheirfellowseafarers.“…Zelfsgaanzedikwylsbymalkanderzittenomvoor
haareigevermaakeenstukjetemaken,enzietmenmeermalenhiereenigedieopdeViool
spelen,daareenigeHautboïsten,ginseenigedieopdeFluitspelenenweeropeenandere
plaatsdiezichmetzingenvermaken;zoodat’eropeenschip,alshetmooiweeris,meer
vrolykheidbedrevenword,alsophetvrolykstegastmaalophetvasteland.”168Thisisa
crucialinsightintothemusicalperformancesonboardofaCompanyship,showingthe
importanceofmusiciansinamusingthemselvesandtheirfellowseafarers(seephoto2).
Photo2Seafarers'pastimeonboardofaIndiamen,severalpersonsareplayingmusicalinstruments.Source:Rijksmuseum,Objectnummer:NG-1985-7-2-109,ScheepsvolkopOost-Indiëvaarder,JanBrandes,1778-1787.http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.214514(Accessed24June2019).
168Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving,13,17.
46
Musicwasnotonlyaninstitutionalizedamusementbutalsoapastimeactivityforthose
travelingonboardoftheCompany’sships.Itprovidedgreatjoytothoseonboard,
especiallywhentheweatherallowedit,musicmadethespiritsoftheseafarerevenhigher
thanamealonland,accordingtoKolbe.Notonlythecommonseafaringpersonnelenjoyed
makingmusicintheirpastime,inthefollowingaccountsoftheLammensandSwellenberg
sisterswewillseethatthiswasalsothecaseforthepassengerstravelingonboard.
Moreover,theseaccountsconfirmKolbe’saccountthatmusicianswereamongthoseon
boardoftheships.
TheLammenssisters,travelingaspassengersonboardtheshipAdrighemin1736,
writethattheylistenedtothe‘usual’musicafterdinner.Theyquiteenjoyedthismusic
performedbyagroupofGermanplayers.169Althoughthesisterswerepassengerson
board,thisaccountdoesconfirmKolbe’saccountofmusicalseafarersonboardofthe
Company’sships.TheSwellengrebelsisterstoomentionthattheylistenedtomusicmultiple
timesduringtheirvoyagebacktotheRepublicin1751,theypresentmoredetailed
informationaboutmusiconboard.Evenmore,theyalsojoinedinwiththemusicalaffairs
onboard,playingtogetherwiththemusicians.Thisshowsthatmusicbroughtseafarersof
differentnationalitiesandrankstogether.Atleasttemporarily,thedifferencebetweenthe
playersandpassengersdisappeared.Thereweremultiple‘musicians’onboard,playing
instrumentsliketheviolinandharp,oneofthesistersplayedthefluteandanothersang.
“..,haddemuziek,dehofmeesteropzijnharp,beneffensdeanderemusicantenophaare
instrumenten,susterJohanna,Stansie,endesecretaries,zongenluijterse(lutherse)
liederen,naderhandhaddewijconsert,susterJohanna,enikopdefluijte,eneenmusicant
opdefiool,…”170AgainthisconfirmsKolbe’sdescriptionofmusiconboard,howeverwestill
donotknowforcertainthatthemusiciansalsoplayedforthemselves,becausewehaveto
takeintoconsiderationthatthesepassengerswerestillguestsonboard.Theydidnothave
toparticipateintheeverydaylabourandthereforehadmoretimeontheirhandstoamuse
themselves.Thefluteandviolinwerethemostfavouredmusicalinstruments.171Inhis
publicationaboutskippersonboardoftheVOCships,JaapR.Bruijnshowsthatvarious
skippersactuallybroughttheirowninstrumentsonboard.Oneofthem,HermanusBlom,
169Barend-vanHaeftenandVanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC,69.170Idem,122,127,144.171Bruijn,SchippersvandeVOC,182.
47
broughtaclavichordwithhimonboard,thisisarectangularinstrumentwithstringsand
verysuitedfortravelandsmallspaces.172ItiscertainthatmusiconboardoftheCompany’s
shipwasexistent,andanordinaryoccurrenceforthoseonboard.VeryoftentheGermans
travelingonboardhadaleadingroleinthesemusicalpursuits.173Boththeseafaring
personnelandthepassengerstravelingonboardoftheCompany’sshipsenjoyedthese
musicalendeavoursonboard.AlthoughKettinghaslookedatthepastimeactivitiesofthose
onboardoftheCompany’sshipsfortheperiodbetween1595to1650,hedidnotinclude
thesemusicalamusementsinhisassessment.AndalthoughDeHullumentionssingingin
relationtoothercelebrations,hetooneglectstoacknowledgemusicasapastimeactivityin
itself.
PlayandPastime
EventhoughDanSleigharguesthattherewaslittleopportunityforrelaxationonboardof
theCompany’sship,wehavealreadyseenthatthiswasnotthecase.174Intheremainderof
thischapterwewilldiscussvariouspastimeactivitiesthatfurthersubstantiatethis
refutation.NotonlyinmusicalperformancesoramusementsGermansplayedanimportant
roleonboardoftheCompany’sships,alsointheatreorplayonboardtheywereleading
players.Playsorcomedieswerenon-institutionalizedamusementsonboardofthe
Company’sships.Travelers,fromvariouskindsofbackground,mentionedsuch
performancesintheirtravelaccounts.OnboardoftheshipZuidpolsbroekforexamplea
theatricalpiececalled‘thelostson’wasperformedbyagroupofsevenoreightGerman
travellers.Also,in1674,agroupofGermansformedatheatregroup,theyplayedmusicand
arealsomadepreparationstoperformacomedyandaplay.175Asimilaraccountisgiven
aboutavoyageoftheshipKievitsheuvel,duringthetimeonboard,musicwasplayedand
songsorhymnsweresong.Alsoonboardofthisshipcomedieswereperformed,ontheday
theplayHansworstwasplannedtobeperformedanaccidenthappenedwithoneofthe
players.AgainaGermanplayer,backonlandheoftenplayedaharlequin,broughthisown
costume.Performingtheroleofdoctorintheplay,outofenthusiasm,hefranticlyjumped
172Bruijn,SchippersvandeVOC,182.173VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,166.174Sleigh,JanCompagnie,48.175VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,167.
48
aroundtheship,hefelloverboardanddrowned.Afterthisspecificincidentthecaptainof
theKievitsheuvelprohibitedalltheatricalperformancesonboard.176Althoughitisnot
specificallyclarifiedforwhomthesetheatricalpieceswereperformed,certainisthatthey
werepartoftheamusementsonboardoftheCompany’sships.Kolbealsomentions
comediesbeingplayedonboardofhisshipduringthereturnvoyagetotheRepublic.While
thewindswereintheirfavour,makinggreatprogressiontowardstheEuropeancontinent,
theship’screwhadlittleworktodo.Severalpastimeactivitieskeptthemoccupied,playing
comedieswasoneoftheseamusements.177Kolbe’saccountconfirmsthattheseafarersdid
indeedperformtheatricalplaysamongthemselves,oratleast,everyonewasabletobehold
theperformance.
Thetheatricalpunishmentsdiscussedinthesecondchapterarealsoworth
mentioninghere.Wehaveseenthatseafarersusedseveralplaystopunishfellowsailors,
theseplayswerequiteelaborateandplayedinfrontofeachother.Becausetheseplays
wereonlyperformedwhentherewastimeofoffwork,wecanconsiderthesetheatrical
punishmentsasformsofpastimeamusementaswell.EventhoughDeHullutreatsthem
merelyasformsofamusementsoftheseafarersonboardoftheCompany’sships,these
playsservedadualisticpurpose.Lastly,itisworthmentioningonestrikingaccountofa
theatricalperformanceonboardofaCompanyship.TheSwellengrebelsistermentionthat
onenight,aftertheirfatherwenttobedandthehighofficershaddinnertheywatcheda
performanceoftheGijsbregtvanAmstel(afamoushistoricDutchplaywrittenbyJoostvan
denVondel).“dognaderhandspeeldeGijsbregtvanAmstel,onzeboekebinderwasde
gouverneurvanLeijden,decapteijn,susterJohannaStansieenik,zaatendaarbij,omdat
fraaijespelaantezienom11uurengingenwijnabeneeden,…”178Eventhoughthehigher
officersonboardmostlikelycommandedtheperformanceofthisplay,thesekindsof
amusementscanstillbecategorizedaspastime.Officersandpassengersspendtheir
pastimewatchingit,andonecanimaginethatifaplayliketheGijsbregtvanAmstelwas
playedtheshippersonnelwasawareoftheperformanceandmighthavealsobeenallowed
tobepresent.Althoughthisisuncertain,wecansafelyacceptthatplaysandcomediesin
176VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,167.177Kolbe,Naaukeurigeenuitvoerigebeschrijvyving,444.178Barend-vanHaeftenandVanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC,122.
49
generalwereperformedonboardoftheCompany’sshipsandprovidedamusementanda
distractionfromeverydayproceedingsforitspassengersandcrew.
Thereareseveralotherpastimeactivitiesthatseafarersenjoyedintheirfreetimeon
boardoftheCompany’sships.Whileallsortsofgameswere,byArtikelbrief,prohibitedlike
wehaveseeninthesecondchapter,gameswerestillplayedonboard.Aboardgamecalled
‘Ganzenborden’wasplayedforexample,andevenskipperssometimesjoined.Skippersalso
broughttheirowngamesonboardintheirpersonaltrunk.HermanBlom,whoalsobrought
anmusicalinstrument,hadacheckerboardonboard.179Boardgameslikecheckersand
chesswereplayedonboardoftheCompany’sships.180Ontopofthat,andeventhough
theywereforbidden,card-gamesandgameswithdiceswereplayed.181Oneskipper,Joris
Davidszoonbroughtdiceswithhimonboard.182Thisisquitesurprisingsincethiswasstrictly
forbiddentoroledicesonboard.Apparentlythiswasnotarareexception,ithappened
morefrequentlybecauseinthearchaeologicalexcavationsfromtheVOCshipHollandiaa
dicewasfoundaswell.183GamblingwasalsoprohibitedbytheArtikelbrieven,yetfour
seafarersonboardofsurgeonGijsbertHeeck’sshipwerecaughtbetting.Heeckwritesthat
theywerepunishedinpublictosetanexample,andtopreventothersonboardfrom
gamblingaswell.184Thisaccountagainconfirmsthesocialfunctionoftheritualsof
punishmentsdiscussedinthesecondchapter.
Othergametokenswerealsousedforplayinggamesonboardoftheships(see
photo3).Alotofcircularandrectangulargametokenswerefoundinthewrecksof
Companyships,liketheHollandiaandtheWaddinxveenwrecks.185Inthetravelaccountof
theSwellengrebelsistersitismentionedseveraltimesthattheyplayedgamesduringthe
voyage.Interestingly,twotimestheyalsomentionwhatkindofgametheyplayed.Inthe
firstgametheplayersclapeachother’shandswhilesayingrhymesoutloud.Anothergame
wasplayedwithlittlewoodenstickswhichtheyhighlylikelyusedtomakefigureswith.In
179Bruijn,SchippersvandeVOC,182.180BruijnandLucassen,OpdeschependerOost-IndischeCompagnie,131;VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,165-166.181VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,165-166.182Bruijn,SchippersvandeVOC,182.183Gawronski,KistandStokvisvanBoetzelaer,Hollandiacompendium,432.184HeeckandDekkers,EenBunschoterVOC-chirurgijn,32-33.185Gawronski,KistandStokvisvanBoetzelaer,Hollandiacompendium,432-434;Werz,‘Eenbedroefd,enbeclaaglijckongeval’,138.
50
comparison,theLammenssistersalsomentionthattheyplayedgames,butonlyonce.186So
eventhoughspecificgames,likegambling,playingcards,androllingdice,wereforbidden
onboardoftheCompany’sships,severalkindsofgameswereplayed.Thearchaeological
sourcematerialshowsthateventhoughsomegameswereprohibited,itdidnotstopthe
seafarersfromplaying.
Photo3Gametoken.Source:Rijksmuseum,Objectnummer:NG-1979-332-H,SpeelpenninguithetwrakvandeOost-IndiëvaarderHollandia,anoniem,1700–inofvoor1743http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.665877(Accessed24June2019).
Threemorepastimeactivitiesarecrucialtomentionwithregardtothenon-institutionalized
formsofamusement,catchingfishandsmokingtobacco.Incalmweathercatchingfishwas
awelcomeandexcitingamusementfortheseafarers,birdswerealsocaughtbutlessoften.
Allsortsoffishwerecaught,includingsharks.Toseafarers,sharkswereacommunalenemy
andthereforcapturingonewasanexhilaratingevent,followedbyaritualofslaughter.
RoelofvanGelderexplainsthattheslaughterofasharkprovidedamomentforthe
seafarerstoexerttheiraggressionwithoutconsequences.187Thishighlylikelybecauseitis
186Barend-vanHaeftenandVanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC,78,124,129,130,136.187Ketting,Leven,werkenrebellie,163-165;VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,167-168.
51
certainthattensionsandaggressionsquicklyaroseonboardoftheships,aswehave
discussedinthesecondchapter.Iftheseaggressionscouldbeventilatedinthispastime
activityandritualofcatchingandslaughteringashark,theywouldnotescalateinto
somethingworse.Thisconfirmstheimportanceofpastimeactivitiesandritualsonboardof
theCompany’sshipsinmaintainingsocialorder.ThetravelaccountofJohannHoffmann
providesuswithelaborateinformationabouttheoperationofcatchingfishasapastime
activity:“DasgemeineVolcksuchtebeysoangenehmenWeeterihrZeit-Vertreibim
FischfangundfischetenmitgrossenmessingernAngelhacken,anwelchesiekeinAtzung
sonderneinigeweiseFederleinbundenundalsodenHackenhinundherbewegend,aufs
Meerhangenliessen…”188Notonlydoeshedescribethecourseofevents,healsosumsup
allthedifferentkindsoffishthatwerecaught,includingsharksanddolphin.Notonlythe
‘commonseafarers’participatedinthispastimeactivity,theLammenssisterswritethat
theyalsotriedtocatchfishfromtheircabinontheship.189Conjointly,itisnotsurprising
thatfishinghookswerefoundamongvariousarchaeologicalexcavationsofVOC-shipsthat
wrecked.190Fishingprovidedyetanotherpastimeamusement,butitalsohadasocial
function.Theritualsperformedwhenasharkwascaught,andmoreimportantly,thefact
thateverybodyonboardenjoyedtheactivity,substantiatethatitcouldalsohaveincreased
thesocialcohesion.
AmongthearchaeologicalfindsofvariousVOC-wrecksisevenmoreevidencefrom
anotherpastimeamusement,smokingtobacco.Alotofclaypipeswerefoundforthe
consumptionoftobaccoandalsolittleboxestostorethetobaccoin(seephoto4).191Thisis
notsurprisingsinceeverysailorinemploymentoftheVOCreceivedseveralpipesupon
boardingaship.192Intheinventoriesfromsailorsthatpassedawayonboard,onecanalso
188Hoffman,ReisenachdemKaplande,18-19.189Barend-vanHaeftenandVanEyckvanHeslinga,OpreismetdeVOC,67;Herport,ReisenachJava,170.190Green,ThelossoftheVerenigdeOostindischeCompagniejacht“VerguldeDraeck”,182;Rijksmuseum,Objectnummer:NG-1976-8-PM,VishaakuithetwrakvandeOost-IndiëvaarderPrincesseMaria1682-1686.(Accessed25June2019)http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.298737.191Gawronski,KistandStokvisvanBoetzelaer,Hollandiacompendium,360-373;Green,ThelossoftheVerenigdeOostindischeCompagniejacht“VerguldeDraeck”,152-162;Werz,‘Eenbedroefd,enbeclaaglijckongeval’,135-137;Rijksmuseum,Objectnummer:NG-1975-76-ME,PijpuithetwrakvandeOost-IndiëvaarderMeresteijn1693-1702.http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.299449(Accessed25June2019);Rijksmuseum,Objectnummer:NG-1984-59-23,FragmentenvanpijpenenpijpenstelenuithetwrakvandeOost-Indiëvaarder‘tVliegendHart1700-1735.http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.294088(Accessed25June2019).192Werz,‘Eenbedroefd,enbeclaaglijckongeval’,135.
52
findevidenceofthis.Tobaccowasfoundintheluggageofmany,andalsoboxestostorethe
tobaccoinandlighterswerefoundamongsailors’possessions.193Onecanimaginethatona
ship,madeofsubstantialamountsofwood,therewastremendousriskoffire.Eventhough
smokingtobaccoprobablywasapopularpastimeactivityonboard,duetoitsdangersof
causingafire,itwasonlyallowedtosmokeapipeduringtheday.194Thereisonemore
pastimeactivityworthmentioningbecauseithappenedalotonboardoftheCompany’s
ships,andpossiblyalsowhileseafarersenjoyedsmokingapipe.Storytellingmusthavebeen
themostregularpastimeactivity,alotofthetimethesestoriesmusthavebeenlife
histories.195
Photo4FragmentsofpipesfromthewreckoftheEastIndiamen'tVliegendHart.Source:Rijksmuseum,Objectnummer:NG-1984-59-23,FragmentenvanpijpenenpijpenstelenuithetwrakvandeOost-Indiëvaarder‘tVliegendHart1700-1735.http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.294088(Accessed25June2019).
193NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:6934,Inventarissenvangoederen,1718-1719,1743-1744.194VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,169;Forexample:NationaalArchief,Inventarisnummer:14328,ArtikelbriefvandeStaten-Generaal1658.195VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur,169.
53
Especiallytheselastfewpastimeactivitiesareveryinteresting,notonlybecausethe
occurredoutsideoftheinstitutionalizedframeworkofamusementonboardofthe
Company’sships.Inthischapterwehaveseenthatmusicalendeavoursonboardofthe
DutchEastIndiaCompany’sshipswerepartoftheproceedingsonboard,andtheypartof
thepastimeactivities.Musicalconcertswereperformedandmusicalinstrumentswere
played,notonlybyseafarers,butalsobyofficersandpassengers.Therefore,musicwas
alsonon-institutionalizedpastimeactivityonboardoftheCompany’sships.Comediesand
otherplayswerealsoperformedonboard,againthesewereperformedbothinfrontof
officersandpassengers,andamongseafarers.Other,morecommon,activitieslikesmoking,
fishing,playinggamesandstorytellingwerealsoenjoyedtopassthetime.Theseactivities
andamusementswereofgreatimportancebecauseitgaveseafarerssomethingtodoin
theirtimeoffduty.Wehaveseenthatincaseoftheritualofcatchingsharks,seafarers
neededthiskindofritualtoasserttheiraggression.Providingthesailorswithsomethingto
dokeptthemfromcausingtroubleandpossiblydisruptingsocialorderonboard.Ingeneral,
allonboardenjoyedthepastimeactivitiesdescribedinthischapter,regardlessoftheirrank
ornationality.Moreover,insomecases,thepastimeactivitieswereenjoyedbypassengers,
higherofficersand‘common’seafarerstogether.
54
Conclusion
Inthisthesiswehavediscussedvarioustypesofinstitutionalizedrituals,punishments,
rewards,amusementsandpastimeactivitiesonboardoftheCompany’sships.Rituals,the
structuresandceremoniesthatwereregularlyrepeatedinpredictableways,playedan
essentialroleinthis.Indefinition,ritualshaveasocialfunction,inthefirstchapterwehave
seenthatthefunctional-structuralisticapproachreflectsandcharacterizedthesocial
functionofritualsonboard.Helpingandimprovingsocialordertherituals,inrelationtothe
shipcommunity,wereveryimportantonboardofshipsoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany.
Thiswasdemonstratedintheremainderofthefirstchapter,discussingthesignallingand
communicationritualsandtheseabaptism.Theseritualscanbecharacterizedas
institutionalizedamusementsbecausetheyprovidedtheseafarerswithdistractionsfrom
thehardshipsoflifeonboard,yettheywerealsoorderedfromabove,meaningthatthese
ritualswereregulated.Regulationsbecameritualsbecauseoftheway,whereandfor
whom,theywereperformed.Intherestofthisthesiswediscoveredthatmoreregulations
qualifiedasrituals.
Inthesecondchapterwehavediscussedavarietyofpunishmentsonboardofthe
Companyships.ThesepunishmentswereadministeredbytheCompany’sdirectorsto
controlthelargebodyofpeopleonboard.Moreover,theritualisticnatureofthese
punishmentshadtwoeffects.Notonlydiditenlargetheexemplaryfunctionofthe
punishments,whichagainservedtosocialcontrol,italsobroughtaboutthetheatricalityof
thepunishments.Thislastelementqualifiespunishmentsasinstitutionalizedamusements.
Interestingly,sailorsusedtheatricalplaystopracticejusticemutually,intheseplays
punishmentsliterallywereamusements.Tocelebratespecialoccasionsseafarerswere
rewarded,inmostcasesextraprovisionsweredistributedamongthem.Oftenthese
rewardsweregiventocelebrateadangerouspassageofthejourney,simultaneouslygiving
theseafarersanopportunitytokeeptrackoftheprogressofthevoyage,whichwasthe
sameforeverybodyonboard,regardlessoftheirrankornationality.Thesecelebratory
momentsbroughttheseafarersgreatjoyandanopportunitytoforgetthetoughworking
conditionsonboard.Toacertainextent,theseamusementswereoftenregulated,and
thereforetheywerepartoftheinstitutionalizedamusementsaswell.
55
Partoftheinstitutionalizedamusementswerealsothereligiousritualsthatprovedtobean
importantpartofeverydaylifeonboardoftheCompany’sships.Inthethirdchapterwe
haveseenthattheziekentroostersandpastorsonboardoftheshipsplayedanimportant
roleinthis,dailyperformingthereligiousritualsthatwereregulatedintheArtikelbrieven.
Varioustravellersdescribethese,andotherlessregular,ritualsinthetravelaccounts
substantiatingtheirfunctiononboard.Becausethesereligiousritualsprovidedthe
seafarerswithasenseoffamiliarity,resemblingthereligiousritualsbackathome.They
helpedseafarersthroughthedifficultiesofthevoyage,givingthemfaithandhope.
Then,wecontinuedtodiscussthemusicandpastimeactivitiesonboardofthe
Company’sships.Musiconboardwasusedinseveralways.Intheeverydayoperationofthe
ship,forinstance,itplayedanimportantroleinhelpingthesailorsworktogether,which
helpedeasingthetoughlabour.Also,itwasusedtoannouncetheguardtochange,wehave
seenthatsingingrelievedsailors,bothliterallyandinafigurativesense.Musicwasalsopart
ofthepastimeactivitiesandamusementsofboththehigherofficersandthecommon
seafarers.Playsandmusicwasperformedtoamusethehigherofficersandpassengerson
board,buttheyalsotookpartinplayingmusicthemselves,justlikethecommonseafarers,
iftheweatherallowedit.Severalotherpastimeactivitieswereenjoyedbythoseonboard
oftheCompanyships;playinggames,fishing,tellingstoriesandsmoking.Aswehaveseen
inthelastpartofthefourthchapter,thesepastimeactivitiesoccupiedtheseafarers‘free’
time.Thepastimeactivityoffishingprovidedusyetwithanotherveryimportantinsightinto
thefunctionofamusementsonboard,itshowedusthattheactivity,andespeciallythe
ritualofcatchingandslaughteringsharks,wasanoutletforseafarerstoexerttheir
aggressionorcroppedupfrustrations.
Thein-depthevaluationofvariouskindsofinstitutionalizedamusementsand
pastimeactivities,wasnecessarytoanswerthefirstpartofthemainquestionofthis
research:WhichamusementsandpastimeactivitieswereavailableonboardoftheVOC
ships,travelingtoandfromAsiabetween1650and1800,andhowdidtheycontributeto
thefunctioningoftheship?Wecategorizedvarioustypesofamusements,somemaybeless
expectedthanothers,includingmanyrituals,punishments,rewards,religionandother
pastimeactivities.Alltheseamusements,whetherinstitutionalizedornot,playedan
importantroleinthefunctioningoftheship.Comparabletothefunctionofrituals,itissave
toconcludethattheamusementshelpedimproveandprotectsocialorderonboardofthe
56
DutchEastIndiaCompany’sships.Becausetheamusementswerecarriedoutinaritualistic
manner,several‘amusements’literallykepttheseafarersinorderduringtheirworking
routine.Providingthesailorswithsomethingtodointheir‘free’time,theseamusements
alsopreventedsailorsfromcausingproblemsanddisruptingsocialorder.Theritualsand
proceedingsthatwequalifiedasinstitutionalizedamusementsdistractedtheseafarersfrom
thehardshipsoflifeonboard.Themerefactthatmostoftheseamusementswere
regulatedbytheArtikelbriefshowthattheywereimportantinkeepingthesocialorderon
boardoftheCompany’sships.Mostimportantly,wehaveseenthatalotofthese
amusementsexceededsocialboundarieslikenationalityandrank–everybodyonboard
enjoyedtheseamusementsorengagedinthem.Exceptfromtheskipper,hehadto
maintainhispositionascommander,andoftentimesorderedtheperformanceofthese
activities.TheamusementsbroughtcohesionbetweenforeignersandDutchmenandthe
boundariesbetweenthe‘commonseafarers’,higherofficersandpassengersbecameless
distinguishable.Altogether,thisshowsandemphasizesthattheshipwasasocietyofits
own–aheterotopia.Socialboundaries,valuesandstandardsdidexist,buttosomeextent
theywerelessdistinguishablecomparedtothoseonland.Ontheship,aswehaveseen,the
passengersandhigherofficersenjoyedseveralamusementstogetherwiththe‘common
seafarers’,whereasonlandtheywouldneverbeincontactwitheachother.Thisinsightof
thesocialfunctionofvarioustypesofamusementsisnewinthehistoriography.
Thisthesisalsocontributestothedeficiencyofresearchonthesubjectofculture
andamusementsonboardoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany’sships,identifiedbyBruijnand
Lucassen.Moreover,itbridgesthegapinhistoriographyonthissubjectfortheperiod
between1650and1800.Inadditiontothis,thisresearchintroducesanewqualificationof
severalkindsofamusementsandpastimeactivities.Previousscholarswritingaboutthe
amusementsonboardoftheCompany’sships,likeKetting,Bruijn,andDeHullu,donot
distinguishvariousaspectsofthepunishments,religionandotherritualsassuch.Compared
toBruijn’sbookZeegang,thisthesisoffersamoreelaborateexaminationofthepastime
activitiesandamusements,includingtheirfunction.Introducingtheconceptof
‘institutionalizedamusements’intothehistoriography,thisthesisallowsustobroadenour
perspective,andlookattheactualfunction,ofvariouskindsofamusementsonboardofthe
DutchEastIndiaCompany’sships.ComparedtoKrabbendam’sresearchonthe
institutionalizedamusementsonboardoftrans-Atlanticpassengershipsbetween1840and
57
1960,thisthesisshowsthat,alreadyinacoupleofcenturiespriortoKrabbendam’s,
amusementsonboardofshipswerelargelyinstitutionalized.Inthegeneralhistoriography
abouttheDutchEastIndiaCompany,alotofresearchhasbeendoneonitslabourforce,
andonthesubjectofcontrollingalargebodyofpeopleontheships.Comparedtothe
historiographythisthesisoffersaratheruniqueperspectiveonthissubject,showingthat
amusementsandpastimeactivitiesplayedasubstantialroleinthesocialorderonboard,
confirmingthattheshipswereheterotopias.
Themethodologicalapproachofthisthesisresultedinanall-inclusiveassessmentof
theavailable,andmulti-lingual,sourcematerialandprovedtobeveryeffective.This
exceptionalanalysisofthesubjectmatteralsoresolvedsomemisconceptionsthatwerea
resultofanerroneousinterpretationofthesourcematerial.Furthermore,usingacoherent
definitionofrituals,andthefunctionofrituals,presentedanopportunitytodemonstrate
thatvariousritualscanbecharacterizedasamusements.Incorporatingthenotyet
accessiblesourcematerialinfutureresearchwouldprovideuswiththepossibilityto
exploretheamusementsonboardoftheCompany’sshipsevenmoreextensively.
Additionalquestionsmightarise.Historiansfocusingoncross-culturalresearch
mightfocusontheculturalinfluencetheseafarershadonthelocalculturesofAsiaand
otherplacestheytouchedland.Consequently,thissamequestioncouldbeaskedviceversa.
Inacomparativeperspectiveitwouldbeveryinterestingtoexaminethecontrastand
similaritiesbetweenothertradingcompanies,forexampletheBritishEastIndiaCompany.A
comparisonmightalsocontributenewinsightsintotheamusementsonboardoftheDutch
EastIndiaCompany’sships.Furthermore,wehaveseenthatreligiononboardshowedgreat
similaritiestoreligiouspracticesonland,thisraisesthequestionwhetherthiswasalsothe
caseforotherritualsandamusements.Todeterminewhetherotherculturalaspectsofa
societywerecarriedoverontotheships,futureresearchmightfocusoncomparingthese
culturalaspectsonlandtothoseonboard.Possibly,thiscouldevenprovideuswithnew
insightsintotheamusementsonboard.Thisthesiswillhopefullyencouragesocialand
culturalhistorianstocontinueexploringthesesubjectsinthefuture.
58
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