Istorija kineskih borilačkih vještina

GENERAL YUE FEI DEFEATS HIS OPPONENT IN A MARTIAL COMPETITION.

Illustrations provided by W. Acevedo, except where noted.

Abstract

Mixed martial arts (MMA) has become one of the fastest-growing combat sports in the twenty-

first century, drawing millions of Pay-Per-View spectators since the inception of the ultimate

Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993. Popular conceptions have credited the creation of MMA

to Bruce Lee. a Chinese-American actor and martial artist who became an icon in the 1970s and

who is still considered by many as a revolutionary figure in the field. This paper will present, in

chronological order, examples of ancient Chinese martial arts concepts preceding the creation of

modern MMA.

30 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

A HistoricalOverview ofMixed MartialArts in Chinaby William Acevedo, M.Eng.and Mei Cheung, B.A.

M;ixed martial arts (MMA) is anLeclectic combat sport combining

striking and grappling techniques—extracted mainly from Muay Thai,Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ), westernwrestling, and boxing—which throughthe Ultimate Fighting Championship(UFC) banner has become one of thefastest-growing sports in the world(Trembow, 2007). It attracts an averageof 3.1 million Pay-Per-View spectatorsand employs 270 fighters (Miller, 2008).Dana White, the president of the most

popular fighting event in the west, acknowledges the importance of Bruce Lee'straining philosophy and the influence of his films to popularize Chinese martialarts outside China's borders (Miller, 2008). Lee's background was mainly in wingchun iyong chun), a fighting style that emphasizes short-range techniques; how-ever, through his experience. Lee came to the realization that fighting requiresone to prepare himself in other areas that his physical frame and basic stylelacked. Hence Lee spent a great deal of effort researching different strength andconditioning methods: hand techniques from western boxing; kicking tech-niques derived from Muay Thai; French savate; and Korean taekwondo, takedowns from Japanese judo and wrestling, joint locks from jujutsu, and even west-em fencing, to name a few influences (Lee, 1975).

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 31

Moreover, Lee also criticized what he called "flowery forms and organizeddespair" (Little, 1999), in reference to the routines practiced by the differentmartial arts systems and the unrealistic training methods of many schools. InLee's opinion an excellent physical condition combined with noncooperativepractice against a resisting opponent were the keys for martial excellence (Lee &.Uyehara, 1977). Even though Bruce Lee's ideas inspired millions to follow themartial path, there are many examples throughout China's history indicatingthat these theories were already well known, as developed in this paper.

Earlier Centuries ofImperial China (221 BCE-1912 CE)

Many civilizations had their ownstyle of grappling, and China is no excep-tion. The Chinese believed that headbutting ijiao di) was created by a godnamed Chi You. He's also credited for cre-ating metal weapons and for head buttinghis enemies (Birrell, 1993). Head buttingmight have developed over time from agame to an early Chinese wrestling style.By the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE),Chinese grappling became an official mili-tary sport evolving both in technique aswell as terminology. Branches of grapplingarts became known as juedi during the Qindynasty, xiangpu during in the Tang(618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties(Henning, 2001), to shuai jiao in modernChina.

Parallel to the evolution of grap-pling, striking methods were also practicedand differentiated from grappling. The firstmention of a striking method, called bo (use of the hands to strike), was used asearly as the Warring States Period (475-221 BCE). This concept also appears inearly Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE) books to describe survival activities such ashunting and fighting (Ma, 2000). In the Boole of Songs (Wikipedia, 2010), theterm bo shou was used to describe "fighting with animals" (Ma, 2000). The rela-tionship between hunting and martial skills lies in the fact that hunting was con-

HAN DYNASTY ORNAMENT (ABOVE)

DEPICTING JUEDI, AND (BELOW) A

RUBBING DEPICTING XIANGPU.


sidered a preparatory activity for war: not only physically demanding, but alsorequiring planning and strategy in order to be successful (Lin, 1996).

In his History of the Former Han, the Chinese historian Ban Gu (32-92CE) refers to a book titled Shou Bo as part of a series of entries on martial prac-tices. To date, this book has not been found (Shahar, 2008). By the ThreeKingdoms period (220 CE-280 CE), military skills flourished as a consequenceof the social unrest and continuous border disputes. Skills in tbe weapons of waras well as empty-hand methods were important for troop training, even thoughempty-hand methods were considered a basic skill (Qi & Ma, 1560, 1980). Themethods included in the practice of shou bo were grappling and striking tech-niques, and practicing these skills was "for real" (Ma, 2000). The concept andpractice for fighting effectiveness has been neglected by many modern Chinesemartial artists by converting their practice to nothing more than "flowery" per-formance or self-development practices. Some traditional Chinese martial artshave preserved the ancient practical approach by including the basic elements offlghting, such as kicking, punching, throwing, seizing, and the use of weapons.

It is important to point out that these ancient combat skills were not forsport or combat sports. One important commonality between the skills found inthe ancient combat arts and those in martial sports is in the mixing of comple-mentary striking and grappling techniques. Such a mixture of techniques allowsone to prepare for any combat situation, either in the ring, as where modernMMA matches are held, or the battlefield of ancient China. An example of thelethality of ancient shou bo is found in the Spring and Autumn Annals in the com-mentary by a master named Gao Gonyang. This source tells us that in "681 BCE,Wang of Song is said to have killed Duke Min by striking him and breaking hisneck" using his skill in bo (Henning, 2001).

The Imperial Military Examinations

Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690-705 CE), the first woman to become empressregnant of China, was responsible for instituting the imperial military examina-tions as a way to eliminate the remaining influence of the Li family, former rulersof the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). The requirements for the officers applying totake the examinations included several "mixed" martial abilities to be demon-strated. During the Tang, military examinations included flghting skills such asthe use of spear on horse, archery, and physical strength. By the Ming dynasty(1368-1644 CE), the examinations included more subjects as part of the evalu-ation, including archery, long spear, saber, straight sword, close-quarters fighting,wrestling, etc. (Ma, 2000).


Qing dynasty (1644-1912 CE) military examinations adopted elementsfrom the Ming system requiring the candidates to demonstrate mastery inarchery, horse riding, saber, and stone lifting, as well as a written exam on mar-tial theory (Ma, 2009; Miysaki, 1976). Additional to these subjects, wrestlingwas also an important part of military training for the Manchu rulers, who had along wrestling tradition, to the point of organizing a special camp with the bestwrestlers, known as the Shanpu Ying Camp (Ma, 2009).

Outlaws of the Marsh: Literary Descriptions of Ancient Martial SkillsEvidence of martial eclecticism or "mixed martial arts" as well as critical

commentaries about "flowery" methods, can also be found in literary novels, oneof which is Outlaws of the Marsh, also known as AÍÍ Men are Bothers, or the Water

Mar^n. This novel contains the best descriptions of ancient military skills, withsuch realism to be considered an encyclopedia on Chinese martial arts practices(Ying & Yan, 2008). In chapter 2 of the novel, a military arms instructor knownby the name Wang J in is forced to seek refuge to avoid the persecution of a tyrantmarshal. As the story goes, Wang Jin and his mother make a stop at a manor,where its kind owner takes them in. After a short stay and while Wang preparesthe horses, he witnesses a young man practicing with a staff. After watching theyoung lad, Wang makes the following comment: "Not a bad style, but it has itsweaknesses. It wouldn't stop anyone who was really good" (Shapiro, Shi, & Luo,1980).

This passage reveals the concept of practicality versus "flowery" move-ment when training for combat, and it can be applied in the practice of martialarts with or without weapons. A second passage about the same arms instructorhas him teaching the young man named Shi Jin, who was the son of Wang Jin'shost, the eighteen weapons of war as a sign of gratitude for the hospitality Wangand his mother received at the manor. These weapons were the following:"lance, mallet, long bow, crossbow, jingal, jointed bludgeon, truncheon, sword,chain, hooks, hatchet, axe, trident, shield, staff, spear and rake" (Shapiro, Shi,& Luo, 1980). One could argue that mastering these weapons, as the novel goes,in less than a year is an exaggeration. However, this passage could also be takenin a different context, indicating that the warrior should familiarize himself withdifferent fighting methods in order to be prepared for any situation encounteredin the unpredictable scenario of the battlefield.

The novel also describes wrestling matches on an elevated platform(leitai), like and ancient "octagon," where fighters tested their skills in combatunder the watchful eye of a judge. The contestants had to write a waiver in case


of death or injury (Shapiro, Shi, & Luo, 1980). These competitions were a com-mon occurrence by the Song dynasty (Kang, 1995).

OUTLAWS

OF T H E M A R S H

YAN Q I N G DEFEATS

HIS OPPONENT

ON THE LE/TAI.


The Classic of PugilismDuring the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), pirates from Japan and China

among other nations, increased their incursions along China's coastlines ofFujian, Zhejiang, and Shandong provinces. These attacks could not be stoppedby the regular army, which was focused on the northern borders. For this reason,a special group of commanders was put in charge of organizing special Chinesetroops, civil, and even monastic militias to stop the pirates. Among the mostfamous military leaders of the time was General Qi Jiguang (1528-1588 CE),who wrote the New Book of Effective Discipline (1560). His military manual cov-ers battle formations, weaponry, rations, empty-hand fighting, and other topics.

The section dealing with empty-hand fighting is the oldest survivingChinese empty-hand martial arts manual in existence, titled Classic ofPu^lism,Chapter on Essentials. Qi combined what he considered the most practical fight-ing styles without weapons of his time, from which Qi extracted thirty-twomovements to train his troops in empty-hand fighting. These styles are (Qi &.Ma, 1560, 1980; Wile, 1999):

Ba Shan Fan

Ershisi Qi Tan Ma

Houquan

Huaquan

Li Bantian Zhi Tui

Liu Buquan

Liu Hong Ba Xia

Mian Zhang Duan Da

Qian Die Zhang Zhi Die

Sanshiliu He Suo

Shier Dun

Song Taizu 32 Shi Changquan

Wen Jia 72 Xingquan

ying Zhua Wang Zhi Na

Zhang Bojin Zhi Da

« # •

8 Evasive Maneuvers

24 Probing Throwing Horse Techniques

Monkey Boxing

Decoy Boxing

Li Bantian's Shantung Leg Techniques

6 Steps Boxing

Liu Hong's Eight Throws

Zhang's Close-quarters Cotton Boxing

Qian's 1.000 Falling Techniques

36-Posture Seizing Routine

Twelve Close-quarters Postures

Song Taizu's 32 Long Boxing Postures

Wen Family's 72-Posture Routine

Wang's Eagle Claw Seizing Techniques

Zhang Bojin's Striking Techniques


Qi's work shows an early eclectic understanding based on practical expe-rience, requiring a thorough preparation for battle, removing the boundaries andallegiances to any specific martial art style. This approach of "mixed martial arts"includes long- and short-range techniques as well as grappling technique, such aslocking, seizing and falling (Qi &. Ma, 1560, 1980). Qi also emphasized practi-cality by testing one's skills in combat. Even so, routines practice is a methodused even today in China to train a great number of soldiers because it is usefulto teach basic body mechanics. Ming military experts such as Tang Shunzhi(1507-1560) stressed that "the reasons for postures in the martial arts is to facil-itate transformations.... Forms contain fixed postures, but in actual practicethere are no fixed postures. When applied they become fluid, but still maintaintheir structural characteristics" (Wile, 1999).

Qi also quotes an old adage that agrees with Tang's assessment: "If you lackgood posture, you will be defeated in one move, if mistakes are made, you will beineffective within ten moves" (Qi & Ma, 1560, 1980). The above statementsreveal that even though routines training helps to develop good posture andbody mechanics, in real practice, the martial artist does not follow a set pattern.Nevertheless, one must maintain proper alignment in order to apply any fight-ing technique effectively.

Republican China (1911-1949)

At the beginning of the twentieth century, China was at a crossroadsbetween modernization and the preservation of its traditions. Martial arts wereshunned by intellectuals educated overseas, who considered them outdated andunfit to strengthen the bodies of China's citizenry (Brownell, 1995). Despitethese attitudes, Chinese martial arts were preserved and used for military andcivilian training. During the Warlord Period (1916-1928), Ceneral Ma Liang(a.k.a. Ma Zizhen, 1878-1947) edited training manuals presenting aspects ofempty-hand flghting, Chinese wrestling, and the use of sword and staff. Thesemanuals were used for military as well as police unit training (Lin, 1996; Svinth,1999). What concerns us about Ma's approach for this discussion is the combi-nation of some striking styles as well as wrestling techniques to be taught as partof this new program named New Martial Arts (xin wushu) (Lin, 1996). However,this curriculum was short lived and disappeared from national view after theopening of the Central National Arts Academy in 1928.

The Central Academy's curriculum was made of several empty-hand aswell as weapons styles. During its initial years, the academy required its studentsto be well versed in some form of martial art, having to demonstrate it against an


1

i

A

.ai

t—*

(«1)1

rdA

i ' )

i- T

t i ÍL

íS|- + «

? i

-> .fí. T

PAGES FROM GENERAL M A LIANG'S CHINESE

BOXING MANUAL ( L E F T ) AND FROM HIS WRESTLING MANUAL ( R I G H T ) .

opponent before being accepted to the program (Hsu & Chang, 2010). This cur-riculum was a "mix" of several styles, such as eight extremes boxing, mind andintent boxing, eight trigrams palm, chopping palms, supreme ultimate boxing,Chinese wrestling, and several weapons. In addition to practicing the abovementioned styles, the students had to demonstrate their skill in combat againstother students. One of the main testing grounds organized by the academy wasthe institution of a national exam. Two national exams were organized, in 1928and 1933, even though some provinces organized a similar examination at localand provincial levels. During the examinations, participants faced each other inmatches of Chinese wrestling, empty hand, long weapons, and short weaponsfighting. Empty-hand fighting allowed striking as well as wrestling techniquesand was fought on an elevated platform (Ma, 2009; Chong, 1996). The acade-my's instructors created several routines "mixing" different martial art styles. Oneexample is the complete forms of eight trigrams palm. This routine combines theold eight palms form with elements ofxingjiquan, shuai jiao, and kickingmethods (Miller, 1992).

Additionally, during this peri-od, renowned martial artist and schol-ar Ma Fengtu (1888-1973) createdthe "Connect AH" (Tongbei) system of

1928 NATIONAL SANSHOU EXAMINATION.

Photo courteiy of Ma Lianzhen, President,

International Gnoshu Association.


martial arts, which includes long- and short-range styles, as well as weapons prac-

tice. These styles are: bajiquan, piguaquan, tumbling boxing, and poking foot.

Ma was also an expert in Chinese wrestling. Ma's inspiration came from his stud-

ies of Qi Jiguang's writings, specifically the blending of different styles in order to

be prepared for any type of confrontation (Acevedo, Cheung, &. Hood, 2008).

The following Republican Era martial artists also combined striking and grap-

pling as part of their training:

• Bu Enfu (1911-?): combined his knowledge oí shuaijiao. yi quan. and

western boxing; Bu believed that the highest levels of skill would come

through combining grappling and pugilism (Burroughs. 2006).

• Chang Dongsheng ( 1910-1986): learned taijiquan and xingyiquan at the

Central Martial Arts Academy, blending striking and throwing techniques.

• Tong Zhongyi (1879-1963): was an expert in six harmonies boxing,

techniques of catching and locking, and Mongolian-style wrestling. Tong

combined the three and created his unique fighting techniques (Chong. 1996).

• Wang Ziping (1881-1973): an expert of Long Fist, shuaijiao. bajiquan:

created a routine called Twenty Methods Fighting Form, which combines

seizing, throwing, and striking techniques (Ruggieri. 2009).

Moreover, famous martial artist Wan Laisheng (1903-1995), who partici-

pated in the first national examination, also criticized "flowery" practices over

combat effectiveness. To Wan, practicing moves without martial intention and

understanding of their practical applications was equivalent to dancing (Wan

2010). Wan also stressed the importance of testing martial arts against a resist-

ing opponent and learning from the experience no matter the outcome (Wan,

2006).

SHUAIJIAO MASTERS

IN TiANjiN CITY,

1930. LEFT TO RIGHT:

ZHANG LIANCHEN,

ZHANG HONGYU,

WANG WENHAI,

Bu ENFU,

MA WENPING,

AND

WANG HAIZHENG.


REAR NAKED CHOKE.

ARM TRIANGLE.

Inspiration for some grappling techniques could very well have beenpassed on to Japan by Chen Yuanyun (1587-1671), who is credited by thefounders of the Kito-ryu school of jujutsu as the source of some of their skills(Henning, 1999). Kano Jigoro (1860-1938), the Japanese master that foundedjudo, was a student of Kito-ryu. Moreover, many ground-fighting techniquesfound in modem BJJ were introduced to Brazil by Maeda Mitsuyo (1878-1941),a Japanese judo master credited to have taught the Gracie family, who createdBJJ. A good example of the use of grappling techniques for police units, as prac-ticed in China during the Republican period, is the book by Liu Jinsheng andZhao Jiang titled Seizing Skills (1936). This book contains several techniques sim-ilar to those being used in modern MMA, such as the use of the guard to controlan opponent, submissions such as the rear naked choke, standing guillotine, armtriangle, the "chicken wing," ankle lock, and knee and arm bar (Liu, Zhao, &.Cartmell, 2007).

Modern DevelopmentsOn May 23, 2009, at UFC 98 Lyoto Machida, a fighter of Brazilian-

Japanese heritage, shocked the world after winning the light heavy weight titlevia a knockout. Joe Rogan, the colorful commentator of the UFC, announcedMachida's victory as a "new era" in MMA. What made Machida's victory moresurprising is the fact that his martial background is a traditional version ofShotokan karate or Machida karate. Up until that point, MMA was dominatedby fighters with a background in Muay Thai, BJJ, western boxing, and collegewrestling. However, Machida was able to climb the ranks using his karate, sumo,and BJJ, combined with a short stint in Muay Thai to prepare himself against thecompetition during his meteoric career in the UFC (Machida, 2009).


An important point in the development of Shotokan karate is that its cre-ator Funakoshi Gichin (1868-1957), a native of Okinawa, borrowed elementsfrom Chinese boxing. His book. Karate Do Kyohan, contains references to theChinese book Wubei Zhi or Bubishi in Japanese (Manual of Military Preparedness).

There are two versions of the Wubei Zhi. The original treatise was edited by Mingmilitary expert Mao Yuanyi (1594-1640). Mao's encyclopedia contains 240 vol-umes dealing with famous battles, strategy, military formations, troop training,etc. The version used by Funakoshi and other Okinawa masters during the sameperiod is a volume made out of notes from martial traditions in Fujian province—mainly white crane and monk boxing (McCarthy, 1995).

Hence, Machida's success raises awareness of the effectiveness of tradi-tional martial arts in MMA, specifically Chinese martial arts. There is a wealthof techniques that has yet to be explored, even though MMA has started to growin China, sponsored by the Art of War^" promotion. One of the areas tradition-al Chinese martial arts lacks is ground fighting, a must in modern MMA; how-ever a few BJJ instructors started teaching this art back in 1998 and are beingsought by the new wave of Chinese MMA fighters (Brundage, 2008). Most of theChinese MMA athletes have a background in modern freestyle sanshou, sanda(an independent fighting style, not related to a particular traditional Chinesemartial art) (Acevedo, Cheung, & Hood, 2008); therefore traditional martialarts are yet to be represented in the octagon. Despite the proven record of mod-ern sanshou, there is much to benefit from traditional systems and methods. Intime we may witness the application of traditional Chinese martial arts in MMAcompetitions.

ConclusionsWe have presented several examples from early sources, as well as literary

examples of an early eclecticism and cross-training mind-set in the practice ofChinese martial arts. Ancient Chinese warriors were also aware of the need topractice these methods in realistic ways in order to apply them correctly whenneeded. These concepts preceded the creation of modern MMA and the theo-ries made popular in the west by Bruce Lee in the seventies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors wish to thank Stanley E. Henning

for his valuable insights and Tim Cartmell as well.


• baguazhang

• bajiquan

• baida

• baihequan

• bian

• bo

• bo shou

• chang bing qi

• chang quan

• chong

• chui

• chuo jiao

•da

• die

• dao

• duan bing qi

• duanda

• er shi faquan

• fanziquan

• f u

• ge

• gong

• gou

• gun

• gun shue ke

• guo kao

• he suo

• jian

• jian

• jian shu ke

• jiao di

eight trigrams palm

eight extremes boxing

close quarters fighting

white crane boxing

whip (jointed bludgeon?)

striking with hands

striking beast

long weapon

long boxing

jingal

hammer

poking foot

hit

fall down

knife (saber)

short weapon

short hitting

Twenty Fighting Methods

tumbling boxing

ax

trident; dagger-axe

bow

hook

stick/staff

stick/staff training course

national examination

locking

sword

truncheon

sword training course

head butting

-S:*-

71

m,

-151


• lao ba zhang

• lei tai

• lian

• ma bu jian

• mao

• na

• nu

• pa

• pai

• piquaquan

• qiang

• qinna fa

• quan jiao ke

• quan shi baguazhang

• rou dao (judo)

• rou shu (jujutsu)

• sanda

• sanshou

• shanpu ying

• sheng shi kao

• shou bo

• shuai

• shuai jiao ke

• taijiquan

• t i

• tui fa

• xian kao

• xiangpu (sumo)

• xin wushu

• xingyiquan

• yong chun/wing chun

old eight palms

competition platform

chain

horse stance (archery)

lance

capture/seizing

crossbow

rake

shield

chopping boxing

spear

seizing methods

fists feet discipline

complete baquazhang style

gentle way

gentle art

free fighting

free sparring

Expert Devoted Battalion

provincial examination

hand fight

throw/fall

throw/fall fighting discipline

supreme ultimate boxing

kick

leg methods

local examination

mutual striking

new martial arts

mind and intent boxing

spring chant boxing

•it*


BIBLIOGRAPHY

ACEVEDO, W , CHEUNG, M. , & HOOD, B. (2008, November/December). A life-

time dedicated to martial traditions: An interview with Professor Ma

February 4, 2010, from Kung Fu Magazine.com: http://ezine.kungfumagazine.

com/magazine/article.php?article=794

BiRRELL, A. (1993). Chinese mythology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

BROWNELL, S. (1995). Training the body for China. Chicago: The University of

Chicago Press.

BRUNDAGE, G . (2008, January/February). Beijing's mixed martial arts. Kung Fu

Taichi Magazine, pp. 14-15.

BURROUGHS, J. (2006, August). Threading a needle in the flash of lightning.

Kung Fu Taichi Magazine, 48-52.

CHONG, Y. (1996). Zhongyang Guoshuguan shi (The history of the Central

National Arts Academy). Hefei, Anhui: Huangshan Press.

HENNING, S. (1999, Fall). Academic encounters the Chinese martial arts. China

Revieii; International, 6(2), 319-332.

HENNING, S. (2001). What's in a name? The etymology of Chinese boxing.

Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 10(4): 8-17.

Hsu, A., & CHANG, B. (2010, April). Summary of sifu Han Ching-Tan's martial

Art: Pt. 1. Retrieved April 2, 2010, from Adam Hsu Kung Fu Traditiorml Martial

Arts: http://www.adamhsu.com/articles/taiwanblog_HanChingTan. htm

KANG, G . (1995). Spring and autumn of Chinese martial arts—5000 years. Santa

Cruz: Plum Publishing.

LEE, B. (1975). Tao ofjeet Kune Do. Santa Clarita, CA: Ohara Publications.

LEE, B., & UYEHARA, M . (1977). Bruce Lee's fighting method: Skäl in techniques.

Santa Clarita: Ohara Publications.

LIN, B. (1996). Zhongguo wushu shi (History of Chinese martial arts). Taipei: Wu

Zhou Publishing House.

LITTLE, J. (1999). Bruce Lee: Artist of life. North Clarendon, VT Tuttle

Publishing.

LlU, J., ZHAO, J. & CARTMELL, T . (2007). Chinnafa traditional Chinese submission

grappling. Berkeley, CA: Blue Snakes Books.

MA, M . (2009, Summer). Reconstructing China's indigenous physical culture.

Jourrml of Chinese Martial Studies, 1: 8-31.

MA, M . (2000). Shuo jian conggao (Discourses of the sword). Lanzhou: Lanzhou

University Publishing House.

MACHIDA, L. (2009). Machida'do karate for mixed martial arts. DVDs. Auberry,

CA: Victory Belt.


MCCARTHY, P (1995). The bible of karate Bubishi. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle

Publishing.

MILLER, D . (1992, May-June). Jiang Hao-quan ard Ch'uan Shih Pa Kua Chang.

Pa Kua Chang Newsletter, 2(4): 1-10. |

MILLER, M . (2008, May 5). Ultimate cash machine. Retrieved July 30, 2010,

from Forbes.com: http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2008/0505/080.html

MlYSAKl, 1. (1976). China's examination hell. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Ql, J. & MA, M . (1560, 1980). Jixiao xinshu (New book of effective discipline).

Beijing: People's Sports Publishing House.

RUGGIERI, D. (2009, March). Twenty methods fighting form. Retrieved May 22,

2010, from China Hand Kung Fu Academv: http://www.chinahand.com/

shaolin/sl_ history/20_methods.htm

SHAHAR, M . (2008). The Shaolin Monastery, history, religion and the martial arts.

Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.

SHAPIRO, S., SHI, N . , AND LUO, G . (1980). Outlau^s of the marsh. Beijing: Foreign

Language Press.

SviNTH, J. (1999, December). Strenuous athletics in China, including pre-

Japanese jiu-jutsu. Retrieved April 21, 2010, from Journal of Non-lethal

Combatives: Journal of Non-lethal Combatives.

TREMBOW, 1. (2007, March 1). UFC PPV revenue tops $200 million in 2006.

Retrieved 07 30, 2010, from MMA Weekly: http://www.mmaweekly.co/

absolutenm/templates/dailynews.asp?articleid=3520&zoneid=3

WAN, L. (1984). ^ushu huizong (The common basis of martial arts). Beijing:

Beijing Book Store Press.

WAN, L. (2010). Resources: articles. Retrieved April 11, 2010, from Ziranmen

Natural Style Kung Fu School: http://www.naturalstylekungfu.com/

resources_fightdance.html

WEBB, S . (Director). (2009). How Bruce Lee changed the world [DVD, motion

picture]. A&E Home Video.

WIKIPEDIA. (2010). Book of songs (Chinese). Retrieved April 26, 2010, from http:

//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShiJing |

WIKIPEDIA. (2010). Kito-ryu. Retrieved May 16, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Kit%C5%8D-ry%C5%AB

WILE, D . (1999). T'ai chi's ancestors: The making of an internal martial art.

Brooklyn, NY: Sweet Ch'i Press.

YlNG, L., & YAN, H . (Directors). (2008). Chinese kung fu. CCTV International,

New Frontiers.


Copyright of Journal of Asian Martial Arts is the property of Via Media Publishing Co. and its content may not

be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written

permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Documents

Istorija kineskih borilačkih vještina