ISSN 2221-6804 EISSN 2305-0187 - jhssuok.com. 3 No. 2/Volume 3 No. 2.pdf · Dean of Subcontinent and South Asian ... Cameroon juts into the Gulf of Guinea. ... rebellion broke out

The International Journal of History and Social SciencesBi-annual publication of the Department of General History

University of Karachi.

ISSN 2221-6804

jhssThe International

2012July - December

EISSN 2305-0187

VOLUME 3 No. 2

Patron:

Style Guide forAuthors

[email protected]

Website:

Article should contain an Abstract of 150-200 words. It should be written onseparate page along with the list of key words.

Complete title of research paper, author's brief introduction along with postaland email addresses and word count should be clearly written on the title page.Author's name must not be mentioned on any page of the research paper. Thisis just to ensure the secrecy and blind review of the papers.

Article must be typed in double-spaced (including quotations, notes,information in tables and the list of references) using only one side of thepaper. The length of Article must be between 5000 to 8000 words. The textshould be written in Time new Roman.

Article should contain conclusion and complete list of references.

Figures and tables should be numbered consecutively in Arabic numeral (Fig.1, Fig. 2, and Fig. 3).Do not incorporate colorful figures and graphs in thearticle

Contributors should follow the Kate Turabian (Chicago) style for citations.Allfoot notes should be placed at the bottom of the page.

Submission of hard copy, though not essential, is appreciated and can be sentto the following postal address.

Editor in ChiefThe International Journal of History ad Social ScienceDepartment of HistoryUniversity of KarachiKarachiPakistan

Soft copy can also be sent on

www.jhssuok.com

Contributors are requested to read the instruction carefully. Articles notfulfilling the below mentioned requirements will be returned to authors.

i

Vol: 3 July to December 2012 No. 2

The International Journal of History and Social Sciences (jhss)

is published biannually in January and July, from the

department of General History, University of Karachi, Karachi-

75270, Pakistan. All correspondence should be addressed to

the Editor- in- Chief.

Postal address:

Editor in Chief

The International Journal of History and Social Sciences

Department of History

University of Karachi

Karachi-75270

Pakistan

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.jhssuok.com

Subscription Rates:

For Individual Rs. 200/- (Annual)

For Institution Rs.600/- (Annual)

Published By: Department of History,


Printed At: BCC&T Press, University of Karachi, Karachi-

Pakistan

Copyright©2012 Editor in Chief All right reserved

JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor

Sub-Editors

jhss Business Consultant

Dr. S.M.Taha

Ms. Shama Habib

Ms. Hina Khan

Ms. Kiran Siddiqui

Ms. Kishwar Khan

Mr. Moiz Khan

Ms. Humaira Naz

Naveed ur Rehman

Dr. Tahira Aftab

Dr. Muhammad Reza Kazimi

Prof. DR. S.M.Asif Ali Rizvi

Prof. Dr. Danilo Ardia

Dr. Nicholas Kyriazis

Dr. Maryam Khalili Jehantigh

Dr Stephen M. Lyon

Dr. Christopher Candland

Dr. Riaz Ahmed Sheikh

Professor of History


Pakistan

Historian and Editorial

Consultant,OUP.

Pakistan

Chairman

Department of History and

Pakistan Studies

Islamia University

Bahawalpur

Department of International Studies

University of Pad ova

Italy

Department of Economics

University of Thessaly

Greece

Dean of Subcontinent and South Asian

Research Centre

University of Sistan and Baluchestan

Iran

Anthropology Department

Durham University Durham

UK

Department of Political Science

Wellesley College

Wellesley Massachusetts

USA

Dean, Social Sciences

SZABIST, Karachi

Members

ii

iii

CONTENTS

Editorial Page-No.

1 Displacements in the Context of Social Crises

in the Oil-Rich Niger-Delta of Nigeria and Oil-

Rich Bakassi Peninsula in Cameroon

Oluyemi O. Fayomi

1

2 Iranian people and the race of people settled

in the Iranian plateau

Vahid Rashidvash

17

3 Management Progression and Prospects- A

Comparative Global and Historical Overview

of the National and Multinational

Organizations in the Context of Pakistani

Business Environment

Muhammad Asim & Abdul Rahman Zaki

41

4 Ibn Habib and his Kitab al Muhabbar

Nasreen Afzal & Samia Saeed

67

5 A Narration on Muslim bengal's

Struggle for freedom

Mohammad Abu Tayyab Khan

81

6 A Study about the Causes and Remedies of

Maladjusted Students at Secondary level

Rizwana Muneer

103

7 Good Governance in Pakistan: Problems and

Possible Solutions

Nabeel Ahmed Alvi & Basit Ansari

113

8 Pakistan’s Trade and Investment

Environment: 1972 to 2010

Zobi Fatima

135

Dear readers

The International Journal of History and Social Sciences welcomes

researches from all disciplines of social science and humanities.

Editorial board believes that the multidisciplinary approaches

provide best methodologies to examine and resolve the social issues

of our contemporary world. This issue of jhss includes diverse

studies. For the convenience of the readers, I briefly mention the

focus of the articles published in the issue.

Oluyemi O. Fayomi examine social crisis that erupted because of

the tension between two important countries of Africa, Nigeria and

Cameroon on oil rich Bakassi Peninsula. Study focus on the cost the

residents of the disputed peninsula had paid. As Bakassi peninsula is

among top diplomatic issues between the two countries, the study

also explores the diplomatic stands of Nigeria and Cameroon.

However the main thrust of the study is on the various type of

migrations from the disputed area. Author uses official documents

and most relevant material published on the issue. Empirical

evidences are also given that fairly substantiate the conclusion of the

study.

Vahid Rashidvash traces the ancestor commonality among

Europeans, Iranians, and Indians. The study, based on historical and

archaeological evidences, describes Indo-Iranian migration from

Central Asia. The study claims that the Indo-Europeans tribe

migrated to the vast land of the West of the Eurasian mountains. The

study offers a good analysis of comparative studies of various Indo-

European languages.

Muhammad Asim & Abdul Rahman Zaki’s study on Management

Progression and Prospects offers a plausible comparison between

multi-national and national companies working in Pakistan. The

study examines the factors which influence the different mode of

working in multinational and national organization. The study has

great significance for management practitioners and business

strategists in Pakistan. The study offers an environmental scan in

which organizations work and their functioning and performance

are greatly influenced.

Nasreen Afzal in her article discusses the Muslim historiography

traditions of third century Hijra. The study is based on Ibn Habib’s

Kitab al Muhabbar which gives information about the different

groups existed among the pre and after Islam Arabic Society. The

article comprises invaluable information about the traditions and

social history of Arab society.

Mohammad Abu Tayyab Khan discusses the struggle of muslim

Bengal and its role in the struggle for Pakistan. It is a good narrative

article that reveals hidden factors behind the behind the struggle.

Author discusses indigenous country side movements and argues

that these movements in fact carved the future role of muslim Bengal

in Pakistan’s movement. The study based on archival sources and

secondary accounts. InIndian subcontinent’s colonial history Muslim

Bengal has special position. The author attempts to highlight that

special position.

Rizwana Muneer discusses the psychological factors of

‘Maladjustment’. Her article covers a major theoretical framework

for understanding the circumstances in which an individuals has to

adjust. She particularly focuses on the educational institutions and

the problem of child adjustment in new environment. She includes

family system in order to understand the maladjustment in large

organization. This article is significant with particular reference to

school environment in Pakistan.

Zobi Fatima traces the historical trends of trade and investment and

comments on the low economic growth in Pakistan. She succinctly

discusses the causes of slow trade and investment in both the public

and the private sectors. The study is based on secondary data and

literature. The study covers the domain of economic policy making in

Pakistan which is one of the reasons of the present trade and

investment position. This study is significant particularly in the

context of Pakistan EU relations.

1

Displacements in the Context of Social Crises in the Oil-Rich

Niger-Delta of Nigeria and Oil-Rich Bakassi Peninsula in

Cameroon

Oluyemi O. Fayomi*

Abstract

The Niger-Delta constitutes Niger’s “oil belt’ that lies along

the Guinea coast of the country. The region sits on top of

about 176 trillion cubic feet of gas and about 35.2 billion

barrels of oil reserves. It also accommodates 20 million

people which belong to more than 40 ethnic groups.

Similarly, the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula in the Western

Cameroon juts into the Gulf of Guinea. Adjacent to the border

between Cameroon and Nigeria, the Bakassi Peninsula was

the subject of a long distance diplomatic dispute between the

two countries until 2002. The swampy Peninsula, cut by a

series of channels, covers an area of 50 sq km and has large

untapped reserves of petroleum. Nigeria and Cameroon have

disputed over the possession of Bakassi for some years,

leading to considerable tension between the two countries. In

1981, the two countries were on the verge of war over the oil

rich peninsula. This paper discusses both theoretical and

empirical perspectives of patterns of displacement of people

as a forced/involuntary migration in Nigeria and Cameroon.

This perspective is based on a force-subject-migration

reasoning.

Keywords: Social crises, Displacement, Migration, Conflicts, Niger-Delta

* Department of Political Science and International Relations, School of Social Sciences,

Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria.

Jhss, Vol. 3, No.2 , July to December 2012

2

Introduction

It is pertinent to note that the extent of displacement in Nigeria has

increased greatly in the past few years leading to the increase in the

number of displaced people. In this present dispensation, the

displacements of people in Nigeria are evident in the ethno-religious

conflicts in the North, conflict over the distribution of rural

development projects, election result crisis, and conflicts arising

from crude oil exploration in the Niger Delta areas.

Taking a cue from the pre-colonial times, it was observed that the

rebellion broke out in the Niger-Delta area over the exclusion of

indigenous from trade in palm oil. In the past few years, social

relations in the Niger-Delta region has been marked by continuous

conflicts, some of which are re-emerging old conflicts, while some

are the outcomes of recent development in the Nigeria’s socio-

political terrain. What is evident in this study is the conflict

surrounding the oil industry. Eze states that this negatively affected

socioeconomic activities in the region, leading to a high level of

insecurity, a disruption of oil production activities and the

evacuation of expatriates who are the main target of kidnapping or

hostage taking.1The conflict blamed on natural resource struggles

escalated in February, 2006 with the commencement of the armed

militias which have used violent means to gain control of oil wealth

and criminal activities, clashing with the Nigerian Army, kidnapping

of numerous foreign workers and destruction of installations,

culminating in the reduction of Nigeria’s oil output by one-fifth.

In the Niger-Delta area, displacement has been closely linked to oil

exploration and production. While the area has been volatile for

many years, with impoverished local communities accusing

successive governments as well as multinational oil companies of

depriving them of their fair share of revenues. In some of the

heaviest clashes in the area in September, 2008, between the

national army and members of the Movement for the Emancipation

of the Niger-Delta (MEND), civilians were caught in the crossfire and

two villages were allegedly razed to the ground forcing up to 20,000

people to flee. Violence between local militia groups and security

forces, as well as inter-militia fighting and widespread destruction of

property, has frequently forced people to flee their homes. Oil-

1 Eze C., Ifeanyi, O. and Evelyn, M. , Niger Delta Crisis & Yar’ Adua’s Administration: Critical

Issues & Hurdles, Policy Brief of West Africa Network of Peace Building (WANEP Nigeria),

Vol. 1, 2009, p. 2.

Displacements in the Context of Social Crises in the Oil-Rich Niger-Delta of Nigeria

and Oil-Rich Bakassi Peninsula in Cameroon

3

related environmental problems in the area have also been linked to

increased population movements.

There has been a continual presence of military and police

detachments, systematic state repression which may take the form

of extra-judicial killings. The conflict situations have been among the

oil prospecting multinational companies and indigenous

communities; the government of Nigeria and the indigenous

population; and among the indigenous or local communities. In the

borders of both Nigeria and Cameroon Bakassi Peninsula has been a

disputed piece of territory between Nigeria and Cameroon for

decades and the genesis of several conflicts in 1981 and the early

and late 1990s. The discovery of potential oil reserves in the waters

surrounding the peninsula heightened tensions between the two

countries. Mbuh referring to Africa Confidential (1994), states that

"Nigeria's…decision to deploy thousand troops on the peninsula was

in turn a reaction to the harassment of Nigerian fishing vessels and

traders by Cameroonian Gendarmes”.2 The International Court of

Justice (ICJ) decided on October 10, 2002 that the Peninsula and

territory in the Lake Chad region should be under the sovereignty of

Cameroon. Nigeria agreed to pull out of those areas by September

2004. It has given up 32 villages along the 1,700 km border from

Lake Chad to the Gulf of Guinea, but had a military presence in

Bakassi until the official handing over to Cameroon in August 14th,

2008. This border dispute gave rise to various issues such as

external displacement of people leading to the question of

citizenship of the thousands of Nigerians now living within

Cameroon territory, and the development of offshore oil reserves

near the Bakassi.

Conceptualization

In the theoretical discourse on displacement, the conceptual

dominant perspective defines the problem of displacement as one of

"forced/involuntary migration". According to Ibeanu the force-

subject-migration perspective on population displacement has many

inherent weaknesses. In the first place, at a purely theoretical level, it

treats force as being of the same magnitude in all cases. It is not clear

whether a different quantum of force or the same amount of force in

all circumstances or in different circumstances yields the same result

which is migration. Secondly, it does not consider the varying

2 Mbuh, M. J. (2004) International Law and Conflicts: Resolving Border and Sovereignty

Disputes in Africa. Retrieved from www.postwatch.com


4

capacities of subjects to absorb or contain force generally. Finally, it

treats all displacements as being of the same spatial dimension.3

Several reasons have been given ascribed for the movement of

people from one location to another. Imolehin discusses the reasons

for movement could be for the purposes of moving into the “greener

pastures: for employment, better economic and educational

opportunities or indeed could be a mass movement from a crisis

area to a relatively peaceful area as a result of socio-political or

religious chaos. A country may decide to change her administrative

capital from one city to another within the country while an office

may decide to change its headquarters from a geographical zone to

another for a variety of reasons. For whatever reasons, movements

take place with consequences for demand for social and economic

facilities in the new places. It is then apparent that people will

always be on the move during such occurrences.4

Imolehin further expatiates on the issue with other reasons which

include the denial of human rights and lack of access to educational

and health facilities including denial of political rights. People want

to come out of poverty. Their present environment may be harmful,

damaging and degrading and threatening to human existence or

health. They want to move to places where there is hope of better

opportunities and where they are sure of sustainable development

and achieving their full potential. Such movements could be within

the country i.e. from one state/region to the other occasioning in

population shifts leading to obvious impacts on the areas moved to

and the areas vacated because of a mobility of human activities that

is triggered due to the movements.

In terms of proclivity, Ibeanu is of the opinion that the displaced

people rarely contest their predicated and only in a few celebrated

cases, like that of the Bakolori peasants who were displaced by a

dam in the 1980s and the Ogonis whose livelihoods are threatened

by oil exploration, have internally displaced people organized and

effectively put their condition on the political agenda.5 The lack of

organization among displaced people generally serves to keep their

plight concealed.

3 Ibeanu, O. (1998). Exiles in Their Own Home in Internal Population Displacement in

Nigeria, African Journal of Political Science, 3(2) (1998), pp. 80-97. 4 Imolehin A. A. Internal Shifts (Migration) in Population and Its Implications for

Development Planning, Environmental Degradation and Social pressure-Case for Nigeria,

Lagos, National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). (2007). 5 Op.cit. , Ibeanu.p.82



5

While studying the literature on the mediation during cross-border

crisis situation that leads to displacement, Guy-Michel, notes that it is

important to emphasis on the various actors that are intervening in

the area that experience difficulties. When they have the tools and

capacities necessary to put their ideas into practice, they often run

into trouble procuring funds that are earmarked for strictly national

projects. Moreover, these actors often confront problems associated

with norms and procedures that do not yet take into account the

regional conditions established by the treaties between West African

countries.6 The gap between theory and practice in the field of

integration thus persists.

In this context, it is not uncommon to see different actors, beginning

at the level of state representatives, disregard certain regulations in

order to resolve cross-border conflicts and issues, relying instead on

local customs and authorities (as in the case of bamboo management

between Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, as well as in the handling of

livestock theft and animal health…).

The numerous actors encountered by the mission also indicated that

the development of local agreements was the most efficient form of

regulation.

Guy-Michel, further states that various forms of local mediation,

which are either being utilized on an ad hoc basis or are in the

process of being institutionalized, contribute to strengthening cross-

border approaches, and to attenuating tensions that are potential

sources of conflict. At the same time, a number of contacts and

exchange networks are forming and enlarging our understanding of

cross-border tensions and complementarities.7 The utilization of this

knowledge within the frameworks of exchanges, projects, programs

remains limited and thus constitutes a challenge to be met. Some

local organizations are in contact with organizations on both sides of

the border.

This is the case, for example, with the Foddé NGO, which possesses a

cross-border program, and with the Youth Movement for Peace and

Integration, which undertakes some very specific cross-border

activities. But such examples remain few. Changing the scale and

scope of these various activities seems to represent the next major

threshold to be crossed.

6 Guy-Michel, B. Cross-Border Daries (ed.). Paris, Sud Communications. . (2004) p.21 7 Ibid.


6

However, to accomplish this will require assisting stakeholders in

the cross-border project to more effectively confront national,

regional, and even international problems, by developing a large

network that will facilitate the process of de-compartmentalization.

In view of the analyst, cross-border approach thus continues to

respond to a social reality, undistorted by the prism of certain

"developers," but it remains barely operational within processes of

formalization. The necessary labour required for changing the

approach so as to better incorporate the perspectives of regional

stakeholders, beginning with administrational ones, therefore

remains not only relevant but the substance of a long-term project.

Dynamics of Displacements in Niger-Delta and Bakassi

Peninsula

The oil rich Bakassi-Peninsula stands out as the most serious crisis

of all the border disputes that Nigeria and Cameroon have had since

the independence of the two countries. This portion of the disputed

border draws increasing attention, as it also became public

knowledge that the peninsula is very rich in petroleum and natural

gas.

The display of arms and ammunitions has left many dead and

wounded and displaced. Fighting occurred on the lands surrounding

the peninsula, (which are equally disputed), on the peninsula itself,

and on the sea. The big question that faces both nations during the

crisis situation was that of sovereignty over the mineral rich

peninsula—and in response to this question, countries resorted to

the use of military force to claim the territory.

Mbuh notes that the military struggle between the two countries has

resulted in some form of partition of the islands. Given the

disadvantage that Cameroon’s population which is about one-tenth

that of Nigeria (as at 2008 roughly 1 million to 140 million), it is no

surprise that Cameroon naturally accused Nigeria for using its

population advantage to populate the Bakassi Peninsula that could

be seen as a tactic of claiming ownership.8

From the Nigerian end, it was common to hear accusations of

Cameroon Gendarmes and their tax-driven assaults on Nigerians

living in the Bakassi Peninsula area. Thus , Cameroon initially

claimed it had to exercise its sovereignty and protect its territorial

8 Op.cit , Mbuh,



7

integrity by taxing those who live on its soil, and Nigeria, while not

relinquishing its claims of sovereignty over the peninsula had to

send in troops to protect its citizens from Cameroon aggression.

The dynamics of the Nigeria–Cameroon crisis over the Bakassi

Peninsula escalated with incidents of incursion that led to a shooting

in which many casualties and deaths of both the soldiers and

civilians of the two countries were recorded. But is should be noted

that the numbers of the displaced Nigerian and Cameroonians living

at the borders were not recorded.

According to Mbuh, describes the striking first and second incidents

that led to the conceding of the oil-rich area of Cameroon and these

include the hostility that broke the stalemate over Bakassi Peninsula

on February 18-19, 1994.9 It was after this incident that Cameroon

decided to take the border dispute to the ICJ for its adjudication.

Cameroon’s application was deposited on 29th March 1994; amidst

accusations from Nigeria that Cameroon was not committed to

bilateral negotiations to resolve the matter locally. A second notable

incident that escalated the dispute was recorded on February 3,

1996.

It should be emphasized that the strategic importance of the Bakassi

Peninsula and the increasing awareness of this same factor have

been at the core of escalation. Jeune Afrique in its November 13,

edition, it was noted that "…tous les ingredients d’un conflict majeur

sont reunis"…emphasizing the point that all the factors that lead to a

major conflict are present in the Bakassi Peninsula dispute.

Furthermore, the editorial notes "…les enjeux economiques et

strategiques sont autrement importants…” in stressing the strategic

economic importance of the peninsula as a factor for escalation of

the crisis. The article further expresses the fact that the region

harbors, two very important seaports i.e. Douala and Calabar, with a

total of five million inhabitants, and for the developed countries with

petroleum companies operating in the area, the risk of a major war

are frightening. Noting the importance of the region to the French,

the editorial did not hesitate to comment on France's "l’alternative

du diable,” which has provoked much criticism from the Nigerian

side.10

According to Mba, the reason Nigeria and Cameroon suddenly find

each other fighting over Bakassi for the most part seemed to hover

over the identity crises surrounding the State of Southern

9 ibid 10 Afrique, J. Cameroon, Nigeria…La guerre secrete, No 1871, (1996). p. 13.


8

Cameroons. The position of the Southern Cameroon Restoration

Movement (SCARM) and the Ambazonian Republic leaders has been

made clear on numerous occasions, including their 1995 visit to the

UN in demanding adult membership of that World Body. Concerning

Bakassi, the position of the leaders had equally been cleared that

from 1919-1958 when Southern Cameroons were jointly

administered by Nigeria, the maps prepared by the Federal Ministry

of Lands and Surveys in Lagos recognized the Bakassi Peninsula as

being part of Ambazonian territory.11 There was a belief that for the

short duration of the Federal structure that the Southern Cameroons

adopted after the Plebiscite, the Federal Cameroon Republic had

Bakassi as part of its Federal Territory.

Environmental Perspective to the Crisis in Niger-Delta and

Bakassi

The Niger Delta is a crisis ridden and an unstable area of Nigeria,

access to oil revenue has trigger off violence and inter-ethnic clashes

are common. Pipelines are regularly vandalized by impoverished

residents, who risk their lives to siphon off fuel. Vandalism is

estimated to result in thousands of barrels of crude oil wastage every

day - a loss to the Nigerian economy of millions of dollars each year.

Nigeria is the world's sixth largest oil-producing nation. However,

mismanagement and successive military governments have left the

country's poverty-stricken.

There is an inevitable and a serious conflict of interest between Delta

communities that bear the environmental damage of oil extraction

and the rest of the nation for which oil money is essentially a free

good. Delta populations, clearly a minority, regularly lose these

struggles. Had they some authority over environmental issues, many

current problems might be more manageable. Lacking this, and given

the federal government’s control over all subsurface resources as

well as “ownership” of all land, all Delta issues inevitably become

national issues. The national government has failed to resolve these.

In its campaign to “buy off” Delta discontent on the cheap, earlier

administrations frequently corrupted Delta community leaders.

There is a deep distrust in the Delta is concerning the federal

government and a feeling among local populations that most other

Nigerians care little for their problems, so long as the oil flows. Delta

11 Mba, T. A. (1995). Southern Cameroons Autonomy Bid, in Mbuh, M. J. (2004), International

Law and Conflicts: Resolving Border and Sovereignty Disputes in Africa. Retrieved from

www.postwatch.com.



9

populations constantly campaign for a larger share of the federal

cake, most of which originates in their homelands.

As a result of these factors, and because oil companies did and do

make tempting targets, many aggrieved youths in the Delta resort to

direct action to extract compensation for their perceived losses.

They invade oil company properties, take employees hostage, and

shut down facilities. Oil companies typically negotiate release of

captured personnel and properties with relative ease by paying the

youth’s modest ransoms. This oil company strategy creates a “moral

hazard”: the willingness of companies to pay ransoms stimulates

imitators of this lucrative “business,” leading to sustained

disruptions, at times in competition among youths, and to a general

sense of anarchy in the Delta.

What is closely linked to federal control over Delta oil and the

economy in general is the intense competition for political office. For

politicians, and for their communities, control of federal office opens

the high road to resources that can be diverted from public to

private or community control. Competition is naturally intense for

federal political offices and has historically turned violent in the

second election in each of Nigeria’s two previous republics. In

summary, federal control over oil and much of the rest of the

economy tends to “federalize” many economic problems, particularly

in the Delta, and stimulates intense efforts to gain and hold office

throughout Nigeria.

Nigeria has a multitude of religious, ethnic, political lines that had led

to violence and degenerated into internal displacement. During the

1999 elections for example, at least, 10,000 people died. The past

one year has witnessed an alarming upsurge in the level of violence

in the oil producing Niger-Delta region, which has resulted in the

internal displacement of the people in the region. Onduku describes

the situation in Niger-Delta as that of oppression because to a

considerable extent, the locals in the Delta swamp still live in

primitive conditions alongside with the high-tech and modern

facilities in the multinational community they play host to.12 The

story of the people is one of subjugation of indigenous people’s

rights by successive ruling governments. They have been raped of

their resources and the wealth gotten from the region is still being

looted and plundered. There seems to be collusion between the

12 Onduku, A. (2003). Confronting The Human Security Dilemma: Towards Building

Sustainable Peace In Niger’s Niger Delta, Paper Presented in honour of Ms Ibiba Don Pedro,

Winner of CNN African Journalist Award, in 2003, London ,18th October.


10

government and the western commercial interests against the

inhabitants and any sustainable development effort for peace in the

region.

Price describes the crisis over the Bakassi Peninsula and other

border areas between Nigeria and Cameroon to have revolved

around the environment and the possible resources that could be

acquired by each country from the environment such as oil and rich

fisheries. There is both a direct and indirect impact the environment

has had on the conflict: each country would directly benefit from the

undeveloped oil reserves in the Bakassi region, but the land disputes

in the Lake Chad region had displaced fishermen as a result of

drought and desertification.13

Kirchner also notes terms of environmental issues, in recent years

Lake Chad had been flooded numerous times, forcing local fishermen

to either become farmers or move with the changing shoreline,

causing them to cross international borders in the process.14 This

has further exacerbated nationalistic tensions in the region and

further displacements of the people in the area. The government of

Nigeria’s formal handover of the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroonian

authorities on the 14th of August, 2008 led to the displacement of

people. Thousands of Nigerians residing in Bakassi fled to Cross

Rivers and Akwa Ibom State in Nigeria because of security

implications. Most of the returnees left without personal items. They

also lost their monies and properties due to violent attacks. It should

be noted that despite the substantial efforts made by the local

authorities in Akwa Ibom state for the purpose of providing

makeshift camps, the support provided does not meet all of the

returnees’ immediate needs. The majority of the returnees are from

now concentrated in Akwa Ibom state and a small number of them

could be found in Cross Rivers State. Since the influx of the returnees

to the two states; the Nigerian Red Cross Society (NRCS), with the

support from their volunteers, has been receiving the returnees and

providing them with limited assistance in temporary facilities or

camps which were provided by the local governments of the two

states.

13 Price, F. (2005). The Bakassi Peninsula: The Border Dispute between Nigeria and

Cameroon, ICE Case Studies, No. 163. Retrieved from

http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/nigeria-cameroon.htm. 14 Kirchner, S. (2004). Water, Oil and Blood: The Cameroon-Nigeria Boundary Dispute

Regarding Bakassi Peninsula and Lake Chad and the Threat of War over Water Resources.

Retrieved from www.ssm.com/author=343201.n.



11

The Nigerian government announced its unprepared ness for the

tens of thousands of returnees who were displaced from the

Southern Bakassi province and there has been a call for the United

Nations to handle the unexpected return of the externally displaced

people.

According to the IRIN, up to 76, 000 returnees have registered at the

twelve sites in Akwa Ibom and Cross Rivers States.15 This is the

statistics given by the local government chairman of Mbo, Victor

Antai. Cornwell observes that international debt relief has so far

failed to convert into any real benefits for the ordinary Cameroonian,

and this has created a crisis of expectations. The implementation of

the Bakassi judgment may pave the way for some relief on this front,

if the rumored oil bonanza is realized. 16Whether this will prove an

altogether unmixed blessing for the people of Bakassi itself remains

to be seen.

Agenda for Action

What should be the priority for the Nigerian Government is to

address the root causes of crisis-induced displacement, and thereby

try to avoid the humanitarian crises plaguing neighbor. If such a

crisis should occur in Nigeria and Cameroon, the humanitarian

community at the levels of national, regional and international

should in a better position to respond to both the immediate and

long term needs of the displaced people both externally and

internally. It is noticeable in Nigeria that the issue of internally

displaced people has been neglected because of the large population

size of the country and the plights of the displaced people do not

make news as far as Nigeria, which is not regarded as an emerging

country is concerned.

At the national level, clarification of the roles, responsibilities and

division of labor between the National Emergency Management

Agency (NEMA) and the National Commission for Refugees (NCR)

with regard to IDP protection and assistance should be encouraged

in the two countries. Nigeria and Cameroonian governments should

seek technical support and training for improved emergency

preparedness and response to conflict-induced displacement at both

national and state levels.

15 IRIN-Integration Regional Information Networks (2008). Government Unprepared for

Returnee Influx. Retrieved from www.irin.org 16 Cornwell, R. (2006). Nigeria and Cameroon: Diplomacy in the Delta. African Security

Review, 15(4), pp. 48-55.


12

At the state level, set up coordination structures should be set up in

order to harmonize both emergency and rehabilitation response to

displaced people between the various state authorities involved in a

particular crisis. At the state level, there should be development of

clear return and resettlement strategies that are in line with the

United Nations guiding principles. Also of importance should be the

improvement of overall internally and externally displaced people in

order to respond to the working with UN agencies, the Red Cross and

NGOs.

The coordination structures of the structures at both national and

state levels should be improved (e.g. Participate in regular

interagency information-sharing meetings). The national and

international humanitarian organizations should be allowed full and

unconditional access to displaced people both internally and

externally in their places of refuge. The government of Cameroon

and Nigeria should build upon existing peace and reconciliation

efforts by promoting awareness campaigns, through local radios and

other media, which focus on commonalities rather than differences

between ethnic and religious groups.

In addition, they should further aid the reconciliation process by

ensuring that perpetrators of the violence are identified, including

members of the security forces, and they should be brought to

justice. At the international level there should be the improvement of

coordination of overall displaced person's response at the national

level by initiating regular interagency information-sharing meetings

between UN agencies, relevant government bodies and NGOs,

especially at the outset of a crisis. Training and capacity building of

national and state authorities (NEMA and SEMAs) through OCHA’s

Internal Displacement Division should be supported in order to

provide technical support for the completion of a National Internally

Displaced Persons’ policy.

Conclusion

Adjacent to the border between Cameroon and Nigeria, the Bakassi

Peninsula was the subject of a long distance diplomatic dispute

between the two countries until 2002. Cameroon took the matter to

the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the 29th of March, 1994.

The implementation of an ICJ ruling to ceding Bakassi Peninsula to

Cameroon created an unexpected wave of displacement into the

neighboring states of Cross River and Akwa Ibom. Thousands of

Bakassi residents found refuge in makeshift camps or with the host



13

families, often in precarious conditions. Although the majority of the

population living on the peninsula considers themselves as

Nigerians, Nigeria ceded the peninsula on 14 August 2008. Although

residents could acquire full Cameroonian citizenship or opt for

resident alien status), thousands of them fled following the handover

to the neighboring Nigerian states of Cross Rivers and Akwa Ibom,

fearing persecution by Cameroonian security services given previous

incidents. In September 2008, some 76,000 people had registered at

12 sites in the two states. People found refuge in camps or

residential areas in the interior or along coastal areas to guarantee

their traditional livelihoods, while others integrated into local

communities. Four main camps were set up in Akwa Ibom State,

where some 2,500 former Bakassi residents have been

accommodated in some vacant homes or abandoned schools, mostly

without running water.

The paper examines the implications of both natural resources and

displacements on the two communities, which are being analyzed

from the perspectives of internal displacement within Nigeria and

external displacements from the Nigeria-Cameroon borders, where

the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula is located. The struggle for natural

resources which is the crude oil led to a crisis that degenerated into

internal displacement within Nigeria while border disputes between

Cameroon over oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula led to a crisis that

culminated into external displacements of the people of both Nigeria

and Cameroon borders. The complication of issues is also generated

from the activities of the political elites, representatives of the

people and other individuals that are benefiting from the crisis.

The two governments of both Nigeria and Cameroon should build on

the National IDP Policy to develop an IDP strategy. It should clearly

identify the roles and responsibilities of the various humanitarian

stakeholders in all phases of displacement. Awareness campaigns

should be created and peace education in schools and among

unemployed youths encouraged boosting reconciliation efforts.

Income generation and micro-credit schemes should be developed in

areas of return and resettlement of the displaced people.


14

Bibliography

Africa Confidential , Nigeria/Cameroon: Blundering into Battle, 35

(8), (1994)

Afrique, J ,Cameroon/Nigeria… La guerre secrete, No 1871, (1996).

Cornwell, R ,Nigeria and Cameroon: Diplomacy in the Delta. African

Security Review, 15 (4), (2006).

Eze C., Ifeanyi, O. And Evelyn, M. Niger Delta Crisis & Yar’Adua’s

Administration: Critical Issues & Hurdles, Policy Brief of West Africa

Network of Peace Building (WANEP Nigeria), Vol. 1, (2009).

Guy-Michel, B., Cross-Border Daries (ed.). Paris, Sud Communications.

(2004).

Ibeanu, O , Exiles in Their Own Home in Internal Population

Displacement in Nigeria, African Journal of Political Science, 3 (2),

(1998).

Imolehin A. A. , Internal Shifts (Migration) in Population and Its

Implications for Development Planning, Environmental Degradation

and Social pressure-Case for Nigeria, Lagos, National Bureau of

Statistics (NBS). (2007).

IRIN-Integrated Regional Information Networks (2008). Government

Unprepared for Returnee Influx. Retrieved from www.irin.org

Kirchner, S., Water, Oil and Blood: The Cameroon-Nigeria Boundary

Dispute Regarding Bakassi Peninsula and Lake Chad and the Threat of

War over Water Resources. Retrieved from www.ssm.com/

author=343201.n.

MBA, T. A. (1995). Southern Cameroons Autonomy Bid, in Mbuh, M. J.

(2004), International Law and Conflicts: Resolving Border and

Sovereignty Disputes in Africa. Retrieved from www.postwatch.com.

Mbuh, M. J. (2004) International Law and Conflicts: Resolving Border

and Sovereignty Disputes in Africa . Retrieved from

www.postwatch.com

Onduku, A. Confronting The Human Security Dilemma: Towards

Building Sustainable Peace In Niger’s Niger Delta, Paper Presented in



15

honour of Ms Ibiba Don Pedro, Winner of CNN African Journalist

Award, in 2003, London , 18th October.

Price, F. , The Bakassi Peninsula: The Border Dispute between

Nigeria and Cameroon, ICE Case Studies, No. 163. Retrieved from

http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/nigeria-cameroon.htm.

17

Iranian People and the Race of People Settled in the Iranian

Plateau

Vahid Rashidvash*

Abstract

A long standing, and still the unchallenged belief of historians

is that the people of Europe, Iran, and India, with the

exception of Hungarians and the Finns, have their ancestry in

common. Based on historical evidence and supports from

archaeology, historians propose the existence of a pre-historic

tribal confederation, called theoretically Indo-Europeans,

who eventually spread out from their original homeland to

cover the mass of land in Western Eurasia. Their language,

costumes and cultural characteristics survived in one way or

another to the historical time and it is based on comparative

studies of various Indo-European languages and cultures that

the idea of a common ancestry first came to existence. The

Persians are descendants of the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes

that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran

in the second millennium BC. The Persian language and other

Iranian tongues emerged as these Aryan tribes split up into

two major groups, the Persians and the Medes, and

intermarried with peoples indigenous to the Iranian Plateau

such as the Elamites.

Keywords: Indo-Europeans, Indo-Iranians, Iranian peoples,The Iranian languages, Art, Culture

*Department of Iranian Studies, Yerevan State University, Yerevan, Republic of Armenia

Jhss, Vol. 3, No.2, July to December 2012

18

Introduction

Around 3000 BCE, the ancestors of Iranians first emigrated from their Central Asian homeland - where they lived with their Indian kin as one person to the Iranian Plateau. There they came into contact with the already established civilizations such as the Kassites or the Elamites, the latter having over 2000 years of political presence in the plateau. Probably mostly through integration and taking advantage of the weakness of these civilizations because of their constant warfare with the empires of Mesopotamia, the Aryans came to dominate the society although at the same time adopting much of the existing culture and social norms. The integration of the Aryans with the locals and the settlement of all the tribes around the plateau gave rise to the first Iranian civilizations. Throughout its long history, people of Iran have intermarried with Greeks, Arabs, Mongols, Turks and other tribes. Today most of the population has similar characteristics and obvious differences are rare. The worthy exceptions are the members of the semi-nomadic Turk man tribes who show clear Turko-Mongolian anatomies. For more information about the history of Iran, please see the history page. In the following discussion of Iranian peoples, the term Iranian may be understood in two ways. It is first of all a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group’s sense of self. These include; 1. Divergent specializations in economic organization, environmental adaptation, and other aspects of material culture, emergent differences in oral traditions and Folkways; 2. Hand in hand with the preceding: different conditioning by already established populations encountered in the area of settlement or absorbed in the course of migrations; 3. Further conditioning by the later introduction of non-Iranian-speaking populations. These factors, fostering some degree of diversity within a region’s society, may have worked toward distinctions in dialect, social organization, law, religion, and other aspects of culture. The management of marked regional diversity, in the absence of an established political infrastructure, would have been especially challenging to the earliest efforts at a real hegemony by the Medes and the Persians. Secondly and inevitably, Iranian also acquires the broader sense of a person residing on the Iranian plateau, since the ethnicity of various peoples who are only briefly mentioned in historical sources often is not definitely known. In qualification of the

Iranian People and the Race of People Settled in the Iranian Plateau

19

first point, the difference in language is not viewed as necessarily a barrier to community cohesion and communications. History of Iran

Iran is a mountainous, arid, ethnically diverse country of southwestern Asia. Much of Iran consists of a central desert plateau, which is ringed on all sides by lofty mountain ranges that afford access to the interior through high passes. Most of the population lives on the edges of this forbidding, waterless waste. The capital is

, a sprawling, jumbled metropolis at the southern foot of the Tehrān. Famed for its handsome architecture and verdant Elburz Mountains

gardens, the city fell somewhat into disrepair in the decades following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, though efforts were later mounted to preserve historic buildings and expand the city’s

Shīrāzand fahānṣEnetwork of parks. As with Tehrān cities such as combine modern buildings with important landmarks from the past and serve as major centers of education, culture and commerce. The heart of the storied Persian empire of antiquity, Iran has long played an important role in the region as an imperial power and later because of its strategic position and abundant natural resources especially petroleum as a factor in colonial and superpower rivalries. The country’s roots as a distinctive culture and society date of the Achaemenian period, which began in 550 BC. By that time the region that is now Iran traditionally known as Persia has been influenced by waves of indigenous and foreign conquerors and immigrants, including the Hellenistic Seleucids and native Parthians and Sāsānids. Persia’s conquest by the Muslim Arabs in the 7th century AD was to leave the most lasting influence, however, as Iranian culture was all but completely subsumed under that of its conquerors. An Iranian cultural Renaissance in the late 8th century led to a reawakening of Persian literary culture, though the Persian language was now highly arabized and in Arabic script, and native Persian Islamic dynasties began to appear with the rise of the Sāmānids in the early 9th century. The region fell under the sway of successive waves of Persian, Turkish and Mongol conquerors until the rise of the Ṣafavids who introduced IthnāAsharīShīism as the official creed, in the early 16th century. Over the following centuries with the state-fostered the rise of a Persian-based Shīite clergy a synthesis was formed between Persian culture and Shīite Islam that marked each indelibly with the tincture of the other. With the fall of the Ṣafavidsof 1736, rule passed into the hands of several short-lived dynasties leading to the rise of the Qājār line in 1796. Qājār rule was marked by the growing influence of the European powers in Iran’s


20

internal affairs with its attendant economic and political difficulties and by the growing power of the Shīite clergy in social and political issues.1The country’s difficulties led to the ascension in 1925 of the Pahlavi line whose ill-planned efforts to modernize Iran led to widespread dissatisfaction and the dynasty’s subsequent overthrow in the revolution of 1979. This revolution brought a regime to power that uniquely combined elements of a parliamentary democracy with an Islamic theocracy run by the country’s clergy. The world’s sole

ely embroiled in a state, Iran found itself almost immediat Shīitelong-term war with neighboring Iraq that left it economically and socially drained and the Islamic republic’s alleged support for international terrorism left the country ostracized from the global community. Reformist elements arose within the government during the last decade of the 20th century as opposed both to the ongoing rule of the clergy and to Iran’s continued political and economic isolation from the international community. Many observers have noted that since pre-Islamic time’s Iranian culture has been imbued with a powerful sense of dualism which is likely grounded in the Zoroastrian notion of a perpetual struggle between good and evil. This attitude persisted in different forms in succeeding centuries, with the culture’s preoccupation with justice and injustice and with an ongoing tension between religion and science. The 12th-century

himself a noted mathematician captured this Omar Khayyampoet in which he expresses his quatrains robāiyyātsm in one of his duali

own ambivalence.

Indo-Europeans and Indo-Iranians

A considerable amount of criticism has been bestowed upon the idea of Indo-European ancestry. It has been called a racist idea, it has been challenged by those who felt left-out of it and it has been linked to colonialism and the idea of European superiority. Probably the worst use of this theory has been the Nazi ideology of a pure Aryan race. Nevertheless, our purpose here is purely historical and for the sake of the narrative we assume that the idea of a common Indo-European ancestry, first and foremost in linguistic and mythological terms rather than biological, is valid and at least supportable. One of the most serious problems for all adherents to the common ancestry theory is the location of the original homeland of Indo-Europeans. Nineteenth century historians proposed an Eastern

1 Rashidvash, Vahid ,The Qajar Dynasty in Iran: The Most Important Occurence Evented in

the Qajars Monarchy. International Journal of Business and Social Science- United States of America, Vol. 3, No. 12, (2012),pp. 181-187.


21

European homeland lately revitalised by new archaeology others saw Northern Europe more plausible and in the twentieth century, steppes of Southern Russia have won the most favour. Archaeology in the steppes shows the coexistence of many tribes during the proposed time of the start of Indo-European migrations (c. 3000 BCE). These cultures show varied anatomies, and strengthen the idea that a common biological ancestry might not have been the case. Since no written evidence is available from this era, our only points of reference are their pottery, tool use, and burial habits, based on which they have been called the Kurgan people from the Russian word for grave. Their graves were built in a mound shape, and the body was buried in chambers, along with personal belongings and animals such as horses in case of the more prosperous members of the society. It is generally accepted now that Indo-Europeans as a historical reality were most likely a collection of tribes spread from Central Asia to Eastern Europe and they all migrated in different time periods due to climatic and demographic reasons. An eastern branch of these tribes, theoretically called proto-Indo-Iranians, lived probably in Central Asia and belonged to a branch of Kurgan people called the Andronovo Culture by archaeologists.2These people, who called themselves Aryans Indo-Iranian for noble, Wellborn, migrated towards south into present day Afghanistan and Eastern Iran sometime around 2000 BCE. There, they seem to have been split into two branches the eastern one called Indo-Aryans by historians and the other one were proto-Iranians. Based on their later literature, we might assume an inter-tribal war or ideological disagreement might have initiated the split. In any case, their languages, or what has been preserved of their older forms (Vedic Sanskrit and Avestan respectively) show remarkable similarities in linguistic and mythical tradition terms. These people were supposedly nomadic; they had domesticated horses, probably as early as their time in Central Asia and had a complex pantheon of gods and natural forces. It has been suggested that prior to the first phase of their migration, Indo-Iranians have had a communal social system, but by the time of their split, they had formed into a patriarchal class system society. These changes, along with their complex belief system, lead some to believe that the proto-Indo-Iranian society was not as simplistic and nomadic based as currently assumed. Furthermore, archaeological evidence such as excavations in the Bactro-Margian Archaeological Complex (BMAC) point out to a very early formation of settlements and commercial centres in Central Asia. Artefacts from BMAC show 2 Saidiyan, Abd Alhossein ,. Peoples of the World, 4th edit. Tehran, Science and life publ,

(1991), pp.114-117.


22

pottery very similar to the ones found in the Mohenjo-Daro/Harappa culture of the Indus Valley and Uruk culture of Sumer. Although the BMAC excavations show more influence from the Dravidians of Indus Valley than Indo-Iranians, they also show an early contact of proto-Indo-Iranians with civilisation and thus a much earlier formation of class society and complexity believed up to now. Also, the discovery of some pottery with what seems to be an early form of writing might challenge the accepted theories of the development of civilizations and cultural formation. In any case, the branching of proto-Indo-Iranians to Indo-Aryans and proto-Iranians happened at the dawn of history c. 2000-1800 BC. Indo-Aryans apparently moved to the Indus Valley region, with which they might have been familiar with their contacts with BMAC traders. There they faced the challenge of an established civilisation. The traditional story would tell us that the superior military power of Indo-Aryans especially their use of horses left no chance for the local Dravidians who were conquered massacred absorbed into the Aryans society as untouchables or driven to the south of the Indian peninsula. However, new studies whose scope are out of the capacity of the present paper, suggest that the conquest of the Harappa culture and the establishment of an Indo-Aryan lead society did not happen as easily and took more time and included a higher degree of influence from the Dravidians on conquering Aryans. We have less evidence of such sudden conflict in the Iranian case. Proto-Iranians seem to have been split into branches early in their history forming the nomadic Saka/Scythian tribes and the settled populations that inhabited the Iranian plateau and eventually came to be known under the massive and inaccurate names of Parthians, Persians and Medians. How early this split happened and how the Iranians came to overpower the established civilisations of the Mitanni, the Kassites and civilizations of eastern Iran, is not known. Only their final pressure in replacing the prosperous civilization of Elam has survived into history. For earlier events we only have scattered reports from the Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles and rarely in Elamite reports. The idea of a simple split of proto-Iranians from Indo-Aryans and especially their origin in Central Asia poses some problems. In dates supposedly prior to their migration we have evidence of their existence in Western Iran. Terms relating to horse breeding that are from an obvious Indo-Iranian source exist in Mitanni, Kassite and even Babylonian documents. We know that horses were taken by the Kassites to Babylon, and they most likely learned about horse taming from proto-Iranians who lived to their east and north. Also, the names of Indo-Aryan deities like Indra and the Nassaties exist among the names of Mitanni deities in a treaty with the Hittites, while these


23

deities don't exist among the Iranian pantheon.3 Also, some Mitanni names have obvious Indo-Iranian and even purely Iranian overtones, while an Egyptian Pharaoh married a girl from the east of Sumer ca. 2200 BCE who has an Iranian name. As we can see the route and time of Indo-Iranian migrations is not certain and provable, and some even deny any migration in a sensible term and instead propose the gradual push of Indo-Iranians from the northern Caspian regions via both Caucasus and Central Asia in a much earlier (e.g. 3000 BCE) date. Nevertheless, by 1200 BCE, we have a remarkable and undeniable Iranian presence on the plateau, and their overwhelming military force seems to have gradually overpowered the local people and formed early kingdoms which posed threats to the established civilisations of Assyria, Babylonia, and Elam.

These petty kingdoms seem to have established confederacies of all the tribes, Aryan and non-Aryan and spread their early influence in the areas east of Elam. The earliest of these confederacies to form a coherent kingdom of which we have historical evidence was the kingdom of the Medes. We shall see the development of this kingdom in further chapters. Anthropological Research

If we begin by seeking to define the category of race in ancient times, an important model used by physical anthropologists is the cephalic index of the relationship between head length to head breadth, which differentiates different peoples with Dolio, miso and brachycephalic skulls. This category applies to the three races in popular parlance Caucasian or white Negroid or black and Mongoloid or yellow. The earliest evidence of human habitation reveals that the people of the present countries of Iran and Afghanistan were overwhelmingly Caucasian in race with little trace of Negroid or Mongoloid mixtures. Applying the cephalic index to Caucasoid in Europe we find that in the north the population was predominantly long-headed or doliocephalic, sometimes designated as Nordic, while in Middle Europe the majority of people were round-headed or mesocephalic also called Alpines. In the south were wide-heads or Mediterraneans, so called after the sea around which most of them lived. On the Iranian plateau, the most ancient populations had perhaps a dominance of brachycephalics with fewer

3 Minorsky, V ,Studies in Caucasian history, Cambridge University Press, (1953), pp. 78-81.


24

Alpine or Nordic types. This discussion of race, however, tells us little about the peoples in historical times or the present when

physical characteristics have been mixed.

Since people are distinguished by language or social structure (settled, nomadic, tribal) these are the categories to which our analysis is devoted. The earliest inhabitants of the Iranian plateau were hunters and gatherers. Presumably they spoke a range of languages and dialects of which we have no information. After the Neolithic revolution estimated to have been about the eighth millennium B.C.E. on the plateau we find settlements and traces of material culture, primarily pottery which reveal little of the inhabitants’ identity. One can only say that differentiation between agriculturists and pastoralists occurred at much the same time, but the development of extended families into clans and tribes must have taken place much earlier. One may presume that tribal organization continued to be the basis of social forms in both villages and pastoral groups and we can begin to speak of linguistic divisions.4Some clans may have developed dialects of a shared tribal language. What was the population of the plateau before the coming

of the Aryans?

Arrival of the Iranians

A general picture of the peoples of Iran at the beginning of the second millennium B.C.E. might be reconstructed, from cuneiform sources of Mesopotamia and from later relics, as follows: in the southern plains Khuzestan were the Elamites, who extended to the east perhaps as far as Sistān and in the north possibly to the Alborz mountains. It would be more accurate to say that Elamite culture and influence reached so far as may be inferred from remains of material culture and traces of proto-Elamite writing. Obviously many dialects and forms of social life existed but the basic racial features of Caucasoids remained constant. Above Elam, the expanse of territory of the peoples north and west across and beyond the Zagros was labeled vaguely as Gutium by the states of Mesopotamia from the third millennium on.

4 Rashidvash, Vahid, .Multivariate comparison of cephalometric traits in Iranian Azaris and

Persians.Biological Journal of Armenia, Vol. 63, No. 2, (2011),pp. 78-80


25

In the north, the Caspian and other tribes or sub-tribes lived in the Alborz Mountains and on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea coast in relative isolation and independence a condition which persisted in varying extent into the Islamic period. In the northwest of Iran, in Azerbaijan and extending into Anatolia, were probably the ancestors of historical peoples who would exert important influence on the arriving Iranians namely, the Manneans successors in the Zagros and Lake Urmia region, if not lineal descendants of the Hurrian people of the 3rd-2nd millennium and the Urartians the dominant people of the Caucasus in the early first millennium. The fortified town excavated at Ḥasanlu in Azerbaijan provides valuable glimpses of the economic and cultural interaction across these regions and with Assyria. The population of eastern Iran and Afghanistan about 2000 B.C.E. is virtually unknown so the conjecture is rife. We may suppose that, similar to the Elamites in the southwest, here the people of the Indus valley civilization, possibly proto-Dravidians dominated the east, at least in culture and influence. North of the Hindu Kush range it is conceivable that the ancestors of the Hunzakut, the Burushaski speaking people of present day Hunza in Northern Areas of Pakistan, had a presence so far to the west.5 Some scholars have suggested that, previous to the expansion of the Indo-European speakers a family of peoples extended from the Atlantic Ocean to India the relics of which were or are the Basques, Etruscans Rhaetians, some Caucasian peoples and the Hunzakut plus the Dravidian Brahuis of Baluchistan. This is an unproved theory and we can only say that it is most probable that the Indo-European speakers did not come upon empty areas in their expansion on the Iranian plateau but found earlier unrelated inhabitants. The role of these people in conveying new culture, both material and other to the arriving Indo-Europeans is a subject of much speculation. This holds true especially for those settled on the north eastern staging ground for entry to the plateau i.e., the area termed the Bactriana-Margiana Archaeological Complex. A long period of contact there between the settled agriculturists and the Indo-Iranians to the north may have been characterized by a symbiotic similar to that between Bactrians and Scythians in and after the Achaemenid period. The Indo-Europeans as their migration proceeded southward also must have benefited from the existence of routes linking Bactria with other trading points across Iran. The Semitic and Hamitic peoples of the Near East and Africa are not in the purview of our investigation, even though small numbers of 5 Saidiyan, Abd Alhossein, People of Iran. 1st edit. Tehran, science and life publishment,

(2004), pp., 76- 78.


26

Semites did move onto the plateau at various times. The expansion of the Indo-Europeans in the second millennium B.C.E. changed the face of Iran. The Indo-European languages are usually divided into two major groups, the centum western and the satem eastern, from the Latin and Avestan words respectively for the number 100. The following is a speculative reconstruction but has a good chance of verisimilitude. It seems that the earliest migration of the Indo-Europeans from the reputed homeland in South Russia was with the centum group, some of whom in the early second millennium moved into Anatolia the Hittites, contributing to the complex mix of ethnic groups in Asia Minor others in western China the Tokharians. This movement may have injected Nordic racial elements into the existing populations. A few tribes of centum-speakers some perhaps subsumed under the label Gutians in cuneiform sources could have come onto the Iranian plateau, but we have no evidence, as we do for the next migration, that of the Indo-Iranians or Aryans. The latter was the first satem-speaking Indo-Europeans who moved south from their supposed homeland in present-day Kazakhstan. In the second half of the second millennium B.C.E. in Northern Mesopotamia, the kingdom of Mitanni had Indo-Iranian elements, who displayed elements specific to Indo-Aryan culture. They possibly were to be found only among the ruling class or as specialists in horse warfare. Perhaps their predecessors in western Iran and the Zagros from the 18th century B.C.E., the Kassites shared a common lineage with them. As for movements in the east the present-day Dardic speakers of northern Pakistan are claimed to be descendants of the Indo-Iranians who first moved into the subcontinent. Undoubtedly these early Indo-European speakers mixed with the local population and for the most part were absorbed into it. At the beginning of the first millennium B.C.E. numerous Iranian-speaking tribes, coming from the northeast expanded over the plateau giving their languages to the indigenous peoples rather than being absorbed. One of the factors which enabled the Iranians to prevail was their mastery of horse-riding.6 Although horses had been used previously to pull wagons or chariots it was probably the Scythian/Saka Iranians on the steppes of southern Russia who evolved their earlier practice of riding horses to control sheep or cattle into a military application as cavalry. This innovation enabled them to display a mobility surpassing that of other formations. By the time of the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire the spread

of Iranian languages and dialects was proceeding apace. 6 Eghbal Ashtiyani, A , History of Iran, Tehran, Tehran University publication,(2001),pp. 45-

49


27

Western Iranian Peoples

During the 1st centuries of the first millennium BCE, the ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and appear to have interacted considerably with the Elamites and Babylonians, while the Medes also entered in contact with the Assyrians. Remnants of the Median language and Old Persian show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and Herodotus' description of their languages as very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and Soghdians in the east. Following the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire, the Persian language spread from Pars or Fars Province to various regions of the Empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan and Central-Asia known as Tajiki descending from Old Persian. Old Persian is attested in the Behistun Inscription (c. 519 BCE), recording a proclamation by Darius the Great. In southwestern Iran, the Achaemenid kings usually wrote their inscriptions in trilingual from (Elamite, Babylonian and Old Persian) while elsewhere other languages were used. The administrative languages were Elamite in the early period, and later Imperial Aramaic. The early inhabitants of the Achaemenid Empire appear to have adopted the religion of Zoroastrianism. The Baloch who speaks a western Iranian language relate an oral tradition regarding their migration from Aleppo, Syria around the year 1000 AD, whereas linguistic evidence links Balochi to Kurmanji, Soranî, Gorani and Zazaki7 .

Eastern Iranian Peoples

While the Iranian tribes of the south are better known through their texts and modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks, Persians, and Indo-Aryans as well as by archaeological finds. Many ancient Sanskrit texts make references to tribes like Sakas, Paradas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Uttaramadras, Madras, Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, Tukharas or Tusharas etc. And locate them in the Uttarapatha (north-west) division, in Central Asia, around the Hindukush range in northern Pakistan. The Greek chronicler, Herodotus (5th century BCE) makes references to

7. Rashidvash, Vahid , Iranian people and the origin of the Turkish-speaking population of

the north-western of Iran. Canadian Social Science, Vol. 8, No.2, (2012) , pp. 132-139


28

a nomadic people, the Scythians; he describes as having dwelt in what is today Southern Russia. It is believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the Sarmatians, who are mentioned by Strabo as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe in the 1st millennium AD. These Sarmatians were also known to the Romans, who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as Roman Britain. The Sarmatians of the east became the Alans, who also ventured far and wide, with a branch ending up in Western Europe and North Africa, as they accompanied the Germanic Vandals during their migrations.

Iranian Ethnic Groups

The only measure of ethnic diversity that appears in official statistics is identification of the language normally used at home: Iranian languages, including Persian, Luri (Lori), Kurdi (Kordi), Gilaki and Māzanda-rāni, and Baluchi (Baluči) and non-Iranian languages including Azeri Turkish, Arabic, and Turkmeni. The largest group of people in present-day Iran is the Persians who speak dialects of the language called Fārsi in Persian, since it was primarily the tongue of the people of Fārs. A number of dialects exist in the province including Lāri spoken in Larestān, Baškerdi on the eastern border with Kermān and Baluchistan, where the inhabitants are settled in villages and other minor dialects. It is not the intention here to discuss dialects but it should be noted that along the coast in the past speakers of Swahili were reported, presumably migrants from Africa. Also the presence of Negritoes, as speakers of Baluchidialects has been claimed on the eastern coast of Baluchistan; again these may be descendants of slaves. Among the people of Fārs, as well as elsewhere, are Gypsies and they mainly travelled musicians. In addition to their own language of Indian origin they speak Luri or Persian. Their number is unknown but small and many have left Iran since the revolution of 1979. The Lurs occupy areas of northern Fārs and the southern Zagros range, and the best known of them are the Baḵtiāris who, known as Lur-e-Bozorg, live to the west of Isfahan and speak a Luri dialect. They are divided between the Čahar Lang in the north and the Haft Lang in the south, and they have included settled Persian speakers in the confederations they have formed over the years. Others of this linguistic group are called Mamasani and Kuhgiluya, while the other major dialect is spoken by the western Lurs in the mountains known as Lur-e Kučak. Other names are applied to sub-groups of the Lurs, such as the Boir Aḥmadi and


29

Došmanziāri. It is difficult to know the number of Lurs, since many settled people in their territories do not consider themselves Lurs but an estimate of the total number of Lurs may be close to four million. In addition to the Lur confederations, the Turkic-speaking tribes of Fārs also were united in a confederation under the main band of nomads, the Qašqāis, beginning in the 18th century. Both Lurs and Turks for the most part have given up their nomadic life for a settled one. At present there may be about half a million Turkic speakers in southern Iran and their dialects are closely related to the Azeri Turkic language. The Kurds live north of the Lurs in the Zagros Mountains, up to and over the frontiers with Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan. They speak many dialects but these are divided between two major groups, Kormānji (northwestern) and Sorāni (southwestern). The Kurds mostly live in villages or towns, although a small number are still pastoralists but tribal allegiances are still strong among all Kurds. They are estimated at about five million but since many live in Tehran or other cities, it is difficult to know how many consider themselves as Kurds. Most Kurds are Sunnis but in the southern areas in Kermānšāh Province one finds Shiites and followers of sects such as Aḥl-e-Ḥaqq and Yazidis. About half a million Kurds live in northern Khorasan, having been moved there by the Safavids. Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the ancient Medes and even use a calendar dating from 612 B.C. when the Assyrian capital of Nineveh was conquered by the Medes.8 The Turkish speakers of Azerbaijan are mainly descended from the earlier Iranian speakers, several pockets of whom still exist in the region. A massive migration of Oghuz Turks in the 11th and 12th centuries gradually Turkified the Azerbaijan as well as Anatolia. The Azeri Turks are Shiites and were founders of the Safavid dynasty. They are settled, although there are pastoralists in the Moḡān steppe called Ilsevan (formerly Šāhsevan) numbering perhaps 100,000 they as other tribes in Iran, were forced to adopt a settled life under Reza Shah. Other Turkic speakers—Turkmen, Qajars, Afšārs, etc. are scattered in various regions of western Iran. The number of Turkic speakers in Iran today is estimated about 16 million. Most of the Azerbaijanis call themselves and are referred to as Turks but also insist on their Iranian identity, buttressed not only by the religious bond being mostly Shiite in contrast to the Sunni Turks of Anatolia but also by cultural, historical and economic factors. The long and complex 8 Safizadeh, Sedigh ,History of Kurd and Kurdestan, first edit, Tehran, Atiyehpubl,( 1999),pp.

78, 82.


30

history of Azari a major Iranian language and the original language of the region and its partial replacement with Azeri Turkish, the present-day language of Azerbaijan, is surveyed in detail and with a wealth of citations from historical sources elsewhere in the Encyclopaedia. Although the original Azari gradually lost its stature as the prevalent language by the end of the 14th century, the fact that the region had produced some of the finest Persian writers and poets of classical Persian, including Qaṭrān of Tabriz, Neẓāmi of Ganja, Ḵāqāni of Širvān, Homām of Tabriz, Awḥadi of Marāḡa, Zayn-al-Ābedin of Širvān, Maḥmud of Šabestar, Ṣafi-al-Din of Urmia, Abd-al-Qāder of Marāḡa has induced literary historians to talk of The School of Azerbaijan (Rypka). The significant contribution of this school to the preservation of the memory of a fecund shared culture capable of producing unique masterpieces of narrative and panegyric poetry is a matter of common knowledge. The tradition continues to this day, producing such diversely significant poets as Iraj Mirzā, Šahriār, Radi Āḏaraḵši, and Esmāil Amirḵizi and the writer and dramatist Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Sāedi. The geographic position of this fertile region has also contributed to the preservation of a common identity with the rest of the country.9 The eventful modern history of Azerbaijan and its contribution to the progressive movements in modern Persian history, most notably the Constitutional Revolution and to the development of institutions such as the press, has shown how highly influential it has been in shaping the history of modern Iran and its national identity. A survey of the national biography of eminent Iranians would show a high percentage of people of Azerbaijani origin appearing in different spheres as ranking politicians, clerics, merchants and military commanders, including such outstanding scholars as Sayyed Ḥasan Taqizadeh, Aḥmad Kasrawi, Moḥammad-Ali Tarbiat, Reżāzādeh Šafaq and such prominent educators and social thinkers as Mirzā Ḥasan Rošdiya, Kāẓemzādeh Irānšahr Taqi Arāni and Moḥammad Naḵjavāni among others. Also included are a large number of high ranking officials and statesmen, such as the influential prime ministers, Ebrāhim Ḥakimi, Maḥmud Jam Ali Soheyli, and Moḥammad Sāed. Confirmed and vocal Iranian nationalists, these scholars and statesmen had made significant contributions to the territorial integrity of Iran during the troubled periods of 1905-20 and 1941-46, when the country was in the midst of revolution, civil war, and foreign occupation. In Azerbaijan Armenians and Assyrians have been mentioned; the former lived in

9 Rashidvash, Vahid,. The race of the Azerbaijani people in Iran. International Journal of

Research in Social Sciences-India, Vol. 2, No.2,(2012) ,pp. 437- 449.


31

villages north of Salmās up to the border of the country, and the Assyrians in villages west of Lake Urmia. Both have left these regions and few remain, mainly in Tehran, Urmia, and other cities. Their place has been taken mostly by Kurds. On the Caspian Sea coast, in Gilān and Māzandarān and in the Alborz Mountains, live descendants of Caspian peoples speaking Persian dialects with remnants from earlier tongues.10 The Arabs of Khuzestan and the coast of the Persian Gulf are both urban and pastoralists or fishermen on the Gulf. Although, after the Arab invasion of Persia in the 7th century, many Arab tribes settled in different parts of Iran, it is the Arab tribes of Khuzestan (Ḵuzestān) that have retained their identity in language and culture to the present day. But here as in the case of Azerbaijan discussed earlier the ethno-linguistic characteristics of the region must be studied against the long and turbulent history of the province, with its own local language Kuzi, which may have been of Elamite origin and which gradually disappeared in the early medieval period. The influx of Arab tribes from outside the province was also a long-term process. There was a great influx of Arab-speaking immigrants into the province from the 16th to the 19th century, including the migration of the Banu Kab and Banu Lam. It was also during the Safavid period that the term Arabestān began to be used to designate the province, until replaced again by Khuzestan during the reign of Reza Shah, who put an end to the separatist aspirations of Shaikh Ḵazal, the head of the Kab tribe. There were also renewed attempts in vain by the Iraqi regime during the Iran-Iraq war (1980-88) to generate Arab nationalism in the area but without any palpable success. Thus the mosaic of peoples living in Iran today reflects the central geographical situation of the country throughout history, frequently described as a crossroads of Eurasia. Although many languages and dialects are spoken in the country and different forms of social life, the dominant influence of the Persian language and culture has created a solidarity complex of great strength. This was revealed in the Iran-Iraq War when the Arabs of Khuzestan did not join the invaders, and earlier when Azeris did not rally to their northern cousins after World War II, when Soviet forces occupied Azerbaijan. Likewise the Baluch, Turkmen, Armenians and Kurds, although with bonds to their kinsmen on the other side of

10 Raiesniya, Rahim, Azerbaijan in the History of Iran, 1st edit, Tabriz, Nima publishment,

(2007), pp. 211-215.


32

borders, are conscious of the power and richness of Persian culture and willing to participate in it. The Iranian Languages

The Iranian languages also called Irani languages form a subfamily of the Indo-Iranian languages which in turn are a subgroup of the Indo-European language family. The speakers of Iranian languages are known as Iranian peoples. The Iranian languages are considered in three stages of Old until 400 BCE Middle 400 BCE – 900 CE and New since 900 CE. From the Old Iranian languages the better understood and recorded ones is Old Persian a language of Achaemenid Iran and Avestan the language of Zarathushtra. Middle Iranian languages included Middle Persian a language of Sassanid Iran) and Parthian a language of Arsacid Iran. There are many Iranian languages the largest amongst them are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi. Today, there are an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of Iranian languages. The Ethnologue lists 87 Iranian languages. Persian has about 65 million native speakers Pashto about 50 million Kurdish about 18 million Balochi about 7 million and Lurishabout 2.3 million. The term Iranian language applies to any language which is descended from the Proto-Iranian parent language. The unattested Proto-Iranian was first spoken by presumably people/tribes in Central Asia sometime in the late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE. The area in which Iranian languages i.e. Descendants of Proto-Iranian have been spoken stretches from western China to Western Europe. Proto-Iranian was related to also unattested; Proto-Indic. Proto-Indic gave birth to the various northern Indian languages over time; taken together all Iranian Indo-Aryan and Nuristani languages from the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. The term Iranian was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen followed by Wilhelm Geiger and his Grundriss der Irani schen Philologie 1895 whereas Friedrich von Spiegel in 1859 preferred the term Eranian. Robert Needham Cust, however used the term Irano-Aryan as early as 1878. Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller also differentiated between Irano-Aryan and Indo-Aryan. Grierson also uses the term Eranian. Some recent scholarship - primarily in German - has revived of the term Irano-Aryan in analogy to Indo-Aryan. The linguist Ahmad Hasan Dani uses the term and asserts Iranian is short for Irano-Aryan. The linguist Gilbert Lazard specialist in Persian has been using the term consequently in his publications whereas Mohammad


33

Djafar suggests establishing Aryan for the branch. Still Iranian remains the standard term used by the vast majority of English-language linguists. Soon after postulating an Indo-European family in the 19th century, the Iranian languages Avestan, Old Persian, Pahlavi together with Indic Sanskrit, Prakrit were recognized by works of the linguist Rasmus Rask in 1826 as the eastern branch of Indo-European languages. The Armenian language was also considered as an Iranian language but was very soon (in 1875 effectively) established as a separate language in the Indo-European group of languages. Iranian languages are divided into Eastern and Western subfamilies, totaling about 84 languages (SIL estimate). Of the most widely-spoken Iranian languages Kurdish, Persian and Balochi are all Western Iranian languages while Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language. Proto- Iranian and Old Iranian Languages

Together with the other Indo-Iranian languages the Iranian languages are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-Iranian. The Indo-Iranian languages are thought to have originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is the suggested candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture, c. 2000 BC. It was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and present-day Kazakhstan. It was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family like Thracian Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland more precisely the steppes of southern Russia to the north of the Caucasus according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European. Proto-Iranian thus dates to sometime after Proto-Indo-Iranian break-up or the early second millennium BCE as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe the Iranian plateau and Central Asia. Avestan mainly attested through the Avesta a collection of sacred texts connected to the Zoroastrian religion, is considered to belong to a central Iranian group where only peripheral groups such as southwestern represented by Old Persian and northeastern Sogdian and Sakan language (Scythian) had developed.re only peripheral groups such as southwestern represented by Old Persian and northeastern Sogdianand Sakan language (Scythian) had developed. Among the less known Old Iranian languages is Median spoken in western and central Iran which may have had an official status


34

during the Median era (c. 700–559 BC). Apart from place and personal names some words reported in Herodotus' Histories and some preserved forms in Achaemenid inscriptions there are numerous non-Persian words in the Old Persian texts that are commonly considered Median. Some of the modern Western and Central Iranian dialects are also likely to be descended from Median. Other such languages are Carduchi the predecessor to Kurdish and Parthian which evolved into the language of the later empire.11 Middle Iranian Languages

What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the Middle Iranian era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages can be classified into two main families Western and Eastern. The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ssetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand the Eastern group retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script. Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin in the Syriac script.12 New Iranian Languages

Following the Islamic Conquest of Persia (Iran) there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the

11 Henning, WB ,The Ancient Language of Azerbaijan. Transaction of the Philological Society,

London, (1954), pp. 98. 102. 12. Yarshater, E. Azerbaijan vii (1987).The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan. In: Encyclopedia

Iranica, Vol. III/2, http:// www.iranica. Com/articles/Azerbaijan-vii.


35

official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word Darbâr which refers to the royal court where many of the poets were protagonists and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa 8th century and Ibn al-Nadim 10th century associated the term Dari with the eastern province of Khorasan while they used the term Pahlavi to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan and Pârsi Persian proper to describe the Dialects of Fars. They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect Khuzi associated with the western province of Khuzestan. The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of Arabic script for writing Persian Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script was first Latinized in the 1920 under the then Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930 by the Soviet government. The geographical areas in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighboring languages.13 Arabic spread in some parts of Western Iran Khuzestan and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Sogdian barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Sariqoli in parts of southern Xinjiang as well as Ossetic in the Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamirs survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.

13. Rashidvash, Vahid ,The Iranian and Azari languages, Research on Humanities and Social

Sciences- Hong Kong, Vol.2, No.5, (2012).pp.28- 36.


36

Persian Culture

With a long-standing and proud civilization, Persian culture is among the richest in the world. Two and a half millennia of inspiring literature, thousands of poets and writers, magnificent and impressive architecture, live customs dating back to Zoroastrians over 3000 years ago, and other unique characteristics of the nation are rivalled by only a few countries. Throughout the history, this grand treasure of Persia was gradually transferred to eastern and western nations. Iran's significant contribution into the world civilization in many respects is indispensable. Many ceremonies of the ancient Persians are the basis of western celebrations. Among the ceremonies still being held are Norouz, Charshanbeh Suri, Sizdah Bedar, Yalda Night and Haft Sin. Sitting around Haft Sin and reciting Hafez, visiting family and friends during Norouz celebration, night of Charshanbeh Suri and jumping over the bonfire in the hope of getting rid of all illnesses and misfortunes, spending Sizdah Bedar, the 13th day of the New Year, in nature, are old interesting traditions coming from the Achaemenid Empire. Another eminent feature of Persian culture is art. In fact culture and art are two closely interwoven concepts forming the soul of human civilizations. Persian exquisite carpets, subtle soulful classic music, outstanding tile work of unique blue mosques, old influential architectural style and countless brilliant literary works are famous in the world. Persian or Farsi, is one of the world's old languages still in use today, and is known to have one of the most powerful literary traditions and potentials. Persian poetry with masterpieces of Saadi, Hafiz, Rumi and Omar Khayyam is well known around the world. As all Persians are quick to point out, Farsi is not related to Arabic, it is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. One more art intertwined with Persian culture, worth mentioning, is the art of cooking. Persian foods, accompanied by herbs and spices are a product of the creativity, skill and patience of many generations of cooks.14 Persian Art

The artistic heritage of Persia is eclectic and includes major contributions from both east and west. Persian art borrowed heavily from the indigenous Elamite civilization and Mesopotamia and later from Hellenism (as can be seen with statues from the Greek period).

14. Rashidvash, Vahid , Qajar Rule in Iran: The Qajar Government Events That Changed the

Fate of Iran, The Journal of History and Social Sciences- Pakistan, Vol.2, No.2,(2011),pp. 1- 29.


37

In addition, due to Persia's somewhat central location, it has served as a fusion point between eastern and western arts and architecture as Greco-Roman influence was often fused with ideas and techniques from India and China. When talking about the creative Persian arts one has to include a geographic area that actually extends into Central Asia, the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and Iraq as well as modern Iran. This vast geographic region has been pivotal in the development of the Persian arts as a whole. Conclusion

The world is a place containing various racial and lingual groups. So that as far as this issue is concerned there is no difference between developed and developing countries. As if, among all existing countries and islands in the world, about 160 countries have an increasing situation regarding race and culture. Iran is not an exception, because it can be called a multi-national or multi-racial community. It is difficult for anthropologists and ethnologists to determine the race of people settled on the Iranian plateau. The reason is that it has been as an invasion field bilaterally from many years ago. On the other hand, it is as a bridge between the Far East, Middle East and Mesopotamia. Therefore, many different nations with various races have entered this plateau and placed under a unite ceiling of language. It seems that the present residents in this plateau are more related to people in the west and the northwest of Iran. As a result of anthropological studies and measurements in Iran, one basic branch called ‘the white race’ has been determined. It is the race of people in the Iranian plateau. The ancient Iranians (Homo Iranicus) are the genius brothers of original mankind (Homo sapiens) grown in the southwest of Asia physically and culturally, namely the cradle of direct ancestors of Aryans. The Iranians are among the oriental race called Indo-European who have immigrated to this plateau from Axus and Caucasian mountains in the late of the second thousand B.C. They were called Aryan in the history. It took 1000 years for Aryans to enter into this plateau in different small and large groups. Finally in the first millennium B.C., they were replaced and then made various sovereignties. The Iranian Plateau started a new life with fresh Aryan tribes and made the ancient age of Iran which lasts 1000 years. This time is regarded as the golden period in the history of Iran.


38

Bibliography

Rashidvash, Vahid, The Qajar Dynasty in Iran: The Most Important Occurence Evented in the Qajars Monarchy. International Journal of

Business and Social Science- United States of America, Vol. 3, No. 12, (2012) Saidiyan, Abd Alhossein, Peoples of the World, 4th edit. Tehran, Science and life publisher (1991) Minorsky, V Studies in Caucasian history, Cambridge University Press, (1953) Rashidvash, Vahid, Multivariate comparison of cephalometric traits in Iranian Azaris and Persians. Biological Journal of Armenia, Vol. 63, No. 2, (2011) Saidiyan, Abd Alhossein ,people of Iran. 1st edit. Tehran, sience and life publishment, (2004) Eghbal Ashtiyani, A. History of Iran, Tehran, Tehran University publication, (2001) Rashidvash, Vahid ,Iranian people and the origin of the Turkish-speaking population of the north-western of Iran. Canadian Social

Science, Vol. 8, No.2, (2012) Saidiyan, Abd Alhossein ,people of Iran. 1st edit. Tehran, science and life publishment, (2004) Safizadeh, Sedigh, History of Kurd and Kurdestan, first edit, Tehran, Atiyehpubl, (1999) Rashidvash, Vahid,The race of the Azerbaijani people in Iran. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences-India, Vol. 2, No.2, (2012) Raiesniya, Rahim, Azerbaijan in the History of Iran, 1st edit, Tabriz, Nima publishment,(2007) Henning, WB).The Ancient Language of Azerbaijan. Transaction of the Philological Society, London, (1954)


39

Yarshater, E. Azerbaijan vii (1987). The Iranian Language of

Azerbaijan. In: Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. III/2, http:// www.iranica. Com/articles/Azerbaijan-vii. Rashidvash, Vahid.The Iranian and Azari languages, Research on

Humanities and Social Sciences- Hong Kong, Vol.2, No.5,(2012), pp. 28- 36. Rashidvash, Vahid, Qajar Rule in Iran: The Qajar Government Events That Changed the Fate of Iran, The Journal of History and Social

Sciences- Pakistan, Vol.2, No.2,(2011), pp. 1- 29.

41

Management Progression and Prospects- A Comparative Global

and Historical Overview of the National and Multinational

Organizations in the Context of Pakistani Business Environment

Dr. Muhammad Asim*1

Dr. Abdul Rahman Zaki**2

ABSTRACT

Organizations are essential entity for the survival and

sustainability of an economy. In today’s dynamic world the

survival of an organization itself is big challenge in the face of

unpredictable threat, challenges and uncertainties. This

obviously calls for a successful management strategy which is

possible through an understanding of the various factors

surrounding and influencing organization. Among these the

knowledge of the history is also a critical and vital factor.

Knowledge of historical facts especially the management history

will enable an organization to reshape and redraft its strategies

for the future. This will be further improved if the historical

events are learned in the context of global environment. There

exist the elements that are responsible for bringing modification

enhancement and modernization to the management which

exists today. This study attempted to differentiate the

distinguishing elements responsible for the reason of success

through a comparative research basis among the multinationals

and national organizations operating in Pakistan. Comparison

was made on different attributes related to organizational

characteristics and management functions. The study further

attempted to explore the role, impact and implementation of the

management techniques in resolving and assisting the managers

to successfully manage the organization on various grounds.

This is possible through gaining the knowledge of management

from a prospective and retrospective view in connection with the

influencing factors.

Keywords: Management, Organizations, Economy, Culture,

Leadership, Growth rate

* Assistant Professor, Karachi University Business School, University of Karachi, Karachi

Pakistan * Chairman, Karachi University Business School, University of Karachi, Karachi-Pakistan

Jhss, Vol. 3, No.2,July to December 2012

42

Introduction

Organizations are backbone of any economy. They help in

accelerating economic growth, improving balance of payments, help

reduce unemployment, advancing quality of life, manifests changes

in the economic segments by way of exploitation of resources, their

utilization and distribution patterns, production function, income

generation inducing social changes conducive for further growth and

development. It is essential for the success of any nation that it must

have a sound industrial base and utilize its resources effectively and

efficiently and satisfy its various needs. There are different needs of

a nation ranging from basic needs to advance needs as proposed by

Abraham Maslow. Accordingly to Maslow’s theory, needs are

classified as higher order and lower order needs which are further

classified in ascending order as physiological needs, safety, social,

esteem and self-actualizing needs3.

The quality standards and improvements in a country are a

reflection of the habits and thinking level of the people living in that

country. These habits are primarily originated from the culture. The

good or poor quality of a particular habit depends on the condition

under which that habit originated. Traditions, social behavior,

culture, education and religious affiliations strongly influence the

people. Similarly the culture and management standards and

practices of each organization are different from others. Due to these

differences each organization has to design and develop the best

mechanism compatible to achieve success. It is important to learn

lesson from the success and failures of others, and to develop vision

and strategic plans along with workable implementation strategies

to compete globally and attain world class standards.

The development and increase of the heterogeneous industrial

sector is actually a resultant of the anticipation and fulfillment of the

societal needs over time by nations around the globe, however the

western world enjoys the credit towards initiating the concept of

industrialization both theoretically and practically. The world is

witnessing this fact today how industrialization leads towards a

successful and dominant nation.

Today’s manager is no more a manager of the past, because today’s

organizations are no more traditional organization. The discussion is

3 Maslow, A.H., Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and Row Publishers, (1954)

p.40.

Management Progression and Prospects- A Comparative Global and Historical Overview of the

National and Multinational Organizations in the Context of Pakistani Business Environment

43

in the air that the environment of organization is changing which is

ultimately transforming the way people are living in societies. Since

organizations are changing their behavior this translates upon the

people working in the organization to new ways of working.

We are living in a world where products are not only coming from all

around the world but product itself comprises of inputs from around

the globe. National economies are no more self-contained entities;

they are no more isolated from each other by barriers to cross

border trade and investment- by distance, time zones and language

and other cultural differences. Perceived distances are shrinking due

to tremendous technological advancements which are allowing

national economies to merge into an interdependent, integrated

global economic system-a process referred to as globalization.

All these call for an affective and capable managerial ability through

a broader vision. Changes are occurring that are forcing managers to

think on new dimensions of how to revise their managerial styles

and redraft their strategies and rethink in a more creative manner.

Change is not a new concept nor a new alien rather it was originally

there from initial times, the only differences are the types of change

and the speed of change. It is evident that, as some scholars believe

that the organizations are undergoing a paradigm shift and there is a

continuous transition in organizations which has been there from

the initial times since the dawn of the modern age and industrial

revolution that started around earlier 18th century. This became

more profound and far reaching with the technological

advancements of the twentieth century, most notably after 1945 and

again after 1980’s4.

There is no doubt that management thinking has evolved throughout

the centuries to deal with the ever changing environment, it

continues to evolve to meet the challenges raised by the rapid and

dramatic environmental changes.

The idea and focus of this paper is to analyze and correlate the

success of an organization to the changing critical thinking capability

of its managers with reference to Pakistan. This change in

management thinking obviously did not occur overnight nor is it

something that took place on its own. It is actually the cumulative

4 Kielson, D.C., ‘Leadership: Creating a New Reality’, The Journal of Leadership Studies,

(1996), 3(4): 104-116.


44

effect of a number of environmental forces that had reshaped the

thinking domain of managers. This study also attempts to identify

and analyze these forces and its impact upon organizations from a

Pakistani perspective. There are a number of environmental forces

related to the internal and external environment of an organization

responsible for the upsurge of the contemporary and contingency

issues posing serious challenges to corporate managers.

The world of organizations is changing rapidly, and these changes

and expectations have implications for everyone with a vast and

profound impact upon organizations in particular, thus creating an

intense challenge for corporate managers. The process of

globalization, deregulation, e-business, telecommuting, virtual

teams, outsourcing etc. are forcing managers to think that these

developments will further increase in the future and managers have

to think about how to maneuver these fluctuations and help people

in guiding the mand keeping them motivated and focused towards

their goals. They have to devise strategies in a proactive manner to

deal with issues and survive in this world characterized by

randomness and uncertainty.

This emphasizes upon the need to understand managers thinking

and perceptions capability and thus leads to the prerequisite of

gaining knowledge of the historical developments of the various

management schools of thoughts. It is well known that studying

history allows one to learn about mistakes made in the past that can

be avoided in the future, further it allows to learn from past

experiences that can be applied in the appropriate future situations.

This certainly justifies the significance to study the history of

management.

It will be interesting to learn about the history of management in the

context of the historical industrial perspective of Pakistan. Before

extending this discussion it is imperative to take a closer and a

detailed view of the management thoughts that began in the west at

the dawn of the 19th century and which continues till today.

Management-Developmental Paradigms and Thoughts

The concepts of management existed from the early days of

civilization. The elements comprising the package of management

must be as old as man himself. In fact, oldest existing literature and

written history, civil and military provide ample proof that the basics

of management principles had been formulated and it is evident that



45

the management process had been systematizing, regularizing and

modernizing in considerable measure, with progressing time. Yet,

the way of management with which we are familiar, is something of

comparatively recent origin, it is a product of the twentieth century.

Progressively modern management (as we see it today) which is

comparatively on a larger and wider scale got a fillip from the

upsurge of science and technology. Advancements in skills and

technology opened up gigantic possibilities, machines came into

being of unsurpassed speed and efficiency, distance shrank, market

expanded and demand had a matching spurt with growing

prosperity. In short, organizational activities became more

comprehensive and complex, and the entire affair had to be managed

with substantial knowledge of management techniques and

mechanism.

Looking back over the last three decades, the era of industrial

development in Pakistan may be deemed to have started after the

independence and soon after its independence the growth in

Pakistan is indeed phenomenal. In heavy industries such as steel,

chemicals, cement, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, chemical

fertilizer, ship building, machinery, aircraft, locomotives, defense

production, refineries and others starting from about zero level the

progress is magnificent.

In consumer industries including durables, textile, household

products, electrical goods, synthetics, toys, cars, cycles, commercial

vehicles, furniture, upholstery, leather goods, cosmetics, woolens,

watches, office equipment Pakistan’s position is noteworthy. In the

field of science and technology, electronics, aeronautics, atomic

research and others the achievement is notable.

In plantation and agriculture, the progress in the last decade itself is

heartening and it is no exaggeration to say that the foundation has

been laid for the transformation of farming and agriculture from

tradition (a mere habit and a way of life) to modernity.

It is the nature of human being to approach the same problem from

different perspectives. Management, by its very nature, is an

extremely complex and multidimensional phenomenon. The study of

management has historically proceeded along economic,

physiological, social, and psychological, as well as interdisciplinary

lines. Numerous theoretical frameworks has been developed by

various scholars during different periods as is the case in every


46

discipline that particular kinds of developments, breakthroughs,

innovations have resulted in response to the need and circumstances

existed during that period of time.

The oldest viewpoint of management emerged during the late 19th

and early 20th century referred to as the classical perspective5. The

classical perspective comprises of scientific management,

administrative management and bureaucratic management6. During

the period of industrial revolution the principles of division of labor

and specialization were used to develop a factory system of

production7. Later during late nineteenth and earlier twentieth

century considerable focus was towards physiological aspects

followed by social, political and psychological aspects.

Later the quantitative perspective gained it significance during

World War II when military strategist had to contend with many

complicated and massive problems required in making sophisticated

decision making and problem solving.

Last but not the least came the contingency perspective which

proposes that there is no one best approach to management and it

rests with the managers institution to identify which approach

among the previously discussed can be used alone or in combination

for different situations as they arise.

The different schools of management thought should not be viewed

as hard and fast classifications of management rather only as a

device to organize ideas for purpose of communication, learning and

teaching.

To help understand in a better manner, these perspectives had been

represented in a self-illustrative Table (Table 1) along with time

dimension.

5 Lewis, P.M, Goodman, S.H, Fandt, P.M, and Michlitsch, J.F, ‘Management- Challenges for

Tomorrows Leaders’ Ohio: Thomson South-Western, (2007) p.33. 6 Wren, D., ‘Evolution of Management Thought’ New York: Wiley, (1979) p.26. 7 Taylor, F.W., ‘Scientific Management’ New York: Harper and Row, (1911) p.41.



47

Table-1

School of Management Thought, Characteristics and

Contributors

Timeline

Context

School of

Management

Thought

Major

Contributors

Main Focus or

Characteristics

1875

Classical

Perspective

Scientific

Management

Frederick

Taylor

Frank

Gilbreth

Henry Gantt

Scientific method

applied to production

problems

1900

Administrative

Management

H. Fayol

L. Urwick

J. Mooney

A. Riley

Management “Principles”

Macro orientation for

administrative design

Reliance on experience

and

Intuition rather than

empirical data

1925

Behavioral

Perspective

Human

Relations

Mary Parker

Follett Elton

Mayo

Importance of human

Motivation

Group approach to

management

Beginning of scientific

experimentation on

human

problems

Behavioral

science

Chric Argyris

Rensis Likert

Herbert

Simon

James March

James March

Rigorous application of

scientific method to

individual and

organizational

behavior problems

Emphasis on psychology,

sociology and

anthropology

for research in

organization

theory

1950

Quantitative

Perspective

Management

Science

P.M. S.

Blackett

George

Danizig

C. West

Churchman

Russell

Ackoff

Richard

Bettman

Mathematical models of

management problems

Scientific method

Use of interdisciplinary

teams

Systems approach

1975 and

onwards

Systems

Perspective

and

Contingency

Perspective

Modern

Management

Peter

Drucker

W. Edward

Deming

Joseph Juran

Various management

approaches alone or their

combinations depending

upon available situations

Source: Developed by author


48

An Environmental Preview- Global and Historical

In this age of dynamism and globalization, things always do not

remain the same. Changes are inevitable and have implications for

everyone. Today’s manager irrespective of any organization must

realize the fact that they can no more live longer if they think that

stability will prevail in this world of such rapid and far reaching

change. Change and crisis have become the norm for today’s

organization and manager’s effectiveness is judged by the ability to

materialize and exploit the opportunities offered by this changing

paradox.

The external competitive, technological, economic, social and

political environment is in a state of constant flux all over the world

and resultantly organizations are becoming highly vulnerable to

globalization issues. The future now belongs to those who adjust

quickly to fast changing global economic scenario. Successful

business organizations are those that have not only geared

themselves to making an effective response to the rapid external

environmental changes but can actually anticipate them or, at higher

levels of sophistication, can actually create an environment of

themselves. This would, however, be possible only if organizations

recognize the reality of constant change as a significant factor

affecting business performance. Since change features constantly, it

needs to be managed effectively for continued business profitability

and growth. Empirical advances demonstrate that businesses which

assimilate concepts of strategic management are better poised for

profitable operations and actually perform better in dynamic

external environments.

In this contemporary era of fast changing environmental scenario

the timely response to the changes in the external environment is

prerequisite for the survival and future growth of an organization.

To address these dynamics in the external environment managers

must be proactive and anticipate changes in the organizational

framework that help attain equilibrium with respect to these

opposing forces.

As discussed earlier, the role of historical forces in circumscribing

the organizational environment is overwhelming. There is a deep

logic in the passing of history; and that change in the business

environment is the result of elemental historical forces trending in

roughly predictable directions. Henry Adams defined a historical



49

force as “anything that does, or helps to do, work”8. The work that

Adams refers to is the manifest power to cause event. Change in the

business environment is the work of events caused by the seven

deep historical forces or streams of related events discussed below.

Corporate strategy is the efforts of business to adapt to the

continuous changes caused by these forces.

1. The Industrial Revolution

The breakup of small, local economies and the invention of new

machinery and manufacturing techniques in seventeenth-century in

Europe let to expanded markets and mass-production technology

that combined capital, labor, and natural resources in dynamic new

ways. The growth of mass-consumer societies and a world economy

in the twentieth century are but two recent echoes of this industrial

“big bang.” The ramifications of the industrial revolution ripple out

through time to define the strategic business environment in many

ways. For example, new and larger factories, massive capital

accumulation, management techniques for organizing huge

corporations, and the interdependence of financial markets all

articulate its centuries-old premise.

2. Dominant Ideologies

A second historical force is the impact of dominant ideologies. An

ideology is a worldview which is built upon and reinforces a set of

beliefs and values9. For example, the idea of progress, which has

been defining ideology in Western civilization, was built on a set of

beliefs that arose with industrialism. Adam Smith taught that market

economies were a great advance that harnessed human greed for the

public good. Charles Darwin wrote that the biological world was

characterized by constant improvement and Herbert Spencer argued

in what later came to be called social Darwinism that competition in

the business world weeded out the unfit and drove humanity in

upward motion toward betterment. The idea of progress reinforced

values of particular importance to business such as optimism, thrift,

competitiveness, individualism, and freedom from government

interference.

8 Adams, Henry “A dynamic Theory of History (1904)”, The Education of Henry Adams,

New York: The Modern Library,(1931) , p.474: originally published in 1908. 9 Cavanagh, G.F. American Business Values, 3rd edition, N.J.: Prentice Hall,(1990)p.2.


50

A small number of powerful, well-developed doctrines define a

worldview for millions of people. Americans and Western Europeans

largely adhere to ideologies of capitalism, constitutional democracy,

and the major western religions of Catholicism and its offshoot,

Protestantism. Other nations, facing different historical challenges,

have been attracted to different ideologies. In Russia the populace

accepted autocratic ideologies such as Czarism and Communism as

the price of having a ruling power capable of maintaining national

boundaries.

Tensions frequently arise between ideologies. For example, the

accumulation of great wealth is justified by capitalism, but when this

wealth is translated into social power it conflicts with tenets of

democracy that give mass populations the right to check ruling

classes in the exercise of power. Tensions between these two

ideologies have ignited political movements and led to redistribution

of power.

3. Inequality of Human Circumstances

From time immemorial, societies have been marked by status

distinctions, class structures, and gaps between rich and poor.

Inequality is ubiquitous, as are its consequences-jealousy, demands

for equality, and doctrines that justify why some people have more

than others. The basic political conflict in every nation is the result of

economic antagonism between rich and poor10.This is the conflict,

manifest in the competition between Athens’ democracy and

Sparta’s oligarchy that debilitated and eventually tore apart ancient

Hellenic civilization. The current emphasis on corporate social

responsibility in the business environment is, in a general sense,

based on the need to mitigate the appearance of remote and

unresponsive concentrated wealth.

4. Science and Technology

The great scientific developments of civilization since Leonardo

davinci in fifteenth-century, Italy have been fuelling for the powerful

engine of commerce. From the water wheel to recombinant DNA,

business has utilized new discoveries to more efficiently convert

basic resources into equity. The development of the microchip

brought changes in virtually every facet of the business environment.

10 Adler, M.J. The Great Ideas, New York: Macmillan, (1992) p.32.



51

5. Nation States

The modern nation-state system arose in an unplanned way out of

the wreck-age of the Roman Empire as princes and monarchs

expanded and consolidated empires in Europe after the peace of

Westphalia in 1648. The institution of the nation-state was well-

suited for Western Europe, where boundaries were contiguous with

the extent of languages. But the nation-state idea was subsequently

transplanted to territories in Eastern Europe, Southwest Asia, and

the Middle East, partly by force of colonial empires and partly by

mimicry among non-Western political elites for whom the idea had

attained high prestige. And where it was transplanted, nations were

often irrationally defined and boundary lines divided natural

groupings of culture, ethnicity, and language.

Today the world is a mosaic of independent countries, each with a

separate government to impose social order and economic stability

over its territory, and in each there develop feelings of nationalism

or loyalty to a national identity. The dynamics of this system are a

powerful force in the international business environment. Conflict

among nations seeking to aggrandize their power and wealth is

frequent, as occurred in the 1930s when Japan colonized South Asian

countries to gain access to oil and bauxite. Conflict between culture

groupings across nation-state boundaries is today increasingly

prominent11.The nationalistic feelings of Palestinians deposed from

Israeli territory and living in other countries have affected American

companies in many ways, from oil companies that have been caught

in Middle East conflicts to airlines that lose passengers afraid of

terrorism. For many reasons, the nation-state system is one of the

major sources of turbulence in the business environment.

6. Great Leadership

Great leaders have brought beneficial as well as disastrous changes

to societies and businesses. In the third century B.C., Alexander the

Great imposed his rule on the Mediterranean world and created new

routes of trade on which Greek merchants flourished. On the other

hand, leaders such as Adolph Hitler in Germany and Joseph Stalin in

the Soviet Union brought to their societies disaster that retarded

industrial growth.

11 Huntington, S.P. “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs, (1993) p.17.


52

There have been many business leaders whose actions had great

impact. Probably no industrial leader in American history had a

more profound influence on the nations than John D. Rockefeller. His

Standard Oil Company of Ohio, from its inception in 1870 to its

breakup by a Supreme Court antitrust decision in 1911, grew to

completely dominate the oil industry and, in the process, changed

the American economic, political, and social landscape. Its offspring

are still among great oil companies which dominate the global

petroleum market. Today William Gates of Microsoft inspires

comparisons to Rockefeller as the strategies of his company

increasingly define how telecommunications technologies will be

used in society.

There are two views about the power of leaders as a historical force.

One is that leaders simply ride the wave of history. “Great men,”

writes Arnold Toynbee, “are precisely the points of intersection of

great social forces”12. The other is that leaders themselves change

history rather than being pushed by its tide. “The history of the

world,” wrote Thomas Carlyle “is at bottom the History of the Great

Men who have worked here”13.

7. Change

When change occurs we seek causes. If two or more lines of action

intersect in an event its cause is known, as when the technological

innovation of the diesel locomotive and the steam-locomotive-based

strategy of the Baldwin Locomotive Company intersected to produce

failure. But where lines of action cannot be observed or seem to be

random, then the concept of chance can be used to explain an event.

The first Tylenol murders in US occurred in September 1982, when

seven people died from capsules filled with cyanide. This event,

perhaps the work of one person, was followed over the years by

recurrent and mysteriously random product tampering to poison

consumers. This tampering created a major change in the production

and marketing environments of food and over-the-counter drug

companies. Was the initial tampering a random act unrelated to the

actions of the corporations and victims it affected, without which

this change in the business environment would not have occurred?

Or can its causes be explained?

12 Toynbee, A. A Study of History Vol. XII, Reconsiderations, London: Oxford University

Press, (1961) p.33. 13

Carlyle, T. “The Hero as Divinity: Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History”,

reprinted in Carl Niemeyer Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, (1966) p.45.



53

A Historical Glimpse of Pakistan

Pakistan gained independence in 1947, being an agricultural based

country it did not gained significant industrial base soon after its

independence, also since the south Asian subcontinent remained

under British rule for almost a century, it left significant impression

upon a number of systems namely the legal system, labor laws,

structure of the country, and management system of the business

organizations. Most of the practices currently followed are a replica

of the colonial era. Moreover the country’s political system

bureaucratic influence, centralization along with traditional

management practice are regarded as the major impediments

towards considerable low level of output and indeed they are also

not responsive to the current era and do not address the societal

needs at large. This is true more specifically for public sector

organizations as compared to private based organization14.

Pakistan is an agricultural dominant country and as such it does not

possess any significant contribution and achievements in

industrialization process. However the wave of first industrial

revolution that occurred in 1959 was affected by the governmental

policies that issued Economic Reform Order on Jan 03, 1972 that

resulted in taking over banking and insurance institutions and

seventy other industrial organizations. This caused majority of the

investors to migrate in foreign countries.

Third world nations, particularly Pakistan faces enormous problems

in their struggle for developments. Managers and business play a

critical role in the development process. A good management may be

the third world’s scarcest resource; those countries and companies

that are able to mobilize and strengthen management capability in

the best manner will surge forward. Managers face multidimensional

challenges as they operate in this very demanding business

environment. They also carry a significant responsibility for

contributing to the betterment of the societies they are operating in.

It is noteworthy to mention that Pakistan possesses one of the best

talents in the world and Pakistani managers possess the required

capability and potential to address and cope effectively with these

challenges.

14

Asim, M. “A Comparative Study of Management Practices in Multinational and National

Organizations of Pakistan”, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Karachi, Karachi,

Pakistan, (2011) p.35.


54

The country enjoyed a sound industrial base during 1960’s but this

was distorted during the period 1971-77 due to the nationalization

policy of the government which caused a serious setback to the

growth of the economy. Similarly in 1990 the country witnessed a

healthy business environment due to the privatization policy of the

government. Public sector organizations were denationalized and

investors were encouraged to open private sectors. This offered

opportunity to new investors but also opened up avenues for the

existing industries especially the multinationals to enhance, expand

and diversify their business activities. The government showed keen

interest and took initiative to create a healthy and competitive

business environment and the adoption of modern management

practices was encouraged and professionalization of the

management was esteemed.

Although there existed few manufacturing units at the time of

independence of Pakistan, yet the growth of manufacturing sector

has been impressive at an average annual rate of 7.4 percent over

the fifty years (1949-50 to 2000). The growth pattern of

manufacturing sector has been more impressive during the 1960s

and the reforms became a source of industrial boom in Pakistan

economy. As Table 1 and Figure 1 indicates that the manufacturing

sector registered a growth rate of 7.7 percent in the 1950s. The

growth rate accelerated further to 9.9 percent in the 1960s but fell to

4.8 percent in 1970s, due to industrial structural reforms. The

growth rate however increased to 8.2 percent during 1980s but has

fallen to 5.5 percent in 1990 due to structural problems with new

reforms in the decade i.e. during 1980s and 1990s.



55

Table-1

Growth Rate of Manufacturing Sector (1949-98)

Period

Large-Scale

Manufacturing

sector

Small-Scale

Manufacturing

sector

1949-55 - 2.3

1954-60 7.7 2.3

1950-60 15.4 2.3

1959-65 16.9 2.9

1960-70 13.3 2.9

1970-80 3.9 7.9

1980-90 8.1 8.4

1990-95 4.4 8.4

1997-98 6.2 8.4

Source: Adapted from Economic Survey of Pakistan, The Management of

Pakistan’s Economy, Viqar Ahmed and Rashid Amjad (1984), The Issue in

Pakistan Economy, Syed Akbar Zaidi (1999).

Fig.1 Growth Rate of Manufacturing Sector (1949-98)


The growth rate of the Large Scale Manufacturing sector (LSM) from

1999 to 2009 can be observed in Table 2 and Figure2. It is clearly

indicated that the growth rate was as high as 19.9 percent in 2004-

05 after which there appears a decline in value from 8.7 to 4.8 in

year 2008. The year 2009 shows a worse situation where the

production in LSM witnessed a broad-based decline of 7.7 percent.

This pathetic situation is attributed mainly due to severe energy

shortages, deterioration in domestic law and order, sharp

0

2.3

7.7

2.3

15.4

2.3

16.9

2.9

13.3

2.93.9

7.9 8.1 8.4

4.4

8.4

6.2

8.4

1949-55 1954-60 1950-60 1959-65 1960-70 1970-80 1980-90 1990-95 1997-98

Growth Rate of Manufacturing Sector (1949-98)

Large-Scale Manufacturing sector Small-Scale Manufacturing sector


56

depreciation in rupee vis-à-vis US dollar and weak external demand

on the back of global recession coupled with slowdown in domestic

demand.

Table-2

Variations in growth of large scale manufacturing since 1999-00

to 2008-09

Period Percent growth

rate

1999-00 1.5

2000-01 11.0

2001-02 3.5

2002-03 7.2

2003-04 18.1

2004-05 19.9

2005-06 8.7

2006-07 8.6

2007-08 4.8

2008-09 -7.7

Source: Adapted from Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2008-09, Govt.

of Pakistan, Finance Division, Chp.3

Fig.2

Variations in growth of large scale manufacturing since 1999-00

to 2008-09


In summary, Pakistan soon after independence started its industrial

progress, although the newly born country in 1947 inherited a small

percentage of industry which was insufficient to meet the growing

needs of the country. However since its inception, Pakistan gained

1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

1.5%

11.0%

3.5%

7.2%

18.1%19.9%

8.7% 8.6%

4.8%

-7.7%

-10.0%

-5.0%

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Series1



57

considerable progress in industrial activity. Pakistan has also made a

successful transition from an agrarian economy, with only a handful

of manufacturing units at the time of independence followed by

various plans proposed during various government periods to

supplement and uplift the industrial activity among which some

proved successful while others were inefficient.

The cumulative effect of the above-mentioned factors resulted in an

interesting and dramatic paradigm shift with stark differences in the

management practices prevailing in the public and private

organizations of Pakistan. It was also observed that as such no

detailed study or comprehensive data is available that addresses the

issues from a management perspective faced by the organizations

operating in Pakistan whether it is a national or multinational, small

or medium or large organization. This initiated for this research

though its limitation and constraints are inevitable but efforts had

been made to accommodate comprehensiveness satisfactorily.

Research Methodology

For the purpose of this study, national organizations means those

organizations whose parent country is Pakistan and that can be a

private, public or semiprivate organization while multinationals are

foreign based organizations. Although detailed debate and

discussion about classifications of organizations is proposed by

various scholars and that exist in the literature on the basis of size,

type, financial/employee turnover etc. but the discussion is

deliberately limited to remain within the scope of this study.

According to the Annual Report 2011 of Securities Exchange

Commission of Pakistan15, there are 648 firms listed on KSE (Karachi

Stock Exchange).The sample for the present study consisted of total

50 organizations, among which there are 25 national and 25

multinational organizations. Initially the sample was greater than 50

but due to lack of co-operation and co-ordination and a large number

of incomplete and non-responded questionnaires resulted in

dropping several firms. This concluded to the limited sample size of

50 firms. The method of sample selection employed was probability

sampling which employs selection of sample using simple random

selection so that each unit in the population has an equally likely

15 SECP, Annual Report, Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan, Government of

Pakistan, Pakistan, (2011).


58

chance of being selected. It is generally assumed that a

representative sample (a sample that reflects the population

accurately so that it is a microcosm of the population) is more likely

to be the outcome when this method of selection from the

population is employed. The aim of probability sampling is to keep

sampling error minimum which is actually the difference between a

sample and the population from which it is selected16.

Invariably decisions about sample size represent compromise

among a variety of considerations such as time, cost, precision,

relativity etc. A large sample necessarily does not guarantee

precision17, however it depends upon that how much sampling error

one is prepared to tolerate. It is proposed that since the present

study is aimed at comparing the various attributes the sample size

needed not necessarily be proportionate to the respective

population size18.

The primary source of data acquisition were of course the

respondents from business corporations under consideration, and

data was collected through developing a detailed and structured

questionnaire in relevance to the literature review discussed with

closed-ended questions. The questionnaires were filled through

personal visits and personal interviews of the relevant respondents

as well as through hand delivery and courier delivery wherever

possible. Further relevant instructions were indicated in the

questionnaire and the respondents were clearly informed that their

responses would be kept confidential.

Summary of Research Findings

Q1. Does each department have its autonomy to make the decision?

Table-3

Frequency Distribution Table TOTAL Type of Organization

Multinational National

BASE: All respondents 50 25 25

100% 100% 100%

Yes 92% 100% 84%

No 8% 0% 16%

16 Cooper, D.R and Schindler, P.S, ‘Business Research Methods’, New York: McGraw

Hill/Irwin Publishers, (2011) p.127. 17 Brengman, M., Geuens, M., Wiejters, B., Smith, S.M., and Swinyard, W.R., , ‘Segmenting

Internet Shoppers Based on their web-usage Related Lifestyle: A Cross Cultural Validation’,

Journal of Business Research, 58:79-88, (2005). 18 Bryman, A. and Bell, E., ‘Business Research Methods’, New York, Oxford University Press,

(2007) p.247.

Management Progression and Prospects

National and Multinational Organizations in the

100%

120%

Fig. 3 Histogram

According to the table, 92% (100% multinational and 84% national),

of the organizations have the autonomy to make the decision in their

organization. Interestingly 100% multinationals have

make their own decisions and hence more decentralized, while

among the national based organizations 84% replied that they have

the autonomy to make their own decisions and only 16%

respondents of national organizations said that they do not

autonomy in making decisions.

Q2. Do you have a formal procedure for detailed environmental

scanning?

Table-4

Frequency Distribution Table

BASE: All

respondents

Yes

No

Fig.4 Pie Diagram

84%

Yes

Multinational



59

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%


100%84%

0%

16%

Yes No

Fig. 3 Histogram



organization. Interestingly 100% multinationals have the liberty to




respondents of national organizations said that they do not have the

autonomy in making decisions.

Do you have a formal procedure for detailed environmental


TOTAL Type of Organization


respondents

50 25 25

100% 100% 100%

Yes 78% 84% 72%

No 22% 16% 28%

Fig.4 Pie Diagram

16%

No

72%

28%

Yes No


A Comparative Global and Historical Overview of the

Context of Pakistani Business Environment

59



the liberty to




have the

Jhss, Vol. 3, No.2,July to December

60

Multinational organizations had more formal procedure for detailed

environmental scanning as compared to national organizations. Only

16% multinational organizations did not have any formal procedure

for detailed environmental scanning and similarly 28% na

organizations were found absent in detailed environmental scanning

process.

Q3. Do you encourage planning participation of employees at all

levels in your organization?Table-5


BASE: All

respondents

Yes

No

Fig. 5 Pie Diagram

When asked about the planning participation of employees in

organizations, majority of the respondents (88% of multinational

and 92% national) said that they encourage planning participation of

employees at all levels in their organization, surprisingly na

organizations were leading the multinationals in this regard.

Q4.What is the source of motivation for your employees to

encourage participation in planning process?Table-6


BASE: All respondents

Non-financial incentive

Financial incentive

88%

Yes No

Multinational

* Multiple response question; sum may exceed from 100%

December 2012




for detailed environmental scanning and similarly 28% national


Do you encourage planning participation of employees at all

levels in your organization?




respondents

50 25 25

100% 100% 100%

Yes 90% 88% 92%

No 10% 12% 8%

Fig. 5 Pie Diagram




employees at all levels in their organization, surprisingly national

organizations were leading the multinationals in this regard.

What is the source of motivation for your employees to

encourage participation in planning process?




BASE: All respondents 50 25 25

100% 100% 100%

financial incentive 76% 76% 76%

Financial incentive 62% 48% 76%

12%

No

National

92%

8%

Yes No

Multiple response question; sum may exceed from 100%




tional





tional



Fig.-6 Histogram

The above tabulation reveals that

multinational organizations gave importance to non

incentives (such as opportunity for advancement, challenge,

responsibility, good working condition, recreation etc) for

motivating their employees as compared to financi

with respect to financial incentive national organizations gave more

emphasis (76%) as compared to multinationals (48%).

Q5. Does your organization have an innovative strategy to address

changes in the environment

Table-7


BASE: All

respondents

Yes

No

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Non-



61

6 Histogram

The above tabulation reveals that 76% of both national and

multinational organizations gave importance to non-financial



motivating their employees as compared to financial incentives, but


emphasis (76%) as compared to multinationals (48%).

Does your organization have an innovative strategy to address

the environment?




BASE: All

respondents

50 25 25

100% 100% 100%

Yes 86% 88% 84% No 14% 12% 16%


76% 76%

48%

76%

-Financial Incentive Financial Incentive



61

76% of both national and

financial



al incentives, but


Jhss, Vol. 3, No.2,July to December

62

Fig.7 Pie Diagram

Most of the organizations

national) had an innovative strategy to address changes in the

environment. Only 12% of the multinationals and 16% of the

national organizations claimed that they do not have any innovative

strategy to respond to envi

Q6. How does your superior view change?

Table-8


BASE: All

respondents

As a threat

As an opportunity

Fig.8 Histogram

Multinational

88%

Yes

As a threat

As an opportunity

December 2012

Fig.7 Pie Diagram

Most of the organizations around 86% (88% multinational and 84%




strategy to respond to environmental changes.

How does your superior view change?




BASE: All

respondents 50 25 25

100% 100% 100% As a threat 10% 4% 16%

As an opportunity 90% 96% 84%

Fig.8 Histogram

National

84%

16%

Yes No

12%

No

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

As a threat

As an opportunity

4%

96%

16%

84%

National Multinational

around 86% (88% multinational and 84%






A majority of the respondents 90% (96% multinational and 84%

national) said that their managers view change as an opportunity

and not as threat. While only 4% managers in multinational and 16%

in national organizations view change as a threat. Overall only 10%

of the organizations that were analyzed reported that their

managers view change as a threat.

Q.7 What tools are employed f

organization?

Table-9


BASE: All

respondents

Training

Planning

Financial incentives

Others

* Multiple response question; sum may exceed from 100%

Fig. 9 Histogram

Training and planning are found to be the most important tools that

are employed for smooth adaptation of changes in the organization

and multinationals were leading against national organizations in

Training

Planning

Financial Incentives

Others



63




organizations view change as a threat. Overall only 10%


managers view change as a threat.

tools are employed for smooth adaptation of changes in the

Distribution Table



BASE: All

respondents 50 25 25

100% 100% 100% Training 70% 76% 64%

Planning 64% 72% 56% Financial incentives 18% 12% 24%

Others 30% 20% 40%

Multiple response question; sum may exceed from 100%

Fig. 9 Histogram




0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Training

Planning

Financial Incentives

Others

76%

72%

12%

20%

64%

56%

24%

40%




63




organizations view change as a threat. Overall only 10%


in the





64

this aspect. On the contrary financial incentive was dominant in

national organizations as compared to multinationals. Overall 70%

(76% multinational and 64% national) of the organizations said that

training and planning were considered to be most important tool for

smooth adaptation of changes in the organization.

Discussion and Conclusion

The perception that national organizations are not being managed

well has given rise to certain questions of the research as what is

meant by management in national and multinational organizations.

What are the peculiar characteristics of a national and multinational

organization that lead to the differences in their respective

management practices and how the organizational resources are

managed.

This study attempted to obtain the answers to the above questions

and for this purpose a comprehensive questionnaire incorporating

the various management attributes was prepared which proved to

be helpful in recognizing and identifying the differences that are

responsible to give multinational corporations a competitive edge in

comparison to national organizations.

This research reveals the fact that the senior management of MNC’s

spends most of the time in the process of conceptual thinking for

coping up with the upheavals taking place in the business

environment. Usually MNC’s are involved in continuous scanning of

the environment both internally and externally and devise strategic

plans accordingly. The continuous involvement in the process of

planning by the MNC’s has sharpened their intuitive ability to

anticipate and forecast the fast changing elements in the global

market and respond reactively and proactively where required. The

plans made by the MNC’s not only address to the continuous

environmental changes but also give due importance to the

innovation strategy. Thus the continuous innovations by

multinationals are a fact that cannot be denied as a result of

continuous planning process. It was found that this continuity lacks

in national based organizations and this fact was admitted by the top

level managers of national organizations that the plans made by

multinationals have continuity, they are more comprehensive, well

designed, well-picked and most successfully implemented.

It was also observed that financial incentives are given secondary

importance while non-financial incentives are considered as top



65

motivating factors of employees. MNC’s are offering more non-

financial incentives as compared to the national based organizations.

The leadership style though much debatable, but the fact cannot be

ignored that it is the one single factor that is responsible for the

ultimate success of an organization. Today’s leader is a friend, a

coach, a guide and this is more observed in an MNC where

employees follow their leaders because they like their leaders.

It was found that the most of the national based organizations were

highly formalized but comparatively more centralized and more job-

oriented. They consider financial incentives as a priority motivating

factor without analyzing the impact and importance of other factors.

It is therefore suggested that national organizations should give

importance to other motivating factors along with monetary benefit

which alone is insufficient. Next a substantial degree of freedom of

speech and an atmosphere of employee involvement and

participation must be encouraged.


66

Bibliography

Adams, Henry “A dynamic Theory of History (1904)”, The

Education of Henry Adams, New York: The Modern Library,(1931)

,originally published in 1908.

Adler, M.J. The Great Ideas, New York: Macmillan, (1992)

Asim, M. “A Comparative Study of Management Practices in

Multinational and National Organizations of Pakistan”, Unpublished

PhD thesis, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, (2011) p.35.

Carlyle, T. “The Hero as Divinity: Heroes, Hero-Worship and the

Heroic in History”, reprinted in Carl Niemeyer Lincoln, University of

Nebraska Press, (1966) p.45.

Cavanagh, G.F. American Business Values, 3rd edition, N.J.: Prentice

Hall,(1990)

Huntington, S.P. “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs, (1993)

Kielson, D.C., ‘Leadership: Creating a New Reality’, The Journal of

Leadership Studies, (1996), Lewis, P.M, Goodman, S.H, Fandt, P.M,

and Michlitsch, J.F, ‘Management- Challenges for Tomorrows

Leaders’ Ohio: Thomson South-Western, (2007)

Maslow, A.H., Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and

Row Publishers, (1954)

SECP, Annual Report, Securities and Exchange Commission of

Pakistan, Government of Pakistan, Pakistan, (2011).

Taylor, F.W., ‘Scientific Management’ New York: Harper and Row,

(1911)

Toynbee, A. A Study of History Vol.XII, Reconsiderations, London:

Oxford University Press, (1961)

Wren, D., ‘Evolution of Management Thought’ New York: Wiley,

(1979)

67

Allama Abi Jaffar Muhammad Ibn Habib Baghdadi and His

Kitab al Muhabbar

1Nasreen Afzal*

Samia Saeed**

ABSTRACT

The third century of the Islamic era was a period of

great intellectual attainments in the history of the

Arabs. It was in this period that some of the brightest

luminaries appeared on the horizon of Arab learning,

whose light guided later writers in different branches

of knowledge. One of the earliest historians of the third

century was Allama Abi Jaffar Muhammad Ibn Habib

Baghdadi who died in 245 A.H. He wrote nearly fort

five books but in this article his manuscript Kitab al

Muhabbar is being studied. This book gives valuable

information about pre-Islamic and Islamic society of

Arabs. Kitab al Muhabbar is one of the earliest

examples of Muslim social historiography.

Key Words: Linage, Pre Islamic Arab traditions, Social history, Lists

* Assistant Professor, Department of History (Gen), University of Karachi

** Research scholar, Department of History (Gen), University of Karachi


68

Allama Abi Jaffar Muhammad Ibn Habib Bagdadiand His

Kitab al Muhabbar

Muhammad Ibn Habib Baghdadi the writer of Kitab ul Muhabbar,

one of the invaluable manuscripts on the social history of pre-Islamic

and early Islamic Arabia, is a Muslim historian of the third century

after Hijrah. Unfortunately not much is known about the life of Ibn

Habib. However, in the Fihrist and Yâqût who quotes the Fihrist he

named him as Muḥammad b. Ḥabîb b. Umaiya b. 'Amr. He was a slave

of Bani Abbas Bin Muhammad. Habib was his mother's name and she

was one of the most devoted slaves.2 Like his father’s name his date

of birth is also not known but according to Zarkali and Ibn Kateeb, he

was born and died in Samrah.3

Ibn Habib wrote some forty five books mostly on tribal history

included the names of Arab tribes, similarities in the names of Arab

tribes, tribal verses and tribal conflicts, and family history. The paper

attempts to review a remarkable book Kitab al Muhabbarof Ibn

Habib.

Content of the Book

The contents of Kitab al Muhabbar are very interesting and

diversified which generate great inducement to read. The contents

can be divided into two major segments. The first portion contains

the historical information about the time period of different

Prophets throughout history, ages of these Prophets and the history

of Arabs whereas the second portion contains a numerous number of

lists. These lists can be grouped into three sets.

The first group of list is about the people associated with the Holy

Prophet (PBUH). Such as a list of ambassadors sent by the Holy

Prophet to different kings, list of Holy Prophet’s wives, a list of the

Holy Prophet’s in-laws, list of Holy Prophet’s wars, list of Holy

Prophet’s appointees in the government, list of spies of Holy Prophet,

and list of individuals who during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet

had memorized the entire Quran.

The second set of content is about the list of people associated with

four Pious Caliphs. For example, list of son in-laws of Hazrat Abu

Bakar (RA), of Hazrat Umar (RA), of Hazrat Usman (RA) and Hazrat

2 Ibn Naddem, Alferis,(Lebanon: Dar ul Moharaft Beroot,1994),p.136 3 Ibn KateebBagdadi,Tareek e Bagdadi,(Lebanon: Dar ul Fikar Beroot,2004),p.86

AllamaAbiJaffar Muhammad Ibn Habib Baghdadi and His Kitab al Muhabbar

69

Ali (RA). Then there are lists of son in-laws of Umayyad and Abbasid

Caliphs.

The third set contains lists of people of various qualities and

background. Such as list of sharp people of Arab, list of bloody

bandits of Daur-I-Jahalia ( dark age), list of bloody bandits of Islamic

period, list of warrior tribes of Arab, list of those tribes whose

population does not increase, list of fanfare of Arabs during Daur-I-

Jahalia , list of those elites who were monocular, list of elites who

were bald , list of idiot women, list loyal people of Arabia, list of

loyal wives, list of idiots of Arab , list of people with the name of

Talha who were famous for their generosity, list of women who took

the decision of their marriage by themselves, list of people who

limped, list of people whose mothers were Christian or Abyssinian,

list of persons with name of Mohammad, list of Arabic guiders, list of

tribal chief names and their relationships, list of liberal and

extremist tribes, list of various trade agreements, six factors on

which Arab’s feel pride, list of divorces, list of domestic and social

problems, list of magicians, list of policemen, list of kings of Iran and

Arab with accurate duration and intellectual and scholar class, list of

people’s generosity , list of ancient tourists of deserted Arab land, list

of only those women who married thrice, list of chains of taking Bait

from administers that is oath of allegiance, list of superstitious and

myths of Arab and prayers of ancient Arab gives clear representation

of social history and tribal historiography.

It can be observed that the lists are not chronologically arranged. For

example, he starts from the Prophets and then suddenly switches to

Umayyad further Abbasids and then again he move to the Prophet’s

son. He switches to tribal then cultural and later military history so

the contents are not arranged in chronological order. It shows that

he does not care about traditional methods of historiography but

develops his own peculiar style of history writing.

Extraction of History through Kitab al Muhabbar

Social History

Kitab al Muhabbar is an example of social history. The lists which are

given in this book are not just the names but it gives information

about the social norms of the era. For example, there is a list of

beautiful male members of the society who use to wear veil to hide


70

their faces.4 It is very interesting to note that not only women but in

the Arab culture men also wore veil.

Ibn Habib mentions some important decisions taken in a pre-Islamic

period which continued /allowed by Islam. e. g. during pre-Islamic

time on the occasion of pilgrimage people from Quresh do not use to

stay at Arafat and due to the darkness of the night, don’t go out of

Muzdalfa. A man by the name of Qasi Bin Kalab lit the passage,

between Arafat and Muzdalfa with the fire so that people moving

from Arafat to Muzdalfa can move easily. This practice of staying at

Muzdalfa is continued by Islam. 5Another decision is related with the

division of the property among sons and daughters. Prior to Islam

Arabs use to give property only to sons and daughters have no share.

Amir Bin Jasham during the Dur-i-Jahalia divided his property

among his sons and daughters in such a way that the amount of son

was double than the amount given to the daughter. Islam allowed

this tradition also. 6

Ibn Habib enlighten that the geographical factors and revelation

brought in different periods by various Prophets are the two main

reasons for the development of different languages. 7

He elaborates different festivals, fairs and markets with the respect

of dates of different months of pre-Islamic Arab calendar in

chronological order. It tells us when the purchasing was prohibited

from religious and cultural point of you. Tribal ascendency on these

fairs and large amount of part was given to them and special

entertainment was arranged for the visitor by dancing girls. Arab

purchase goods by throwing very small piece of stones taking

consensus of group of people and then seller easily sell his good in

large number of people8 Two big fair was arranged on the ports

where people especially from China, India and many other from east

and west. Having trade relations with developed nations of the

world is of course an evidence of the progress and civilization of the

Arabs. However the question is whether all parts of Arabia had such

relations with other nations or possibly the some tribes were devoid

of them? Furthermore relations with Persia, China, Hind and

Byzantium are seen. This indicates that author has allocated a

number of pages of his book to prove the existence of an expansive

4 Ibn Habib , Kitab ul Mohabbar , (Karachi: Qirtaas Printers,Publishers,2011),p.175 5 Ibid,.p.178 6 Ibid, 7 Ibid,.p.266 8 Ibid.,,p.197


71

civilization amongst the Arabs of the pre-Islamic age and has placed

reliance in this connection on three things namely first their having

had an excellent language and established establishment by them of

relations with advanced nations.

Many traditions are familiar with the proverbs and couplets of

poetry. They are extremely generous people and their names are

remembered because of generous act before Islam and after Islam.

Book on various pages shows there was a contest between the Arabs

of being most generous and record their generous actions and deeds

in the history.9 Even after Islam they praised and admired the

generosity of migrated people as stories. They used to cover head

from long piece of fold cloth called Ammama10 and praises long

heighted man11.

People are divided into social classes by professions and in

tribes.12Social position of women is tragic. Amongst the Arabs

woman was just like merchandise which could be bought and sold

and did not possess any individual or social rights not even the right

of inheritance. The open-minded persons among them put woman

under the category of animals and for this very reason considered

her to be one of the chattels and necessities of life. On account of this

belief the proverb: 'Mothers are only as good as vessels and have

been created to serve as receptacles for sperm' was fully current

amongst them. Author describes all the genealogies from the mother

relationship to the next mother because mother knows about his son

rather than father so the mothers are more important figure. Her

verification is essential for the personal identity. He also listed the

dignified women of Arab called Munjaba13 who have three saint and

kind sons. Arabs also revere the loyal wives14 and her respect is

reflected in verses and stories of murderers and robbers15. Many

Arab challenges loathsome practice of killing the girls and infant

burials.16

9 Ibid.p.115-127 10 Ibid.p.175 11 Ibid.p.176 12 Ibid.p.190 13 Ibid.p.306 14 Ibid.p.294 15 Ibid.p.122 16 Ibid p.132


72

Economic History

According to Ibn Habib, anarchy, lack of law and order, excessive

bloodshed, hostile geographical condition and absence of an

authoritative government, which might control the situation and

deal properly with the rebels, are the reason for the Arabs leading a

nomadic life In this hard-hitting condition trade fairs had an

important effect not only on the regeneration of the Arabian social

structure, but also on shaping a certain cultural environment in the

region. Mecca held important place, as it was the religious center of

the pagan Arabs. Ibn Habib state that the people of Mecca succeeded

in making use of these privileges in trade and contributed to the

revival of the commercial and cultural life of the Arabian Peninsula

with their trade agreements17 signed with neighboring countries. As

a matter of fact, in the fairs which was regularly visited by all Arab

tribes, both the Iranian drachma and Byzantine dinar were used,

thus through theses fairs, the cultural exchange as well as

commercial transactions took place.

Employments were given according to the months 18and main

profession were essayist (writer) which was considered the noblest

profession. Among other professions were Kotwal (police officer)

trade (Merchant), training of soldiers (Army), selling and buying of

slaves, selling and buying of sheep, cows and goods. The slaves were

sold from 20,000 Durham to 50,000 Durham which was the

maximum cost of a servant. 19

Religious History

Kitab al Muhabbar also contains very interesting information about

the religious beliefs of pre-Islamic Arabia. Ibn Habibstates the time

duration among Prophets, with their ages, relationship with the

families, names of their sons and wives. Knowledge of campaigns of

the Prophet (PBUH) as a military leader, diplomat and decision

maker in various battles and tracing genealogical blood relationships

which bring another aspect of history. He also informs about those

religious traditions which were either continued or were discontinue

after the conversion of Arabs from polytheism to monotheism.20 He

skillfully correlates the religion with the cultural amalgamation.

History is divided in epochs and period as of religious history. It set

17 Ibid.p.131 18 Ibid.p.127 19 Ibid.p.240-242 20 Ibid .p.333


73

itself in a pre-ordained pattern that is period of darkens and period

of light. Prophet (PBUH) can be seen as a problem solver of issues

like domestic, marriages, divorces, heritage, and rights of man. It is

very interesting to know that most patterns of ablution and

pilgrimage is borrowed from pre-Islamic Arab traditions even

fulfilling of promises is essential characteristics of Arab before and

after Islam.

He explains the difference between culture and religion. Firstly he

jots down different prayers of several gods by paying high regards

and honor to their respected gods21. People performed pilgrimage

every year. He says that they prayed and if their wishes come true

they become loyal and true follower of that god and embark on the

journey of pilgrims. He represents liberal picture of Islam as Islam

absorbed many old customs and ritual so that followers would be

contented psychologically as their habit of going on pilgrimage

continued.

He very successfully wrote religious history with key element of

cultural history and proved that it is an ancient historical ritual. This

is most interesting skill of the author to elaborate the cultural habits

of Pre-Islam and after Islam Arabic society. Islamic doctrine

borrowed many rituals such as funeral prayers, answerable on Day

of Judgment and sacrifices performed on 10th Zil Hajj, belief that

dead people will become alive on the Day of Judgment are followed

by all the Muslims of the worlds. Islam being the world religion has

blended many pan-Arabic rituals in it which has the capacity to

blend further with the other cultures of the world. It is because of

this Islam had become universal religion in a very limited span.

He also conveyed humility, humbleness and modesty with the help of

poetry taking the examples of common people like Ala Ahsha who

gives prayers to drunken Christian man.22 Kitab informs that in Arab

culture prayers were considered as a very important element of

religion. As it is significant for the behavioral, cognitive, emotional

development of human being and in Arab cultures it matters a lot. He

is of the opinion that prayers have civilized the Arab as they become

patient and optimistic rather than rebellious and pessimistic.

21 Ibid.p.222-227 22 Ibid.p.22


74

Tribal Historiography

Another important aspect of Arab society covered by the author is

the information about Arab tribes. Ibn Habib apprises that Arabs

were great warriors. There is no doubt about the fact that the Arabs

possessed extraordinary martial spirit and excelled many other

nations in the art of warfare. The Arabs had developed the habit of

bloodshed and pillage to such an extent that some time for self-

glorification they counted plunder as one of their honors. This fact is

quite evident from their poetry and literature. One of the poets in the

book is of the Age of Ignorance while observing the lowly condition

and humbleness of his tribe in the matter of murder and plunder felt

aggrieved and expressed his aspirations in these words: "O' that

instead of belonging to this weak and worthless tribe I had been the

member of a tribe whose men whether mounted or on foot always

indulged in pillage and plunder and put an end to the lives of other”.

There were tribal jealousies and economic power make a tribe

socially powerful. He gives an example of two tribes one is radical

and very strictly follows religious practices and another one is very

liberal which follow activities in their religious months.

He further explains that Arabian society was tribal; based on

nomadic, semi-nomadic and settled populations. The settled

populations had genealogies similar to those of the nomads and

semi-nomads, identifying them as either ‘northern’ or ‘southern’

through the identity of their presumed eponyms. Not only did

genealogy define the individual tribe, it also recorded its links with

other tribes within families of tribes or tribal federations, each

including several or many tribes. Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH)

tribe, Quresh, for example, was part of the Kināna, and hence the

other tribes of the Kināna were its closest relatives. The settled

populations, which probably included more people than the nomadic

and the semi-nomadic populations put together, do not receive a

proportionate share in the literary sources because the limelight are

typically on the nomads, more precisely on their military activities,

no matter how insignificant. Tribal informants focused on the

military activities since the performance of town dwellers in the

realms of trade and agriculture were less spectacular, and hence less

contributive to tribal solidarity. After the Islamic conquests the

tribes underwent significant changes, but they preserved their


75

genealogy and their rich oral heritage that was inseparable from the

genealogy.23

Myths of Age of ignorance is also reminded by the author like a

camel was confined by the side of a grave, they cut off the feet of a

camel near a grave , treatment of diseases and burning fire for the

coming of rains. However as the Arabs who had been ruled for ages

by superstitious beliefs the Holy Prophet used to say: "All the traces

of ignorance are under my feet" i.e. ‘by the advent of Islam all the

baseless customs beliefs and means of distinction have been

annihilated and have been trampled under my feet’.

Ibn Habib’s Historiography

Ibn Habib historiography is characterized by a continuous narrative

and genealogical form of history .The science of genealogy has been

approved by the Quran as a source of knowledge when it says: “verily

we created you in tribes and clans so that you may recognize each

other”.

According to the Encyclopedia of Muslim Historiography with the

appearance of professional genealogist in the first century Hijra,

Muslim historians started patronizing genealogy in history writing.

The Arabs have an age-old practice of preserving their genealogical

tables, and it was a special branch of knowledge among them. It was

connected with their poetry too. Since the main topics of their poetry

were the pride on nobility and ancestral glory, they preserved their

family history in poetical composition. Ibn Habib’s form of history

supports the importance of genealogical science coupled with

poetry. However, in the second century, from A.D. 719 to 816, when

books began to appear; production received a definite impetus by

the practice of studying genealogy, particularly in relationship to the

Prophet (PBUH). It is from this point that we have the beginnings of

written Muslim history from which it is possible to arrive at an

authentic narrative of events.

The connection between society and history was significantly

understood by him. The amalgamation of the accounts of foreign

faiths and cultures in old Muslim tradition of historiography is

pursued by him. As he was poet himself therefore he mentions some

account of the religious beliefs and social customs of its local

23 Leckor, Michael. “Pre-Islamic Arabic.”The formation of the Islamic world Sixth to Eleventh

Centuries. (Ed).Chase F. Robinson. Cambridge university Press, 2010. Cambridge Histories

Online. Cambridge university press.p.225.


76

inhabitants in poetry. Whenever, historical information of a social

nature was required, Ibn Habib collects data from verses, wrote with

its knowledge for better depiction of culture.

Ibn Habib used literature of Arab like a painted tableau which makes

us visualize the life of a family as well as a chain of natural scenes

and tumultuous multitudes or theatres of crimes, training of the

robbers, cultural, social domestic life. The poetry of the Arabs and

the proverbs more than anything else show the real character of

their history.

A historian desirous of becoming fully acquainted with the real spirit

of a nation should not ignore its various intellectual monuments like

poetry prose proverbs stories etc. Fortunately the Muslim scholars

like Ibn Habib have as far as possible recorded the literature of the

Arabs pertaining to the age of ignorance which portraits the social

history as in Kitab ul Muhabbar. It is a collection of a large number of

poems composed during the age of ignorance and he has arranged

them in ten sections as Epic poems -Threnodies Literature - Lyric

poems pertaining to the period of youth - Satires of individuals and

tribes - Verses appropriate for hospitality and generosity - Eulogies -

Qualities natural disposition and character - Wit and humor; and

Maligning women get the reader's attention. This is followed by an

account of the poet's journey, with the descriptions of horse or camel

and of desert scenes and events. The main theme, at the end, is a

tribute to the poet's patron, his tribe, or even himself and displays

poet own knowledge.

Habib Baghdadi’s main objective is to portray the Arabs ancient

civilization and describe pre-Islamic Arab society through social,

religious and economic aspects. Forthishe uses references of Ibn

Qalbi , Ibn Arabi, Ubaid, Abu Kartab and Abu ul Qeqzan because

they were considered as the most authentic in the eyes of people As

a historian he discharged his duties with great responsibility.

One more important feature of Ibn Habib’s writing is that he

compares the condition of pre-Islamic society with the Arab society

after Islam. For instance, he compares between bloody robbers of

pre-Islam and bloody robbers after Islam. 24He ponders about and

wrote down about the dissimilarities and what new developments in

robberies have evolved. He draws the attention of reader that crime

and violence was still existed in the society in spite of Islamic

24 Op.cit,. Ibn Habib,P.149,163


77

teaching. He analyzes the similarities and dissimilarities and thus his

writing can be called as comparative history writing.

Ibn Habib makes his best to find out continuity of many tradition,

rituals, and family norms, before Islam and after Islam. But he did

not give reasons for the discontinuity and elimination.

By the help of Functionalist theory, one can analyze that as Ibn Habib

from his childhood suffered from class division and inequality on the

basis of wealth so probably because of his suffering and his desire to

overcome his guilt he wrote Kitab al Muhabbarin which he focuses

on culture, ethics, passed stories and morals existed in society and

tries to show that how can one improve them. Ibn Habib’s life was

full of struggle which is evident from his writing, as very sensitive

and real life issues of society is discussed by him. May be because of

his sensitiveness he remained indifferent of analytical

historiography and associated himself very close with genealogical

historiography. His desire to get place in his society as an educated

slave and scholar forced him to stick with the real values of history.

His history is a mixture of genealogy and literature and his

historiography is about the inquiring about real objects of social

history.

Professor Marwick says, Ibn Habib’s manuscript is authentic primary

source book on Muslim history. It depicts history connected with

anthropology, further elaborated by literature and which is a social,

tribal, economic, cultural, religious history. He gives narrative

information and leave to the reader to judge. The Muslims were able

to expand the scope of history from mere recording of facts into a

repository of economical, tribal, administrative, and cultural

experiences and made fruitful essays into the analytical field as well

and one such historian is Ibn Habib.

Ibn Habib has used Isnad as the main source. Though very seldom he

mentions his authority but Ibn al Kelbi seems to be the principal

authority for his writing.

Conclusion

Genealogical science is a ground root of Muslim historiography. Ibn

Habib follows the genealogical form of history which goes hand in

hand with the literature. He strives to see the past and future

through mirror of lineages. Ibn Habib form of history is categorized

as a new and unique added with the science of genealogies and art of


78

literature. Genealogy is undoubtedly very important for Arab’s pride

and individuality. It is one way to construct history and left reader or

audience to judge by his own aspect. His writing shows strong tribal

historiography with their relationship and differences. His

philosophy of history is to check the gene from the sociological point

of view so the origins are vital figure. He traces Prophet PBUH

relationships and found the purity of blood in long chain of son and

son in laws. Thus the main feature of the work is the mass of

genealogical material which is not found elsewhere in such a

complete manner. It is interesting to note that these genealogies are

concerned with the relationship on the mother’s side going back to

the mother, the mother’s mother and the mother’s mother’s mother.

As the book is filled of such lists but its value and the distinctive

character is not the completeness of the material but the preference

shown for this way of classifying it.

His major accomplishment is skillful blending of anthropology with

history which helps to define physical appearance, ancestry, their

environment and social and cultural relations of people. His center of

attention throughout is on the development of a genealogical

nationalism and significant cultural belief. His literature contributed

ideas, stories of many murderer and robbers, poetry are only to

focus on identity and highlighting the method to get fame of Arabs

from the eyes of readers and from ears of listeners. It is also one way

to remind past in relationship of literature. Beside literature his

interest is to illustrate oral tradition and historical argument,

additionally in subtle reflections on the nature of truth and its

relationship to poetics, textually, and authority. For instance, Arab

and Iran mixed poetry and Arab robber’s beautiful poetry quoted by

him helps him to tell many paradigms in one line. As an expert

philologist his words are not merely words they represent the ideas

of locals.

For him his goal are important than following traditional

historiography. For example Ibn Habib is careless while quoting his

sources but his contemporaries were careful to quote their

authority. In spite of this Kitab al Muhabbar provides new material

which is very significant to understand the pre Islamic Arab society.

He tried to fill the gaps which remained unanswered by

historian/sociologist of his times. Thus it can be said that it is a social

history book.


79

Bibliography

Ibn Habib , Kitab ul Mohabbar , (Karachi: Qirtaas Printers,

Publishers,2011)

Ibn Kateeb Bagdadi, Tareek e Bagdadi, (Lebanon: Dar ul Fikar

Beroot,2004)

Ibn Naddem, Alferis,(Lebanon: Dar ul Moharaft Beroot,1994)

Leckor, Michael. “Pre-Islamic Arabic” The formation of the Islamic

world Sixth to Eleventh

Online. Cambridge university press. Centuries. (Ed).Chase F.

Robinson. Cambridge University Press, 2010. Cambridge Histories

81

A Narration on Muslim Bengal's

Struggle for Freedom

Mohammad Abu Tayyab Khan*

Abstract

East India Company, a commercial enterprise of United Kingdom, came

to the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent, gradually succeeded in

transforming itself into a ‘political power’. In 1757 landmark event of

the Battle of Plassey firmly established the Company as the supreme

power. Within a few years followed the Grant of the Diwani to the East

India Company by Emperor Shah Alam (1765). For a trifling sum of

Rs.26 lacs per annum the Company secured the entire control of the

affairs of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.The wording in which the grant was

made would be considered amusing if the consequence of this action

were not so tragic for a whole person who suffered foreign subjugation

for a period of nearly two centuries. A document described as ‘strange’

in ‘Bengali Literary Review’ (1973) edited by Prof. Syed Ali Ashraf

says:"At this happy time (i.e. after the defeat at Buxar) our royal

Firmaund (i.e Farman) indispensably requiring obedience, is issued:

that whereas in consideration of the attachment of the services of the

high and mighty, the noblest of exalted nobles, the chief of illustrations

of royal favours, the English Company, we have granted them the

Dewanny of the Provinces of Bengal, Behar and Orissa… It is requisite

that our royal descendants, the viziers, the bestowers of dignity… as

well as the future as the present, using their constant endeavours for

the establishment of the royal command, leave the said office in

possession of the said Company from generation to generation, forever

and ever….. Knowing our commands to be most strict and positive, let

them not deviate there from."That was how the right of collecting the

revenues of these provinces along with which went administration of

criminal law came into the hands of the Company. For all practical

purposes the Financial Instrument the (Diwani) meant the surrender

of sovereignty by the Mughal Emperor. This surrender had far reaching

effects especially on the position of the Muslims. Great deterioration

was noticeable not only in their political status but also in their

economic condition. Politically they lost all the importance which they

had possessed and the privileges they had enjoyed for centuries as

rulers of the land. And since the British had replaced as rulers, they

saw to it that the Muslims did not lift their heads once more.

This study is a narration of the struggle of Muslim Bengal that

describes the role of various actors that finally destined to the struggle

for Pakistan.

Key Words: East India Company, Diwani, Battle of Plassey, A.K. Fazlul Haq

*Assistant Professor, Department of Bengali, University of Karachi

Jhss, Vol. 3, No.2 ,July to December 2012

82

Muslim Bengal’s Struggle for Freedom

In the economic life of Muslims the Company's rule brought in its

wake serious maladjustments. If under Muslims rule a large number

of posts; civil and military, were filled by the Muslims, now the

higher posts were reserved for the British and lesser posts went to

Hindus who were associated with the Company from the beginning

as their agents. This meant unemployment for a multitude of

hitherto influential families as well as the common Muslim.

Moreover, in the beginning of the Company's rule its servants

collected fabulous sums of money. This was made possible through

participation in commercial activities not only on Company's but

also on their own individual accounts and, of course, through

corruption which was rampant. These activities of the Company's

servants had created a class of so-called “Nabobs”1whose evil

influence in England was felt by Englishmen themselves. After

retirement pensions were also paid in England which was a constant

drain on the resources of the country.

The cultured individuals, poets, artist and scholars who had been

sponsored by the Muslim rulers had now fallen on evil days and

began to experience great culture. The Company's servants had little

use of indigenous culture. Subcontinent’s music had no appeal for

them and its literature was despised. The British also diverted the

funds of several Muslim endowments to purposes other than those

for which they were originally meant. This brought distress to the

Muslim scholar and education deteriorated.

Trade and industry suffered even more under the East India

Company. Rapacity and greed of the so-called gomashtas2 or agents

of the East India Company were notorious. Its policy led to the end of

a well-balanced and self-sufficient economy. The Company was

originally interested in carrying manufactures of Bengal, notably

Dacca muslin, in Europe. But Napoleonic Wars 3gave a change in the

British policy. European makers having been closed to British goods,

India came to be regarded as one of the chief markets for British

products. A planned effort was then made to encourage the import of

British goods and discourage Bengal's main industry, as a result that

instead of Bengal supplying some of the finest cloth in the world, she

became an importer of machine-made textiles from Lancashire. The

1 S.C. Hill, Bengal in 1756 – 57, Vol: III, Delhi: Manas Publications, p. 289. 2 Romesh Dutt, The Economic History of India under early British Rule, (3rd Edition, London,

1908), p. 37 3 Ibid. p. 47

A Narration on Muslim Bengal's Struggle for Freedom

83

Company started ruthless exploitation of the weaves of Bengal who

were forced to accept ridiculously low prices for their manufacture.

The nefarious activities of the functionaries of the Company and its

gomashtas were such that made the Nawab of Bengal protest in

1762 who wrote to the Company saving that the English merchants

take away by force indigenous merchandise at one-fourth of the

price and charge five times for their own. Mir Qasim had fought over

this very issue of trade and was defeated and removed.4

Trade did not fare much better than industry. The East India

Company was not only a commercial concern but also the de-facto

Government of the country. Private traders had now to compete with

the State, so to say. And at least up to the passing of the Regulating

Act (1773) the servants of the Company carried on private trade on a

big scale. The British acquired the monopoly of all the more

profitable branches of trade5 such as cloth and indigo.

When the Company seriously took up the task of establishing its

monopoly over the trade of the province, its natural helpers and

collaborators were the Hindus of Bengal who had previous contacts

with the Company by virtue of their connection with commerce. Now

as agents of the Company they started playing their own role in

carrying out an oppressive commercial policy.

In these circumstances it was natural that the pressure on

agriculture should increase. A balanced economy was thus

transformed under the rule of East India Company in an almost

purely agricultural economy. This was because avenues of

employment were now more restricted and industry and trade had

suffered severe setbacks. But not all was well on the agricultural

front either. The loss of alternative sources of employment meant for

the people in general almost total dependence on land which

resulted in smaller and smaller holdings. There was no large scale

development of land to absorb those who adopted agriculture not so

much by choice as by force of circumstances.

The agricultural policy dealt a heavy blow both at the Muslim landed

gentry and the Muslim peasants.6 Apart from its adverse effects upon

the Muslims, it could not be termed enlightened in any sense of the

term. Under Muslim rule land was the property of the State and

there were no landlords as such, there being only rent collectors. The

4 Anisuzzaman, Muslim Manas O Bangla Sahitya (Dhaka: 2001) p. 28 5 Ibid, p. 29 6 Majumdar, Ray Chaudhari and Dutta, p. 809


84

British badly needed more revenues and a class of people with

vested interest in the permanence of their rule. And this was the real

basis of the system of lease-gaming revenues to the highest bidders

adopted by Warren Hasting and the Permanent Settlement of Bengal

(1792)7 introduced by Lord Cornwallis. The assessment of revenues

under the new Settlement was so great that the old revenue

collectors, mostly Muslim, were ousted and their place was taken by

those with ready money, the Banias and the gomashtas of the British.

Thus the Muslim rent collectors were dispossessed and their lands

were auctioned to unscrupulous speculators. The rent result was

that the Permanent Settlement became a terrible engine of

oppression. The Muslim gentry were replaced by the Hindu

zamindars. They had the power of fixing rent and farming out land to

others and thus numerous intermediaries came into existence in

between the actual cultivators and the Government. And in the

process the peasantry lost the comparatively mild and considerate

rent-collector for an avaricious upstart.

Another aspect of agriculture which deserves notice consists of the

activities of the Indigo Planters. Towards the end of the nineteenth

century the Englishmen began investing large sums of money in an

indigo industry in Bengal, Bihar etc. During the first half of the

nineteenth century products of indigo factories were one of the

biggest items of export. Not until the chemical dyes captured the

world market in the second half of the nineteenth century, the indigo

industry continued with the peasantry. Since, however, these so

called contracts were between the all-powerful members of the

ruling class and the helpless peasantry, they were not

distinguishable from forced labour. What happened was that the

area was marked out for cultivation by the Planters without taking

the wishes of the Raiyata into consideration. 7

The cultivators had no choice whatsoever. In the matter of payment

the peasantry got very little indeed (Rs. 2/- as 8 per Bigha or half an

acre) and thus, quite naturally it was averse to indigo cultivation.

The rate of payment which had been made towards the end of

eighteenth century remained unchanged for more than half a

century. The price of paddy having raised meanwhile the peasants

would normally prefer to grow paddy, but once they were caught

they could not get out of the Planter's net and such was the

arrangement. Their indebtedness went on growing and they almost

became the slaves of the plantation owners and the money lenders.

7 Edward Thompson and G. T. Garrat Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (2nd

Edition, London, 1935) p. 194


85

The deterioration in the economic condition of the Muslim peasantry

was directly the result of the Company's policy. It gave birth to

several movements and convulsions.8

The first sizeable upheavals were caused by the Faqirs and

Sannyasis.9Although not exclusively the Muslim leadership of the

Faqirs and Sannyasis were usually in the hands of Muslim Faqirs,

mostly the followers of Shah Madar of Makhanpur. Majnun Shah was

the leading Faqir who was responsible for a good deal of trouble in

the countryside and after his death in 1787,10 his relatives and

lieutenants, Musa Shah, Chiragh Shah, Ali Shah, Farghul Ali Shah,

Sultan Shah, Karim Shah and others carried on their activities in the

nineteenth century. It was nothing short of organized looting by a

class of people from whom it was least expected. Gangs of Faqirs

some times of several hundred practically invaded villages and

terrorized the whole populations.

The Faqirs and Sannyasis had become a nuisance for the villagers.

They went about almost naked and armed with lathis and sometimes

with firearms. As soon as the information reached a village of the

impending arrival of Majnun Shah and his party, the village would

become empty. Only the destitute would remain who had nothing to

lose and who themselves very often joined the party of the Faqirs.

Majnun Shah made extensive use of fire arms with which most of the

villagers were not at all acquainted. He would usually approach a

village in a horse back and would start firing while still at some

distance to scare away the village folk. To avoid being mercilessly

killed at the hands of the Faqirs, the zamindar and other well to do

people had abandoned the village and flee for safety and Majnun

Shah got hold of all the food and valuables from empty houses.

Where resistance was offered, it was put down ruthlessly.11

This phenomenon was very peculiar. Normally the Faqir or

Sannyasis has a place of his own in Muslim and Hindu society

respectively. But these activities of the Faqirs and Sannyasis were

the result of extraordinary economic circumstances. Since the old

order was destroyed by the Company and the peasantry was passing

through really bad times, support of the Faqirs and Sannyasis had

become most difficult, if not impossible. It was the reaction of the

8 Ibid, p. 270 9 J. M. Gosh Sarryasi and Fakir’s Raiders in Bengal (Calcutta, 1927) Ch. XI 10 Ibid.ch. XI 11 J. M. Gosh Sarryasi and Fakir’s Raiders in Bengal (Calcutta, 1927) Ch. XI


86

have-nots to the state of affairs in which they found themselves

deserted by an order that took such a vile and violent shape.12

For a long time the Company's administration and the zamidars

were kept on tender hooks by the angry Faqirs and Sannyasis. Their

actions were undoubtedly the result of the poor economic conditions

of the masses. It is a different matter that their activities made the

condition even more miserable.

Next to the activities of the Faqirs, which instead of bringing about

any amelioration in the condition of the people caused further

deterioration particularly amongst the rural masses, the most

important cause was the Faraizi movement. This movement spread

extensively among the peasants of what later came to be known as

East Pakistan. Haji Shariatullah the founder of the Faraizi Movement

was born around 1780 in a village in the district of Faridpur. Reliable

details of his childhood and youth are not available. But this much is

certain that when he was about twenty years of age he went to

Mecca for Haj. Certain authorities mention two pilgrimages – one

after the other. It is alleged that he spent about twenty years in

Arabia.It is also asserted that during this long period he came in

contact with the Wahhabis whose puritanic doctrines influenced Haji

Shariatullah.13

It is alleged that while he was returning to his village home from Haj

he was attacked by dacoits who looted all his belongings including

books. At this stage Haji decided to join the band of dacoits and

actually participated in some of their efforts. But such was the charm

of his life that it attracted the attention of the Dakotas who

ultimately gave up their activities and became his disciples. When

Haji Shariatullah returned to his village home he had already gained

a reputation as a religious scholar, a pious man and an accomplished

speaker. He succeeded in collecting a number of village folks around

him to whom he preached the simple tenets of Islam. He required

them to come back to the pristine purity of Islam, give up the Hindu

customs and beliefs which had got confused with Islam and purge

Muslim society of all the un-Islamic innovations. The masses were

told that their plight was due to their disregard of the Islamic

teachings. His clarion call for unity, equality and brotherhood had a

great appeal for the masses. The movement came to be known as the

Faraiz Movement because of the emphases placed on the

performance of faraiz or essential duties as laid down by Islam. It is

12 L. S. S. O’ Malley, Bengal District Gatteers: Midra pore (Calcutta, 1911), p. 39 - 45 13 Muhsinuddin Ahmed Khan ‘Tomb Inseription of Haji Sahrit-u-llah, JPSP III, pp. 187 - 98


87

not easy to fight against traditional practices and beliefs and Haji

Shariatullah also meet with quite a stiff resistance from those who

stood for the status quo in matters of faith. The Hindu zamindars and

the English planters did not like any movement that aimed at

bringing about unity and organization among the downtrodden and

submissive peasantry which they had been exploiting. It is

significant that Haji Shariatullah did not even allow his followers to

call him a Piror spiritual guide but only an Ustad (teacher) and

themselves as his shagirds(pupils).

Though Haji Shariatullah was not political-minded and concentrated

on religious reforms yet there was in his teachings a certain element

which had clear political implications. He declared that the Friday

and Id congregational prayers were not to be said by his followers.

This was apparently because in his view the country had been

converted into ‘Dar-UL-Harb’.14 It was about the same time that

Shah Abdul Aziz, the illustrious son of Hazrat Shah Waliullah had

pronounced a Fatwa in which he had declared India to be ‘dar-ul-

harb’ even though he had not pronounced in favour of suspending

the Friday and Id prayers.

The Faraiz Movement became very popular during the lifetime of

Haji Shariatullah and when he died in 1840 the peasantry of East

Pakistan had very largely come under his spell. The campaign

achieved success because it gave them hope. Though a religious

movement with no pronounced political or economic aims, was

successful because of political disappointments and economic

frustrations of the rural masses.

Under Haji Shariatullah's more dynamic son, Muhsinuddin Ahmad,

better known as Dadu Mian, the movement took a more pronounced

socioeconomic turn. Dadu Mian was born in 1819. Already in the

lifetime of his father Dudu Mian had started taking an active role in

his father's movement but after his father's death in 1840, he

became the acknowledged leader of the crusade. He had the great

organizational capacity. Unlike his father who was a profound

scholar of Islam, Dudu Mian possessed a more practical bent of mind.

Because of his exceptional talent at the organization he succeeded in

making the Faraizis into a well-knit and active community. Already

in 1838 he had challenged the Hindu zamindars that had imposed

certain illegal cases which had undesirable religious implications

such as cases in connection with ‘DurgaPuja’ or ‘KaliPuja’.15Many

14 Ibid. pp.152-54 15 J. N. Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements in India (New York, 1924) p. 354


88

meetings followed in subsequent years. He also came into conflict

with the indigo planters. He was several times brought before the

law courts but no serious harm came to him in spite of the support

which zamindars and planters received from the Police. The main

importance of the Faraizi Movement lies in its being the first

movement in Muslim Bengal in which the rural masses participated

on a large scale.

Another remarkable romantic personality thrown out by Muslim

Bengal in the early part of the nineteenth century is Mir Nisar Ali,

generally known as Titu Mir. He was a contemporary of Haji

Shariatullah but he moved amongst the rural masses of the 24-

Parganas and Nadia rather than in East Bengal. He is said to have

come in contact with Syed Ahmad Shahid when the latter proceeded

to Mecca via Calcutta in 1820 and again when he returned in

1822.16Titu Mir is also reported to have entered the circle of the

Syed's disciples. His activities directed against the Hindu zamindars

and English planters are sometimes described as an adjunct of the

over-all movement led by the Syed. There is however no direct

evidence of a definite connection between the two movements much

less of a joint plan of action except that it was during the same years

that while the Syed was waging a jihad against the Sikhs in the

Frontier, Titu Mir was fighting against the Hindu zamindars and the

English Planters and both fell fighting in the fateful year 1831. When

this is said, the determination, the conditions and the mode or the

struggle of the Syed and Titu Mir had little in common. It seems to be

much more sensible to suggest that the local circumstances,

particularly economic exploitation had given birth to the activities of

Titu Mir and these were much more akin to the activities of Dudu

Mian a few years later than to Syed Ahmad Shahid's jihad on the

Frontier. Be it as it may, Titu Mir has left his mark in the history of

the Muslim Renaissance in Bengal.17

In 1857 was fought the War of Impendence. Muslim Bengal made its

own contribution to the struggle. And when the struggle ended in

failure, the Muslims everywhere became the objects of British

retaliation. The Muslims of Bengal though far away from the chief

centers of resistance had their own share of persecution at the hands

of the rulers. The war also gave birth to a different type of

movement for the emancipation of the Muslims.18

16 Op. cit., Bimarbehari Majumdar, I, pp. 152 – 53 17 C. F. Andrew and Girija Mukharji, The rise and growth of the Congress in India (London,

1938) p. 123 18 Ibid, p. 48


89

After the War of Independence it occurred to some of the thinking

Muslims that armed conflict with the British rule futile and Muslims

must reconcile themselves to British rule which had come to stay.

They also felt that the key to their future lay in taking to English

education. The Hindus had gone far ahead in that respect and the

Muslims were lagging behind. If they were to make a mark in public

life and in the services they must, so they argued, educate

themselves. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was undoubtedly the most

powerful and influential advocate of these ideas. But simultaneously

with Sir Syed a Muslim in Bengal Nawab Syed Abdul Latif came to

similar conclusions. To begin with without knowing each other and

later in cooperation with each other they preached the same gospel.

The only difference was that while Sir Syed's work was not confined

to any particular region, Nawab Syed Abdul Latif worked among the

Muslims of Bengal. At an early point he realized that the Muslim

must acquire knowledge of English and adapt themselves to the

conditions of the modern age. As early as 1853 already a few years

before the War of independence-he put up a prize for the best essay

on the advantages of English Education to the Muslims students. He

also constituted an important organization in 1863 known as the

Mohammedan Literary Society.19This was about the same time as Sir

Syed founded the Scientific Society. The inaugural meeting of the

Majlis was held at the founder's home in Calcutta which was

presided over by Mawlai Muhammad Wajih, a senior Professor of

Calcutta Madrasah. His aim was to awaken the Muslims and direct

their energies into right channels. The defined aims and objects of

the Majlis were: to impart useful information through lectures, to

fight against prejudices and exclusiveness and introduce modern

ideas amongst the Muslims and ultimately to promote social

intercourse among the various segments of the population, Muslims,

Hindus and English. The lectures were delivered in Urdu, Persian,

Arabic and English.

In this endeavor Nawab Syed Abdul Latif received all the

encouragement from Sir Syed. Actually towards the later part of the

year 1863 in which the Majlis was founded, Sir Syed paid a visit to

Calcutta and delivered a lecture under its auspices on Patriotism and

the Necessity of Promoting Knowledge. Nawab Syed Abdul Latif was

fully conscious of the importance of the English language and said on

one occasion:"If any language could lead to the advancement in the

life of the learner, it is English."20

19 Hunter, A sketch of Wahhabis in India down to the death of Sayyid Ahmed in 1831, pp.

2798 20 Karamat Ali, Encyclopedia of Islam II, pp. 752 - 54


90

Politically also the Nawab stood very close to Sir Syed. He was

especially concerned that even after the debacle of 1857.There were

many people in Bengal who were devoted to the waging of jihad

against the British. Some of the followers of Syed Ahmad Shahid,

notably Mawlavi Inayat Ali, exercised great influence over the

Muslims of Bengal with the effect that they were contributing what

they could in men and money for Jihad, which still was being waged

in the North-West of the Sub-continent. A number of trials held in

the aftermath of the Ambela campaign in 1863 had brought to light

this activities.Nawab Syed Abdul Latif worked hard to stop the Jihad

movement in Bengal. In his efforts he sought and received the

backing of one of the Khalifahs of Syed Ahmad Shahid, namely

MawlaviKaramat Ali of Janupur.

Malawi Karamat Ali, formerly an ardent believer in Jihad, had

apparently become disillusioned after the death of his master Syed

Ahmad Shahid in 1831.He had for all practical purposes settled

down in Bengal in 1835 to continue the work of religious reform

inaugurated by Syed Ahmad Shahid. He became extremely influential

in the course of time. Nawab Syed Abdul Latif brought him to

Calcutta and made him address a gathering of the Majlis, the subject

of his lecture being Jihad which was pushing so many minds among

the Muslims and worrying government.It was here that he presented

his famous fatwa which declared India as Dar-UL-Islam and

therefore jihad as not permissible. To quote him:21

�� !��"�#�$%�&��'��(��)*��+�,

� -./�� 0��12

The success achieved by Nawab Syed Abdul Latif was limited. It took

much longer for the Muslims of Bengal as compared with the

Muslims of other parts of the subcontinent to reconcile them to the

necessity of English education. But through the efforts of Nawab

Syed Abdul Latif a beginning had been made and when he died in

1893 some change had been already noticeable in the attitude of the

Muslims of Bengal towards both education and politics.

MUSLIM BENGAL IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

When the twentieth century opened the state of politics in India in

general and Bengal in particular was more or less as follows:22The

Hindus were fairly well organized politically. They could make their

voice heard on questions of public importance. The Indian National

21 Anisuzzaman, Muslim Manas O’ Bangla Sahitya, (Dhaka 2001) p. 67 22 Wilfred Casstwell Smith, Modern Islam in India (2nd Edition, London 1945), p. 166


91

Congress had been founded in 1886 and though it claimed to be a

national and not a merely Hindu organization, in the effect Muslims

as a people had kept them by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. In Bengal the

same policy had been advocated by Nawab Syed Abdul Latif. Sir

Syed's efforts in the field of education had borne fruit and a

considerable number of Muslim young men were receiving modern

education. In Bengal, however, Muslims still seemed hesitant in this

respect and the number of those who had an English education was

much too small in proportion to their numbers in the population of

the province. Consequently it was seldom that one came across a

Muslim in the professions of Law, Medicine, Engineering, Journalism

etc. or in the higher and middle grades of government service in

Bengal. In course of time, Muslims of Bengal had been converted into

the proverbial hewers of wood and drawers of water. They had no

political organization of their own, again tracing the line fed to them

by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Their case, therefore, usually went by

default.

How long was this state of affairs to continue? Even if modern

education had not made much headway among the Muslims of

Bengal, elsewhere a considerable number of Muslims were coming

out of educational institutions, notably out of Aligarh and they could

not for ever remain satisfied with Sir Syed's precept of non-

participation in politics. In the United Provinces at the turn of the

century the Hindi-Urdu controversy had taken an acute turn in

which Muhsinul Mulk, the successor of Sir Syed at Aligarh had

become involved. This had affected the relations of the Hindus and

Muslims which were far from satisfactory.

It was in these circumstances that an event of great importance

occurred, which was destined to have a far-reaching effect upon the

shape of things to come. This event of Partition of Bengal in 1905

was one of the outcomes.23

Without doubt, the question of redrawing the boundaries of Bengal

had occupied the minds of the British administrators for a long time

.As early as 1853 the idea of dividing the Presidency of Fort William

into two provinces was mooted by Sir Charles Grant because it was

considered unwieldy. In 1854 Dalhousi also played with the idea.

After 1857, several Secretaries of State for India as well as

Lieutenant-Governors of Bengal thought of readjustment of

boundaries of the Provinces because it was too large and actually in

23 Ibid, pp. 86 - 87


92

1974 the creation of Assam as a Chief Commissioner's province to

which were attached the Bengal-speaking districts of Sylhet, Cachar

and Goalpara was intended to reduce the size of Bengal to

comparatively manageable proportions.

Since the formation of Assam as a separate entity suggestions were

made time to time that Dacca, Mymensingh and Chittagong districts

might also be incorporated in Assam. One such proposal was made in

1896 and it was opposed on the basis that this would be tantamount

to taking away certain districts from a, more advanced province and

attaching them to a comparatively backward province which will

adversely affect the growth and development of these territories.

People spoke against their being placed under an "inferior

administration"24 and expressed their fear of being deprived of the

benefits of the electoral system and advanced institutions such as the

Calcutta High Court and Bengal Council. Some Muslims also joined in

these protests. Nothing therefore came out of this proposal.

At the beginning of the century Bengal constituted the largest

province of India an area of 189,000 miles and a population of 78,

000, 00. Due to its distance from Calcutta and the inadequate means

of communication East Bengal with its large Muslim population

remained undeveloped and all the good things of life seemed to be

reserved for Calcutta whose entire economic and cultural life was

controlled by the British and Hindus. However, it was not because of

the position of the Muslims of East Bengal that the British came to

favour Partition but it was because the province was too large to be

governed satisfactorily and because Lord Curzon who had come to

India as Viceroy and Governor-General towards the end of 1898 was

all in favour of efficiency and he could not visualize an enormous

province like Bengal being governed efficiently as a single unit and

through a single Lieutenant-Governor. However, in reality it was a

connection with the formation of a province for the Oriya speaking

people – Oriyas being divided into various provinces – which the

question of readjustments of the boundaries of Bengal came up

before the Government of India. In 1903 a rudimentary scheme of

the Partition of Bengal was made public.25

As soon as the scheme became known, protests started. The Indian

National Congress took the lead in these protests and considered it

an attack on Bengali nationalism. Lord Curzon himself undertook a

24 Ibid, p. 87 25 Syed Ali Ashraf (Edt.) Bengali Literature Review (University of Karachi, 1973), p. 15


93

tour of Eastern Bengal to canvass support for the scheme and

ultimately came out with a more comprehensive plan of Partition

which would bring into existence a full-fledged province of East

Bengal and Assam with its capital at Dacca. It was this scheme of

Partition which was finally accepted by the Secretary of State and the

Province came into existence in October 1905.26The new province

was to have an area of 106,540 sq. miles and a population according

to the Census of 1901 of 31 million – 18 million Muslims, 12 million

Hindus and 1 million others, in round figures.27It was to be expected

that Hindus would fight tooth and nail against the Partition of Bengal

which they did. The Hindu dominated Calcutta bar, the Calcutta

University, the Calcutta newspapers including the British owned The

Statesman and The Englishmen all came forward with vehement

opposition to Partition. Hindu nationalists considered it an attack on

the prominent position which they had occupied in Bengal as a

whole. "We shall be strangers in our own land", said Maharaja

Mahindra Chandra Nandi of Qasim Bazar. "I read", he continued,

"The prospect and the outlook fill me with anxiety as to the future of

our race."28Curzon became the most unpopular of Viceroy amongst

the Hindus. He was called another Aurangzeb which was perhaps the

most scathing censure that could come for an administrator from the

Hindus.

Barring one or two voices to the contrary, the Muslims welcomed the

Partition. Among the leading Muslims who were enthusiastic about it

was Nawab Salimullah Bahadur of Dacca. Even the Muslims of

Calcutta welcomed the decision of the Government. The

Mohammadan Literary Society of Calcutta came out openly in its

favour. However the Hindus carried incessant agitation against the

Partition and the Indian National Congress was foremost among

them. In fact the Indian National Congress acquired a new political

importance among the Hindus as a result of the lead given by it on

this issue. It started the Swadeshi Movement in 1905 which in some

shapes or form continued to be one of the main weapons in its

armory employed against the British. But aside from the Swadeshi

Movement which was formally supported by the Congress to bring

pressure on the British, it indirectly created conditions in which

terrorism and the cult of the bomb became popular amongst the

Hindu youth of Bengal.29

26 Ibid, p. 15 27 Nawab Abdul Latif Khan Bahadur, A short Account of Public Life (Calcutta 1885), p.14 28 Syed Ali Ashraf, Bengali Literary Review, (University of Karachi, 1973), p. 16 29 Ibid, p. 16


94

Hindu agitation and violence over the emergence of the Partition

caused a good deal of Hindu Muslim tension and even led to

communal riots. The Muslims of East Bengal had for the first time got

certain opportunities which had been denied to them for generations

as a result of the dual exploitation at the hands of the British and the

Hindus. The Muslims now felt that even small improvements in their

status and condition were not acceptable to the Hindus.

The first Lieutenant-Governor of the province of East Bengal and

Assam, Bampfylde Fuller had taken his assignment with every

intention of making it a success. He was in genuine sympathy with

the aims of the Partition and wanted to give a fair deal to everyone,

but this did not suit the Hindus who till then had everything their

own way. They carried on an unending propaganda against him in

the Press. The measures he adopted against unlawful actions were

regarded by them as came in conflict with the University of Calcutta

which in its turn was backed by the Government of India. And so he

resigned. The Government promptly and unceremoniously accepted

his resignation. This was the first serious disappointment for the

Muslims since Partition. They reacted rather sharply and at a

meeting held at Dacca in August 1906 and presided over by Nawab

Salimullah they recorded their "disapproval of the system of

Government which maintains so continuity of policy." 30The Hindus

were naturally jubilant. It gave them confidence in themselves. They

felt that if only they could stay with their agitation they would

achieve their goal of undoing the Partition. However, the

Government of India and the Secretary of State both announced their

intention of abiding the decision of Partition. Morley described it as a

'settle fact.’31

The five to six years that the Partition lasted was too short a period

for any spectacular changes to occur in the condition of Muslims of

East Bengal. But there is no doubt that from every point of view the

Partition proved beneficial for the Muslims. Their number in

educational institutions increased. Dacca which had been overlooked

so far began to assume a fresh appearance. Trade and commercial

activities were expended. Muslims appeared to be happy over the

new system. But the Hindus went on with their efforts to annual the

Partition and in 1911 their efforts began to bear fruit. It is now

known that not only the Government of India had come to favour

annulment but in the British Parliament also there was created an

influential Congress lobby. In fact even King George V, who was to

30 Nawab Abdool Latif Khan Bahadur, A short Account of Public Life (Calcutta, 1885), p.15 31 Syed Ali Ashraf, Bengali Literary Review (University of Karachi, 1973), p. 17


95

come to India and hold a Durbar worked behind the scene to bring

about the unsettling of the settled fact.32

At last on December 1900 at the Durbar at Delhi the annulment of

the Partition was announced by the King-Emperor. Hindu agitation

had succeeded in attaining its objectives. The Muslims were led

astray.Vaqar-ul-Mulk on whom had fallen the mantle of central

Muslim leadership expressed himself in these words: "In the face of

the assurance repeatedly given by successive ministers of the Crown

as to the Partition being a settled fact the amalgamation betrays the

weakness of the Government and will, in future, be regarded as one

of the reasons for placing no trust in its utterance and actions."33This

event was destined to have far-reaching effects on Muslim politics as

we shall presently observe.

It was incidentally the proposal for Partition which had originally

induced Nawab Salimullah Bahadur to organize the Muslims of

Bengal into an association which would serve as their mouthpiece on

political and social questions. It was called the "The Mohammadan

Provincial Union."34Nawab Salimullah Bahadur became its patron. Its

aim was "the consolidation and conservation of the strength of the

Muhammadans of the new province as a whole for all public

purposes."35This organization was founded exactly on the day on

which the new Province came into existence-16 October 1905. Thus

it is significant that even before Nawab Salimullah Bahadur became

instrumental in instituting a much bigger organization, the All India

Muslim League, he had brought into being the Muhammadan

Provincial Union.

The Partition and the Hindu agitation that followed in the wake it

became necessary for the Muslims of the Sub-continent to organize

them. There were indeed numerous other factors which were

leading the Muslims in the same direction:36 Particular mention may

be made of the impending constitutional reforms and the desire of

the Muslims educated class to create a political platform for the

propagation of its views, but the timing and the place of the

foundation of All India Muslim League strongly suggest its

connection with the events in Bengal. The Partition had a direct

bearing on it.

32 Ibid, p. 16 33 Ibid, p. 16 34 Ibid, p. 17 35 Ibid, p. 17 36 Ibid, p. 17


96

After the famous Simla Deputation of October 1906, led by the Aga

Khan which put forward the demand for separate electorates, the

members held consultations among themselves regarding the

desirability of forming a political organization. Nawab Salimullah

had apparently made a great deal of thought to the problem. He

published his thoughts on what he termed as All-India Muslim

Confederacy, Finally at the conclusion of the Muslim Educational

Conference at Dacca, a meeting was held under the chairmanship of

Nawab Vaqar-UL-Mulk on 30 December 1906.It was at this meeting

that a resolution was moved by Nawab Salimullah that a political

association be formed to be called the All-India Muslim League.

Its aims were defined as follows:

a) "To promote among the Mussalmans of India feelings of

allegiance to the British Government.

b) To protect and advance the political rights and interest of the

Mussalamans of India and to respectfully present their needs

and aspirations to the Government;

c) To prevent the rise among the Musslamans of India any

feeling of ill will towards other communities"37

From the above mentioned leaders of Muslim Bengal who had

actively worked in connection with the formation of the League

Nawab Salimyullah of Dacca and Nawab Syed Nawab Ali Chaudhri of

Bogra were prominent. Mr. A. K.Fazlul Haq worked behind the scene.

Nawab Salimullah had played host to the Conference and the historic

meeting at which the League was founded was held at Shahbagh the

Nawabs's retreat, then on the outskirts of Dacca. Thus Muslim

Bengal was actively associated with the efforts at bringing the

Muslim League into being.

The Muslim League had a chequered career. It started out as a

loyalist organization but it did not take long before it started

speaking a different language. The new generation of Muslims, which

was coming out of educational institutions, could not long remain

satisfied with the kind of inactive role in politics prescribed for them

by Sir Syed. Aligarh itself was now turning out graduates who were

much more politically minded than earlier scholars. Mawlana

Mohammad Ali symbolized this new type. Various developments

within the Sub-continent as well as outside, particularly in the world

of Islam were having their own influence on Indo-Muslim politics.

37 Ibid, p. 18


97

The annulment of the Partition of Bengal was, however, the

important event which brought home to the Muslims that their

loyalty to British did not pay. They understood how the Hindus with

their educational technique and the cult of violence had obtained

their objective and the Muslims who had remained loyal and been let

down by the British.38

A pan-Islamic element was also entering into Indo-Muslim politics at

this point and some Muslims came under the spell of Syed

Jamaluddin Afghani. Born in Afghanistan he regarded himself as a

citizen of the Muslim World. No wonder his political activities were

not confined to a single country but extended to Afghanistan, Iran,

Egypt, Turkey and the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent. Among the

places in India in which he spent his time was Calcutta where he is

said to have resided at the house of Haji Abdul Karim. His primary

concern in the field of politics was to bring closer relations among

the Muslims of the World as he believed that this unity they would

enable to withstand the power of the imperialist West. Because of his

anti-British stance he came in conflict with Sir Syed and his influence

in India remained limited.39However, there were younger men

among Indian Muslims who in the early twentieth century took up

the thread and preached the idea of Pan-Islam with renewed vigour.

It is significant that Calcutta attracted some of the most energetic

Pan-Islamists. Al-Hilal and later al-Balagh of Maulana Abdul Kalam

Azad and Comrade of Mawlana Mohammad Ali stated publication

from Calcutta and although Comrade was later shifted to Delhi,

Mawlana Abdul Kalam Azad made Calcutta his permanent abode.

Mawlana Abdul Kalam Azad was the first important Indian religious

scholar and politician to have come under the direct influence of

Afghani although Shibli before him was also his admirer. Among the

Muslims educated in the modern schools, Iqbal and Mawlana

Mohammad Ali may be said to be the most outstanding leaders who

imbibed his spirit. The above journals were powerful media for the

propagation of the Pan-Islamic ideal. Another pan-Islamic journal

published from Calcutta was Habl-ul-Matin which was completely

devoted to the cause Abdullah Suhrawardy, a member of the famous

Suhrawardy family of Midanpore Calcutta founded in London a

society known as the Pan-Islamic Society and a journal called Pan-

Islam to propagate the doctrine of Muslim solidarity.40

38 Prof. Muhammad Abdul Hai& Prof. Syed Ali Ahsan, Bangla SahityerItibritto, Dhaka, 1997,

p. 12 39 Ibid, p. 13 40 Ibid, p. 13


98

It was in this setting that a reorientation of Muslim politics took

place. In 1913 the All-India Muslim League changed its creed and

adopted self-government as its target. Political meetings were held

and resolutions taken against British policy both with regard to India

and the Muslim, world, particularly Turkey. Muslims showed great

concern for the Turkish cause on the occasion of the Italian invasion

of Tripoli. Syed Amir Ali an eminent lawyer and writer from Bengal,

the author of the Spirit of Islam (1900) published an appeal on

behalf of the British Red Crescent Society to come forward with

funds to help the Turks in the Balkan Wars. He was responsible for

organizing the London Branch of the Muslim League also.41

During World War I Turkey joined the Central Powers. The

Government of India promptly put the Muslim leaders with pan-

Islamic sympathies behind the bars. However to satisfy Muslim

opinion certain commitments were established during the war

regarding the treatment to be meted out to Turkey at the end of the

war. But when the war ended in the victory of the Allies, the Turks

found themselves in a hopeless situation. Not only were they

deprived of the non-Turkish parts of the Ottoman Empire, but they

found their own homeland under foreign occupation.42

In their misfortunes the Turkey found many friends in India. A

regular movement known as the Khilafat Movement ) 1918-22), an

unusual mixture of pan-Islamism and nationalism was organized and

an organization known as the Khilafat Committee came into being

which eclipsed the Muslim League. Mawlana Mohammad Ali,

Mawlana Shaukat Ali, Mowlana Abdul Kalam Azad, Mawlana Zaffar

Ali Khan may be cited as the most prominent leaders of the

movement. But Muslim Bengal made its own contribution to the

cause. Mawlana Akram Khan, Mr. A. K. Fazlul Haq, Mawlavi

Tamizuddin Khan, Mr. H. S. Suhrawardy, Mawlana Abdul Hamid

Khan Bhashani actively participated and suffered hardships for the

cause.

The Khilafat Movement had brought about a change in the relations

of the Hindus and Muslims. Mahatma Gandhi had joined hands with

the Muslim League and gave his support to the ‘Khilafat Movement’43

and Muslim leaders had given their wholehearted support to the

Indian National Congress. Nevertheless, this Hindu-Muslim

41 Smith, Modern Islam in India (2nd Edition: London 1945), pp. 246 – 47. 42 Op. cit., Desai, pp. 300 - 301 43 Op. cit., Surendanath Banerjea, p. 338


99

rapprochement was short lived. Soon fissures appeared in the edifice

of Hindu-Muslim Unity. The years following 1922 were years of

misunderstanding between the Hindus and Muslims. Attempts were

made during the period to bring about reconciliation also. But with

the anticipation of a democratic order in India the Hindus with their

overwhelming majority were convinced that the future belonged to

them. The same anticipation with regard to constitutional

developments in India created anxiety among the Muslims as to their

future. The relation between them went on deteriorating. Muslims

wanted to be assured of a reasonably secure position in any future

set-up. The Hindus would not listen to them or would show their

willingness to give too little and too late. Even the N.W.F.P., the

separation of Sindh from Bombay, the improvement in the

representation of Muslims in Bengal and the Punjab where they

happened to be in a clear majority and above all the right of the

Muslims to retain Separate Electorate was contested. The upshot

was that the conflict between them went on increasing and relations

went on deteriorating.

The Muslim League which had been dormant since the World War I

now came into its own under the exceptional leadership of Quaid-e-

Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah. But since Mr. Jinnah's own past was

nationalist and he had been a prominent Congress leader for many

years, he continued his efforts to come to an understanding with the

Congress. When many other Muslim leaders had become thoroughly

disillusioned, he still hoped that a compromise with the Hindus and

the Congress would be possible. He therefore continued in his efforts

to secure safeguard for the Muslims in the future constitutional set-

up. It was the establishment of Congress Government in several

provinces in 1937 under the Reform Scheme of 1935 which

established the futility of safeguarding and which finally fixed his

position. He gradually came to the conclusion that the answer to the

needs of the Muslims was not to secure safeguards but to secure a

homeland for them-an idea which had been already propounded by

Iqbal and Chaudhri Rahmat Ali.44

When the Quaid-e-Azam undertook the reorganization of the Muslim

League in 1935 he unsurprisingly turned his attention to the largest

single concentration of Muslim population in Bengal. He undertook a

tour of Bengal and not only tried to win over politicians to the policy

and programme of the League but he also addressed numerous

meetings of students at Dacca and Calcutta. The student of the

44 Op. cit., Smith, pp. 246 – 47


100

University of Dacca and the Islamia College, Calcutta responded

whole heartedly and whatever success the League achieved in the

elections of 1937 was very largely due to the financial backing of the

student community. In the political emancipation of the Muslims of

Bengal the role of the students of Dacca University was indeed

outstanding. Much of awakening in Muslim Bengal was due to these

students. Although at the election under the Reform of 1935 the

Muslim League did not do particularly well in the Muslim majority

provinces and did miserably in the Punjab, it was a different story in

Bengal. Considerable success was achieved by the League. What was

important was that Mr. A. K. Fazlul Haq who usually kept his finger

on the pulse of the public and who had opposed the League at the

elections and who 35 seats for his Krishak Proja Party saw it fit to

join the Muslim League. This was largely because of the students

who had been won over by the League. His entry in the League was

an important event in its own right.45

But when in 1940 Pakistan became the goal of the Muslim League it is

well known that Mr. A. K. Fazlul Haq moved the famous Pakistan

Resolution at the Lahore session of the League. Muslim Bengal came

into the movement with unprecedented enthusiasm. Their leaders

Khawaja Nazimuddin and Mr. H.S. Suhrwardy were in the vanguard of

the movement. In the Muslim Legislators Convention of 1946 in Delhi

where a resolution for one single Pakistan was adopted, it was again a

leader from Bengal Mr. H.S. Suhrawardy, who moved his resolution. The

elections of 1946 proved how powerful the League had become in the

meantime. In the elections to the Bengal Legislative Assembly the

Muslim League, by capturing 113 out of 119 Muslim seats created a

record. This election was sort of a referendum on the question of

Pakistan and the Muslims of Bengal had given their unequivocal verdict

in favour of Pakistan. The idea of the Muslim solidarity was uppermost

in their mind at this time. The election of 1946 led directly to Pakistan.

Other provinces by themselves could not have brought Pakistan into

existences had not Muslim Bengal given such an overwhelming support

to this campaign. This is one of the truths which are not always

remembered.46

45 Op. cit. , Syed Ali Ashraf (Edt.) p. 22 46 Syed Ali Ashraf, Bengali Literary Review, (Karachi: Department of Bengali, 1973), p. 23


101

Bibliography

S.C. Hill, Bengal in 1756 – 57, Vol: III, Delhi: Manas Publications.

Romesh Dutt, The Economic History of India under early British

Rule, (3rd Edition, London 1908)

Anisuzzaman, Muslim Manas O’ Bangla Sahitya (Dhaka 2001).

Majumdar, Ray Chaoudhari and Dutta.The history of India by three

Doctors. (1976)

Edward Thompson and G. T. Garrat, Rise Fulfillment of British Rule

in India (2nd Edition, London 1935).

J. M. Gosh, Sarryasi and Fakir’s Raiders in Bengal (Calcutta, 1927),

Ch. XI

L. S. S. O’ Malley, Bengal District Gatteers: Midra pore (Calcutta,

1911).

Muhsinuddin Ahmed Khan ‘Tomb Inseription of Haji Sahrit-u-llah,

JPSP III, pp. 187 – 98

Karamat Ali, Encyclopedia of Islam II, pp. 752 – 54

J. N. Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements in India (New York,

1924)

Bimarbehari Majumdar, I, pp. 152 – 53

C. F. Andrew and Girija Mukharji, The rise and growth of the

Congress in India (London, 1938)

Surendarnath Banerjea, Nation in Making (2nd Edition, London 1925)

Hunter, A sketch of Wahhabis in India down to the death of Sayyid

Ahmed in 1831

G. F. I. Graham, The Life and Works of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (2nd

Edition, London 1909), p. 225

Wilfred Casstwell Smith, Modern Islam in India (2nd Edition, London

1945).


102

Syed Ali Ashraf, Bengali Literary Review (University of Karachi,

1973)

Nawab Abdool Latif Khan Bahadur, A short Account of Public Life

(Calcutta, 1885)

Prof. Muhammad Abdul Hai & Prof. Syed Ali Ahsan, Bangla Sahityer

Itibritto, Dhaka, 1997.

103

A Study about the Causes and Remedies of Maladjusted

Students at Secondary level

Dr. Rizwana Muneer * 1

Abstract

“Maladjustment” is one of the categories of causes. The

causes of a person’s maladjustment are dependent on the

person’s age, circumstances, support systems and

temperament. Of course, what is the situation to which the

person is adjusting poorly? Often what gets labeled as a

maladjustment is a person (usually a child) having a normal

reaction to abnormal circumstances. Bottom line is, this

question is unanswerable without the questioner giving more

information about the situation. Human beings adjust in a

variety of different ways to a variety of circumstances, and

not all circumstances are good for all people. Maladjustment

is a label-usually given by non-professionals in schools or

institutional settings- to an individual whose manner of

adjusting to a situation he or she has been placed in is

inconvenient for that school or institution. It depends on

family systems, or systems theory, in psychology texts.

Systems theory offers an understandable way to think about

how individuals work together when they form a system, as

in a family or larger institution. The present article discusses

the causes of maladjustment and its remedies.

Keywords: Nervous disorder, habit disorder, family size

Separation of parent and child

∗ Assistant Professor, Department of Education, University of Karachi.

A Study about the Causes and Remedies of Maladjusted Students at Secondary level

104

Introduction

The Education Act of lays on the Local Education Authorities the

duty of providing special education treatment for certain categories

of children distinguished as a handicapped. Included under this

heading are maladjusted pupils. These are defined (by regulations)

as pupils who show evidence of emotional instability or

psychological disturbance and required special educational

treatment to effect their personal, social or educational re-

adjustment.

This definition is, in the words of The Times (1950) broadly based,

and has indeed been a source of confusion. The first clause asserts a

proposition which is very nearly circular, since emotional instability

and psychological disturbance stand as much in need of definition as

maladjustment. The second clause makes for even greater

uncertainty. Is it intended to indicate that only some children

showing evidence of psychological disturbance or emotional

instability need personal, social or educational re-adjustment2?

The suggestion that this can be affected by special educational

treatment has led to much bewilderment; presumably what is

intended is that these children have, in common with other

handicapped children, a need for special educational treatment, and

also a need for personal, social and educational re-adjustment. For

no other class of handicapped pupils is it suggested that the

handicap can be treated by education, however widely this term is

conceived or however specialized to the particular needs of the

handicapped child.

This definition given by the Ministry of Education has had the

further unfortunate consequence of leading administrators to think

that maladjustment has a precise significance, and that all mal-

adjusted children can be treated in the same way.

A clearer concept would seem to be to designate as mal adjusted all

those children of the sort who would be judge by a psychiatrist (or

the team of a child guidance clinic) to need treatment.

(Maladjustment is a term whose connotation is of the same order as

that of the term Maladjustment as not all those who consult a doctor

would be judge by him to be sick, and just as he would point to a

2 Stott, D. H. Delinqeuncy and Human Nature, 1950.Dunfermline


105

number of sick people who fail to ask for medical aid, so can the

psychiatrist say that under the heading mal adjusted ought to be

included some but not all of those referred to him and also some

who fail to reach his notice).

Of this large group, a further classification is permitted between

those who are and those who are not ascertained are of a variety of

types. The Ministry of Education does not attempt to define or

describe any of these. Their only definite stipulation is that the

recommendation for a child to be ascertained as maladjusted should

be made by a Psychiatrist approved by the Ministry for the Purpose.

Once the child has been ascertained, the possibilities available for

complying with the Act are:

1. Special Boarding schools for maladjusted pupils.

2. Ordinary Boarding schools (provided they are approved for

the purpose by the Ministry of Education).

3. Boarding Homes with attendance at ordinary country

schools.

4. Foster Homes with attendance at ordinary county schools.

It is clear that the essence of the special educational treatment is

removal from home. As the child may remain away from home, with

or without holidays at home, for any period up to remainder of his

school life, the decision to send him away is an extremely serious

one. In practice, this decision is usually made in a child guidance

clinic where the approved psychiatrist is assisted by a guidance team

and, frequently, by other social workers who have had occasion to

concern themselves with child’s welfare. Children attending a child

guidance clinic fall into two main groups:

1. A group suffering from some psychiatric disability of

congenital or constitutional type.

2. A group exhibiting the type of symptoms or signs which are

held to be indicative of strain in meeting the demands of the

environment. While only a few can be said with certainty to

be of the first type, the dividing line between the two groups

is not clear-cut. Both groups (in common with all children)

are having difficulties of adaptation to their environment.

The first group may be considered abnormal or potentially

abnormal, the second group potentially normal or normal.


106

Clearly there are many border line cases, and some children

who might properly be said to belong to both groups3.

Although, in general, it is probably more difficult to cater for the first

group in their own homes, the decision to send children away does

not depend solely on the nature of their disability. What has to be

considered in every case is the relationship between the child and

his environment. Some homes may provide the shelter needed by

seriously disabled children better than any specialized institutions.

At the other extreme, a particularly robust child may stand up to an

environment which would, by all ordinary standards, be on demand.

In the first case the fact that the child was abnormal would not

necessitate his removal from home, nor would the badness of the

home in the second.

Major Causes of Maladjustment

1. Nervous Disorders.

Fears and anxiety

Depression and lethargy

Solitariness and unsociability

2. Habit Disorders

Enuresis

Sleep disorders

Habit spasms

Feeding difficulties

Hysterical symptoms aches and pains

Vomiting

Blindness etc

3. Behavior Disorders

Delinquency (including stealing and lying)

Difficult to manage at home

Difficult to manage at school

Aggression

Truancy and absconding

Abnormal sexual behavior

Temper tantrums

3 Bender, L. Psychopathic Behavior Disorders of Children in Lindner, R. M., and Seliger, R.V.

Handbook of Correctional Psychiatry, 1947, New York. Idem and YARNELL, H. Amer J.

Psychiat…1941, 97, 1158


107

4. Constitutional Disorders

Bizarre symptoms

Pre-psychotic

Epilepsy

Physical defects or disabilities

Environmental Factors

1-Social and Economic

The districts from which these samples are drawn are reasonably

prosperous suburban and dormitory areas. As assessment of social

class by the health visitor notifying births put the majority into the

Registrar-General’s Social Class III, but with considerably more in

Classes I and II than in Classes IV and V. While our data do not

permit great exactitude on this subject they suggest that the clinic

population does not follow the pattern of the rest of the community

from which it was drawn. Financial hardship and poor material

circumstances are more frequent than would be expected and affect

from one-third to one quarter of our patients. These assessments

are subjective and not quantitative, but are reasonably reliable. The

ascertained and control groups are not significantly different in

these respects and while economic and social differences may play

some part in bringing children to the child guidance clinic. There is

no evidence that they affect the likelihood of any particular child’s is

ascertained as in need of special educational treatment4.

2-Size and position in Family

The calculation of size and position in family is not completely free

from difficulties. First of all, how a family should be classified where

one or more sibling has died? Good enough5 and Leahy6 adopted the

arbitrary rule of excluding from their calculations siblings who had

died before their third birthday. This does not seem satisfactory

from the psychological point of view: death does not remove the

memory of a sibling from a child’s mind; it seems better, therefore, to

exclude miscarriages (about which information is, in any case

inaccurate), but to count all other siblings, including the stillborn.

4 Sletto, R. F. Social Maladjustment and soc. Research, 1935. Idem, Amer. J. Social 1934, 39,

657 5 Goodenough, F. L. and Leahy, A.M.J Genet Psych.. . Idem Anger in Young Children

1927,46,3, 93, Minneapolis. 6 Ibid p.93


108

1953 By Portia Holman, M.D. 671.

In the present material there were extremely few deaths recorded;

no serious error would be introduced whatever system was adopted.

A much greater difficulty is presented by the number of a opposite

families arising from such circumstances as illegitimacy, adoption,

remarriage and irregular unions.

The Principle has been adopted of regarding as a sibling anyone

whom the child would consider a sibling i.e. if a child is adopted and

subsequently a natural child is born, the adopted child is counted as

the first of two. Similarly, if a widow with two children marries a

widower with three and they subsequently have two of the

marriage; the eldest is regarded as the eldest of seven. There is thus

a slight tendency to weight the figures towards the larger families.

There introduced should affect both have curtained control groups

yank, in view of the in frequency large families; amount of error

must be small.

The one striking point throughout these comparisons is that only

children are very much more frequent in the ascertained group than

in the control group. The difference is highly significant. This has

been found by others and accepted as evidence that only children are

more prone to mental disturbance than member o f large families.

The excess of only children in the ascertained group cannot,

however, be taken as a sufficient indication that only children are

especially prone to psychological disturbance. When family

background is discussed, it will be seen that a high proportion of

ascertained children come from broken homes, in which it might be

expected that families would be smaller than in intact homes. A

significant indifference has been found between the proportion of

only children in broken and in intact homes, if, as it shaped to

established a tether condition of the home is major etiological factor

of maladjustment, then the greater proneness of only children to

maladjustment may be not more than a reflection of the fact hate

high proportion come from broken homes in the ascertained group

there were 17 (42 percent) only children. This proportion is not

significantly greater than 28 percent in the control group. Moreover

most of the families, having small numbers tend to predominant over

large number. However a sample of 220 cases taken from a

children’s hospital in which children were seen up to the age of 13,

contained 10 percent of only children, 36 percent, of families of two,

21 percent of families of three, 33 percent of families of four or more


109

children. The difference between the maladjusted control group and

the hospital group are significant as regards only children and as

regards families of four and over. This might be taken as evidence of

the increased susceptibility of only children to mental disturbance,

but it might equally well by interpreted as evidence of the proneness

of members of larger families to organic illness. Whether members

of large families are, in fact, less susceptible to mental disturbance is

open to doubt. There are many reasons why members of large

families are not brought to child guidance clinics. The figures

presented here may suggest that their mental stabilities greater but

this should not be accepted without further investigation.

3-Relationship between Parents

In the ascertaining group, in only of 343 intact homes was there

relationships between the parents on which were considered to be

reasonably satisfactory. This research is based on good and bad

parental relationships (and in the next section of attitudes to the

child). These words are used, not in any absolute sense, but as

convenient abbreviations.

When the epithet good is applied, it may mean no more than that

nothing is known to the contrary. In the remaining 30 the parents

quarreled violently with one another, were threatening to separate,

or had in fact separated one or more times. Mental illness of one or

both parents accounted for the bad relationship in cases, the

difficulties of the parents were aggravated by the antagonistic

attitude of relatives in 4 cases, in the control group, the parents in 62

of the intact homes were judged to have a good or reasonably good

relationship. The assessment is subjective and, to an exceptional

extent, dependent on the truthfulness or information given by

parents in interviews. The tendency of information is to conceal the

worst of their difficulties until they have got to know and trust the

workers interviewing them, the assessments cannot all be of the

same order of reliability they are, however, made by highly

experienced workers; and often enough the parent’s stories are

amplified by those of child. Such error as there is would be in the

direction of over-estimating the number of satisfactory relationships,

and this bias would be, if anything, greater in assessing the

ascertained group than the control group since, on the whole, when

the assessment were made the parents of the ascertained group

were not quite so well-known to the clinic workers at those of the

control group. For practical purposes there is only one case about


110

which doubt is felt, but this may be dye too great self-confidence on

the part of the interviewers.

There seems, however, every reason to accept the conclusion that

relationships between the parents were very much more often

unsatisfactory in the ascertained group than in the control group.

4-Separation of Child from Parents

Bowlby 7 and the author she refers to have laid stress on separation

of the child from his natural parents, particularly from the mother, as

a major factor contributing to disturbance in the formation of

character, and leading to anti-social and delinquent tend encased, in

particular what is called the affectionless character. Separations,

whether permanent or temporary), are held by these authors to

produce these adverse results and, in their opinion, the younger the

child at the time of separation the more damaging the effects.

Separation for a shorter or longer period has been a frequent

experience in the groups under discussion in this paper; out of the

200 children considered here had experienced some period of

separation (longer than six months) from mother, father or both

parents.

It is suggested that while all separation has bad consequences, the

effects differ with differences in the type and length of separation.

5-Duration of Separation

It seems necessary, therefore, to distinguish between separations

which is permanent and that which is temporary (i.e. followed by

reunion with the parent or parents). An occasional brief period of

separation such as almost every child experiences cannot be taken

into account, if only for the reason that it is not likely to have been

accurately recorded. The sort of period that Bowlby8 has in mind is

six months or longer. Those cases have therefore been recorded

where either there was a continuous period of separation of six

months or longer or there was a series of briefer separations

amounting together to at least six months.

7 Bowlby, J. mt. J. Psycho-Anal., , Human Relations 1940, 21, 154. Idem ibid, 1944, 25,

19.Idem, 1949, 2, 123.Idem Maternal Care and Menal Health, 1951, Geneva: W.H.O.

Monograph.

8 Bowlby, J. mt. J. Psycho-Anal., Human Relations 1940, 21, 154. Idem ibid, 1944, 25,

19.Idem, , 1949, 2, 123.Idem Maternal Care and Menal Health, 1951, Geneva: W.H.O.

Monograph.


111

6-Parents from whom Child Separated

It is also necessary to distinguish between separations from

1. The mother

2. The father

3. Both parents

Conclusion

Thus, the maladjustment is very dangerous for children. So, research

aims to aware all parents and schooling institutes that they should

be dutiful. Firstly, the basic problem is to identify maladjusted

behavior. In the learning process one can categorize the child needs

and give him necessary help like tutor, kind attitude, appraisal etc. If

environmental factors are carefully reduced from the students, Mal

adjustment would be solved easily. Due to the poor economic

conditions, mostly people unable to afford special education

treatment but if society know the causes along with the remedies.

They can better solve when they will start taking notification of

social, moral, sexual, emotional and psychological actions of the

children. They can also take new curriculum designing, innovative

education strategies. Modern invention can also lend a hand and

parent’s involvement and their good relations plays significant role

in the disorder of maladjustment.


112

Bibliography

Bender, L. Psychopathic Behavior Disorders of Children in Lindner,

R. M., and Seliger, R.V. Handbook of Correctional Psychiatry, 1947,

New York. Idem and YARNELL, H. Amer J. Psychiat…1941, 97, 1158

Bowlby, J. mt. J. Psycho-Anal., 1940, 21, 154. Idem ibid, 1944, 25,

19.Idem, Human Relations, 1949, 2, 123.Idem Maternal Care and

Mental Health, 1951, Geneva: W.H.O. Monograph.

Goodenough, F. L. and Leahy, A.M.J Genet Psych..1927,46,3. Idem

Anger in Young Children, 93, Minneapolis.

Sletto, R. F. Social Maladjustment and soc. Research, 1935. Idem,

Amer. J. Social 1934, 39, 657

Stott, D. H. Delinquency and Human Nature, 1950. Dunfermline

113

Good Governance in Pakistan: Problems and Possible Solutions

Alvi Nabeel Ahmed *

Ansari Basit **

ABSTRACT

This study is an attempt to understand the concept of

good Governance and evaluate the past and present

status of Good governance in Pakistan and suggest a

way forward for effective and efficient future. The

focus of the research is to understand the concept of

Global Governance and assess Pakistan’s performance

against various governance indicators. . The research

looks at some of the harsh realities of Pakistan and it’s

after affects that have occurred due to the evils of

corruption in society. The section “Way Forward”

looks at some recommendations by various researchers

in the journey of Good Governance in Pakistan and

includes suggestions by the author on possible

solutions.

Key Words: Governance, Global indicators, Corruption, Political

Earthquake

* MS Student at Department of Public Administration, University of Karachi,

Karachi.

**Assistant Professor Department of Health and Physical Education, University of

Karachi, Karachi.


114

Introduction to Governance

The best minds of mankind have always been interested in the

questions of how human society develops and what governs its

development , whether the changes taking place in society are

accidental or subject to laws , and whether such changes depend on

the will and consciousness of people. For man is a social being; he

lives among people and is linked to them in numerous ways. It is

only natural that he should be concerned about the future of society,

about the changes occurring in it, and about the direction in which it

develops.

Human being since the inception of earth has gone through the

process of learning from nature. The curiosity of “How”, “What” and

“Why” has led mankind to discover, develop, invent and create great

ideas and systems to fulfill the needs as and when it has occurred.

The will to explore solutions for his problems is an amazing skill that

mankind possesses despite uncountable failures and defeats. The

ability to work hard, remain persistent in adapting to new and

emerging concepts, believes, systems and behaviors has been the

essence of the learning process.

To exist, people must have food, clothing, housing and other

necessities of life. Nature does not provide these necessities and to

obtain those people must work towards establishing means to

acquire and fulfill their needs.

We believe that the concept of governance has emerged from a

positive and “doing the right thing” connotation. Governance means

productive development and direction towards positivity and

effective performance. It is the art of showing how to act and react in

a manner that is beneficial and aligned with the goal and objective

one has, be it at the individual, national or international level.

Mankind has seen hundreds of wars since the emergence of

humanity and has witnessed two world wars resulting in devastating

and catastrophic outcomes in the shape of deaths, diseases,

disabilities and destruction of infrastructures. However, these wars

have taught us on how to become civilized and value each other’s

interest for a peaceful world. The steps that have been taken

towards peace and agreements at the International, national and

local level are a result of governance.

It is difficult to analyze the origin of governance as the concept is not

new. It can be said that from the existence and understanding of


115

“good” and “bad”, “right” or “wrong” the concept of governance had

emerged. When people started to comprehend terms like “justice”,

“fairness” “law”, “ethics” etc they had taken their step towards

governance. Every religion has given guiding principles for life and

for me these values and rules for attaining the love of god is part of

governance. The “Ten Commandments” for example were given to

better perform ones duties, to avoid evil deeds and promote ethics

and worship and how one followed was part of governance.

Similarly in Islam the concept of Holy Quran as a guiding book and

following the life and actions of Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon

him) as a way of life fall under the category of governance.

The Qur’an defines good governance as the rule of justice, a just and

ethical order and observance of rights and obligations in a society.

The Qur’an declares: “Those when given authority in land, establish

(system of) salah , give zakah and enjoin what is good (ma’ruf ) and

forbid what is wrong ( munkar ). al-Hajj 22:41.

Islamic view of good governance is qualitative and believes that how

your values and ethical decision affect the society are important. It

believes in participatory approach, in public accountability

“Aithesab”, equality etc. The last sermon of the Prophet (Peace be

upon him) is an effective example of an effective policy and system

that if followed with true spirit will result in good governance.

The concept of governance is not new. Early discussions go back to

at least 400 B.C. to the Arthashastra, a fascinating treatise on

governance attributed to Kautilya, thought to be the chief minister to

the King of India. In it, Kautilya presented key pillars of the ‘art of

governance’, emphasizing justice, ethics, and anti-autocratic

tendencies.1

One might conclude that governance is the process – by which

authority is conferred on rulers, by which they make the rules, and

by which those rules are enforced and modified.

From the inception of Political Science as a discipline concerned with

the study of state, governments and politics in setting up rules and

regulations to run governments to modern management science and

public administration, governance has become a frequently used

term alongside terms like sustainable development, civil society,

1 Kaufmann, Daniel, Aart Kraay and Pablo Zoido-Lobatón (1999a). “Aggregating

Governance Indicators.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 2195,

Washington, D.C pg 5


116

transparency, devolution of power and democracy. The presence of

good governance practices clarifies authority, simplifies decision-

making, and ensures people and organizations are accountable for

their actions and decisions.

Good governance is an essential factor to the success of any activity,

whether in the public sector or non-governmental sector. In the

development context, studies indicate a direct relationship between

good governance, stable governments and better social and

economic outcomes through effective people and rules. Governance

like any other subject is at the emergence phase and has evolved

over the years and will continue to develop as a discipline through

research and experiments.

What is Governance

As stated Governance is a broad concept covering all aspects of the

way a country is governed, including its economic policies and

regulatory framework, as well as adherence to the rule of law.

Corruption-the abuse of public authority or trust for private benefit-

is closely linked: a poor governance environment offers greater

incentives and more opportunities for corruption reference2

Although it is hard to have a precise definition of governance there is

a wide consensus that good governance enables the state, the civil

society and the private sector to enhance the well being of a large

segment of the population.

According to the World Bank (1992), Governance refers to the

manner in which public officials and institutions acquire and

exercise the authority to shape public policy and provide public

goods & services. Corruption is one outcome of poor governance

involving the abuse of public office for private gain. The Asian

Development Bank (1997) considers the essence of governance to be

sound development management. The key dimensions of governance

are public sector management, accountability, the legal framework

for development and information and transparency.3

An early and narrower definition of public sector governance

proposed by the World Bank in 1992 is that:

2 http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/pdf/gov.pdf ,The IMF and Good Governance,

(accessed on September 10, 2012 ) 3 Husain, Ishrat Governance and development , Case Study of Pakistan, A paper presented

at the AKU-ISMC Seminar on Governance and Development held at London on 7th

March, 2008


117

"Governance is the manner in which power is exercised in the

management of a Country’s economic and social resources for

development” 4

In the Bank's latest governance and anticorruption strategy, this

definition has persisted almost unchanged, with governance defined

as:

"...the manner in which public officials and institutions acquire and

exercise the authority to shape public policy and provide public

goods and services".

It is essential for researchers and students to understand the

dynamics of governance and how various countries are now striving

towards good governance as a source for development as oppose to

the traditional method of going to war or going after their lust of

power to dominate and take away resources from weak countries.

The right to self determination which emerged as a result of the

emergence of United Nations is considered as a golden rule for every

country after the two deadly wars between nations based on

ideology.

In another definition, the variety of perspective governance brings

for a country or nation is defined as:

"...the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is

exercised. 5

This includes the process by which governments are selected,

monitored and replaced; the capacity of the government to

effectively formulate and implement sound policies; and the respect

of citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic

and social interactions among them." 6

In another definition by World Bank it is defined as :

“Governance is a simple concept at heart: good governance is good

government. The concept is related to the quality of the relationship

between government and the citizens whom it exits to serve and

protect” 7

4 World Bank (1992) "Governance and Development". Washington. (accessed on

September 10, 2012 5 World Bank (2007), p. i, para. ) World Bank (2007). "Strengthening World Bank Group

Engagement on Governance and Anticorruption",

http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/comments/governancefeedback/gacpaper-

03212007.pdf (accessed on 22 November 2012) 6 Ibid Kaufmann, “Aggregating Governance Indicators.” 7 Governance in Asia: From Crisis to Opportunity,” Annual Report 1998, the World Bank,

(accessed on 17 November 2012)


118

Global Governance

Most scholars, policymakers, aid donors, and aid recipients

recognize that “Good Governance” is a fundamental ingredient for

sustained economic development. Various bodies and associations

have stepped forward to devise an international standard for

governance which is acceptable and adaptable to various countries

around the world. We would like to highlight the role of two such

organizations that emerged as global caretakers for decades now.

They are:

1. United Nations

2. World Bank

The purpose is to look at the various initiatives these two

organizations have taken in order to promote good governance

across the world and how the results of their success has not only

helped developed countries for the better but has also allowed other

developing countries to adapt to systems and policies that help them

progress.

United Nations

UN believes that the greatest threats to good governance come from

corruption, violence and poverty, all of which undermine

transparency, security, participation and fundamental freedoms.

The UN system works closely with governments to achieve these

ends. It also works closely with civil society, a term which

encompasses a wide range of organizations and groups from the

private sector having varying interests and objectives, including

professional, business, and services, religious and recreational

bodies.

The UN system promotes good governance through its agencies and

departments.

The UN Development Programme (UNDP), for example, actively

support national processes of democratic transition. In the process,

it focuses on providing policy advice and technical support and

strengthening the capacity of institutions and individuals.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) promotes good governance

through its programs of lending and technical assistance. Its

approach to combating corruption emphasizes prevention, through

measures that strengthen governance.


119

The United Nations Democracy Fund (UNDEF), established in 2005,

supports projects that strengthen the voice of civil society, promote

human rights, and encourage the participation of all groups in

democratic processes. The bulk of its funds go to local civil society

organizations, both in the transition and consolidation phases of

democratization.

The United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN) was

created to set up an internet-based network to link regional and

national public administration institutions. It facilitates the exchange

of information and experience, as well as training in the area of

public sector policy and management.8

The targets set in achieving the Millennium Development Goals

(MDG’s) by countries around the world and the support they get is

all due to the spirit of Good Governance.

The World Bank

The Worldwide Governance Indicators report on six broad

dimensions of governance for over 200 countries over the period

1996-2011:

1. Voice and Accountability

2. Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism

3. Government Effectiveness

4. Regulatory, Quality

5. Rule of Law, and

6. Control of Corruption.9

The aggregate indicators are based on several hundred individual

underlying variables, taken from a wide variety of existing data

sources that help in analyzing the progress of governments in a

particular dimension.

Governance in Pakistan- Historical Perspective

Pakistan inherited British structure of judiciary, civil service and

military but a relatively weak legislative oversight at the time of its

independence. Over time the domination of civil service and military

in the affairs of the state disrupted the evolution of the democratic

political process and further weakened the legislative organ of the

state.

8 http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/governance/ (accessed on 21 November 2012) 9 http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/resources.htm (accessed on 27 November 2012)


120

The institutions inherited from the British rule, were quite relevant

for the requirements of the rulers of those times. Following

independence, those requirements expanded in scope and demand

while the level of expectations from the public and their elected

representatives was heightened. But these inherited institutions

failed to adapt themselves to meet the new challenges of

development and social changes and respond to the heightened

expectations.10

The continuation of legacy made the whole system malfunctioned.

The stigma of malpractice, bribery, corruption and law breaking for

personal gains started to become a norm for politicians, military

rulers and government officials which were against the spirit of

governance in Pakistan.

Governance in Pakistan- Current Scenario

Governance is generally conceived of as the exercise of economic,

political and administrative authority in the public and private

spheres to manage a country’s affair at all levels to improve the

quality of life of the people. It is a continuing process where

divergent opinions and desires are satisfied through compromise

and tolerance in a spirit of cooperative action for the mutual benefit

of the larger whole. It has three dimensions: firstly, the political

regime; secondly, the systems and procedures for exercising

authority; and thirdly, the capacity of governments.11

The present situation of Pakistan is not very good as it faces

dangerous threats from both external and internal forces which

directly and indirectly are affecting the cause of good governance in

Pakistan. Where it is engaged in the deadly war against terrorism,

the country also faces crises in energy, food and unemployment. The

situation has weakened by a great deal in almost all sector of the

country be it education, health, industry etc.

South Asian countries have had democratic governments installed

but the state of governance has become a matter of serious concern

nowadays. The region, home to over one-fifth of the world

population, is the region with about 437 million people living below

one dollar a day and 80 per cent of the population survives below

10 Ibid Ishrat Husain, Governance and Development 11 Rizvi, Sehar and Ismail, Zafar H. Some issues of Governance in Pakistan, Conference Paper

No 39, SPDC, Karachi, 2000, pp 1


121

two dollar a day. South Asia’s share in the global income is only 7 per

cent while its share of global poverty is about 43 per cent.12

Pakistan’s journey for democracy has been very difficult and

frustrating. The current civilian government was elected in 2008

after ending another military rule. However, the concept of the

“Democratic Dictatorship” prevails in the country as the previous

elected government faced enormous corruption and political

turmoil. Currently Pakistan is ranked as “Partly Free” in the overall

freedom ranking in comparison to the previous government which

was ranked “Not Free” by Freedom House which is an independent

watchdog organization dedicated to the expansion of freedom

around the world.

Source: Freedom in the World, Report 201313

There is a reduction in the ranking of civil liberties and political

rights which shows that the previous government for the first time

finished a complete cycle of tenure in Pakistan is rated high by the

independent body.

Pakistan’s position in military establishment can be seen below.

Ranking in terms of Civil Liberties and Political Rights in South Asia,

1999-2007

12 Poverty in South Asia: Challenges and Responses , Human Development Report 2006, the

Mahbub ul Haq Human Development Centre (HDC), (Karachi: Oxford University Press,

2007), p.20 13 Freedom in the world report, 2012, Freedom House;

http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/pakistan (accessed on 29

November 2012)


122

Ranking in terms of Civil Liberties and Political Rights

in South Asia, 1999-200714

1999 2007

Count

ry

Poli

tica

l

rig

hts

ran

k

Civil

liber

ties

rank

Freedom Politi

cal

right

s

rank

Civil

libert

ies

rank

Freedom

Pakist

an

5

4

Partly

free

5

6

Not free

India

4

2

Partly

free

3

2

Free

Bangla

desh

4

2

Partly

free

4

4

Partly free

Sri

Lanka

4 3 Partly

free

4 4 Partly

Nepal 4 3 Partly

free

4 5 free

Note: Rank 1 means most free and 7 means least free

Similarly the status of governance in Pakistan according to the World

Governance Indicators 15 in South Asia for various areas is as follows:

14 Human Development in South Asia 2007: A Ten-Year Review, HDC Report, 2008, pp 222 15 http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/mc_chart.asp (accessed on 15 November 2012)


123


124

Source: World Governance Indicators for South Asia

The above table for Pakistan does not show a good picture in South

Asia and needs to improve a great deal in the journey towards good

and effective governance framework.

Political Earth Quake and Issues of Governance in Pakistan

Javed Jabbar in his book “Pakistan: Unique Origins, Unique Destiny”

highlights that Pakistan is unique in the sense that it is the only

country in the World which got disintegrated after World War II


125

(1939 – 1945) , created in 1947 and then again disintegrated in

1971.16

The division of Bangladesh is taken as a huge setback for the country

as it gave birth to a lot of political instability. The emergence of the

“Quota” system was the after affects of this divide which we feel has

been one of the major cause of the failure of good governance in

Pakistan as it has given birth to influential political appointments

and nepotism at every level of the function of state.

The term “political earthquake” is not new to researchers and

politicians as it has been used many times to explain the devastating

results it can bring to a nations progress and development. This has

been the case for Pakistan as it has gone through a number of

changes in system due to military coup or by the president

dissolving the assembly well before its allocated time period.

When the system of government transforms from democracy to

dictatorship, the regime shift can cause tidal waves that have drastic

repercussions on the process of administrative reform in a country.

Or when after winning the elections the opposition party becomes

the government, administrative reform may also experience tidal

waves. Or when there is a change of the person or agency in charge

of administrative reform, one is likely to see big waves in the making

despite the fact that government’s official reform policies remain

unchanged. This has been the case with Pakistan as frequently

numerous governments have abolished the old system in trying to

establish their own favored systems and policies which causes delay

in process, encourages lack of justice, misuse of funds etc.

Decisions made on time and effectively enforced make the

governance good. Red-tapism, bureaucratic mindset and delay in

processes lead to inefficiency. The absence of good governance leads

to corruption which prevails quickly unless tackled with authority

Corruption defined as misuse of entrusted power for private benefit

is unfortunately endemic in Pakistan. No structure, no tier and no

office of public sector are immune from it. Its spread is enormous. It

has reached every organ of state — beyond executive it has put its

claws on judiciary and legislature even. It would be no exaggeration

to say that the whole body of the state of Pakistan is suffering from

this malaise and wailing under its dead weight.17

16 Jabbar, Javed. Pakistan: Unique Origins, Unique Destiny, Karachi, National Book

Foundation 2011, pp 88 17 Javaid, Umbreen . Corruption and its deep impact on Good governance in Pakistan,

Pakistan Economic and Social Review, Volume 48, No. 1 (Summer 2010), pp. 123-134


126

The roots of corruption in Pakistan date back to the colonial period

when the British rewarded lands and titles to those who were their

loyalists leading to nepotism and corruption. The legacy continued

after independence as well as the feudal continued to manipulate the

system successfully is ensuring that there is no agriculture reform

placed in the system so that they continue to benefit from their

corrupt agendas. Pakistan since its inception has been ruled by few

feudal lords who have continued to ensure that there is no

awakening of the poor in terms of their rights by not proving basic

necessities such as education, food and shelter to them. This

unawareness has led to having a rural and urban divide in place in

the electoral system as well thus ensuring that only few parties will

continue to rule.

“Corruption manifests itself in various forms in Pakistan, including

widespread financial and political corruption, nepotism, and misuse

of power. Both petty and grand corruptions are prevalent in the

country”18

South Asian Countries Rank in Corruption Perception Index 2010

Country Ranking Country Score

36 Bhutan 5.7

87 India 3.3

91 Sri Lanka 3.2

134 Bangladesh 2.4

143 Maldives 2.3

143 Pakistan 2.3

146 Nepal 2.2

Source: Corruption Perception Index (CPI) 2010, Transparency

International

The current ranking for Pakistan is 139 in the CPI19 which has

reduced and is an indication of improvement in systems and

accountability due to democratic government.

18 Chene, Marie (2008), Overview of corruption in Pakistan. Retrieved May17,2010,from

http://www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/query.cfm?id=174 (accessed on 18 December

2012) 19 http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results (accessed on 13 March 2013)

The scale of corruption is highest in development projects and

procurement (including defens

the bank loan write offs. Whereas mega corruption is mainly in

development projects, bank loans and procurements which rocks the

foundation of the economy, the common man is more interested in

the petty and middle leve

dealings in the government offices.

According to one estimate the loss made to the national exchequer is

over Rs. 200 billion per annum. This loss is caused collectively by all

the government departments but th

as per the Perception Survey

International Pakistan are:

1. Power Sector

2. Tax and Customs

3. Police and Law Enforcement

4. Judiciary and Legal Profession

5. Health and Education

6. Land Administration

The same survey highlights the following reasons for corruption:

The first serious attempt to fight corruption at national level was

witnessed during the caretaker period after the dismissal of 2nd

Benazir government in November 1996 when President Farooq

Leghari established Ehtsab Commission headed by a retired senior

judge. The effort was intensified by the next government, i.e. the 2nd

Nawaz government in 1997 through the aegis of Ehtsab Bureau

headed by Mr. Saif ur Rehman. The exercise was however taken as

20 http://www.prof-pakistan.com/2009/09

(accessed on 15 December 2012)


127


procurement (including defense and public sector corporations) and




the petty and middle level corruption that he encounters in the daily

dealings in the government offices.



the government departments but the most prominent amongst them

as per the Perception Survey20 carried out by Transparency

International Pakistan are:

2. Tax and Customs

3. Police and Law Enforcement

4. Judiciary and Legal Profession

5. Health and Education

ation

The same survey highlights the following reasons for corruption:








pakistan.com/2009/09/24/transparency-internationalpakistan

(accessed on 15 December 2012)


127


e and public sector corporations) and




l corruption that he encounters in the daily



e most prominent amongst them

carried out by Transparency









128

one sided and led to the erosion of moral authority for so pious an

exercise.

The military government of 1999 started accountability with a lot of

fan fare. It established National Accountability Bureau (NAB) with

necessary investigation and judicial structures. It announced

National Anti Corruption Strategy (NACS).

NACS was a three-pronged strategy, viz.

1. Prevention

2. Awareness

3. Enforcement

The point to consider is that Pakistan is not the only country which is

involved in corruption. There are many other countries and

comparing them with our situation will help us devise better

strategies to counter this menace.

Possible Solutions – The Way Forward

The concept of “good governance” has not emerged from outside

mankind’s experience throughout the ages. It is based on a lesson

from history which records both the downfall of nations resulting

from bad governance, and also lessons of how nations have risen to

great heights as a consequence of “good governance”. In general,

opportunities for a fair governance, true democracy and civil society

in Pakistan can only flourish when democratic practices are allowed

to prevail under the supremacy of the constitution, unchanged

democracy and safe environment for foreign investment.

Almost all major development institutions believe that promoting

good governance is an important part of their agendas. The difficulty

however is in the understanding of good governance as a universal

solution for problems around the world. The diversity in skills,

knowledge and attitude around the world makes it difficult for

people in implementing best practices of good governance. The

question of “how to improve governance?” is, of course, the most

pressing from a policy perspective but it can be achieved through

collective efforts in Pakistan by taking various steps.

In order to take steps towards effective governance, key decision

makers will have to develop strategies and frameworks that suit best

according to local conditions. A similar type of framework has been

produced by Syed Imran Sardar , Assistant Research Officer at the


129

Institute of Regional Studies who has suggested the following

strategies that need to be incorporated in our existing system. He

explains it in his framework “Way to Good Governance”

Recommendations

From the above discussion it should be clear that good governance is

an idea which is difficult to achieve in its totality. Plato is generally

considered an all-round philosophical, mathematical and scientific

Area Targets Strategies

Delivery of public

goods and services

Efficient system

for delivery of

public goods

and services

Through computerization and establishing

performance-based criteria for delivery of

basic public goods and services

Parliaments Openness

Transparency

Participatory

Through increasing media coverage;

Responsibility

Proceedings must be made public and easily

accessible to all;

People must be allowed to attend except in

extraordinary circumstances

Judiciary Mitigating

corruption

within courts

Educating about

laws

Improving

competence of

judges

Through enforcing higher penalties

Through the media

Through regular training

Police Improving

professional

competence

Bringing

accountability

in the system

Bringing change

in traditional

policing system

Through modern training to counter present-

day challenges

An independent commission should be

established to oversee police functioning

Strengthen community policing system

Local Government Improvement in

functioning

Through maximising people’s participation

Laws must be made to minimise

administrative control of the state.

Through increasing budgetary allocation

Accountability over funds and annual

auditing through independent auditors

Participation Maximising

people

participation at

all levels

Through public awareness about the system

and their role and importance in it. The task

can be done well by the media.

Continuity Protecting

continuity in

development

programmes

Laws must be made at the institutional level

to safeguard the continuity of development

programmes which often are disturbed with

the change of governments


130

genius, perhaps best known for his work “The Republic”; a treatise

on society, governance and justice. Little did Plato would have

known that his ideas would be adapted by future generations for

effective and stable GOVERNANCE?

Plutocracy – government in which a small group of ultra-rich

oligarchs rule – millionaires and billionaires that serve only money –

working directly at the top of the political system and also

anonymously through 3rd party proxies, lobbyists and through

financing (not at all representatives of “the people”, but using their

money to further their power. The scenario for Pakistan for decades

now is been under the philosophy of Plutocracy.

The kind of government Plato recommends in The Republic is the

aristocracy. Rule by the best, not necessarily land-owners, or the

richest, but those trained specifically in the arts and sciences of

governance. Although this may take decades for Pakistan but by

finishing a full five year term by the present government , perhaps

we as a nation have taken the first step. Below are some concluding

thoughts that can be considered to improve Good Governance in

Pakistan.

1. Strengthening Institutions not individuals - but empowering

individuals to participate in the process of improvement for

sustainability.

2. Decentralization of Power - from the center but also from the elite

politicians and feudal lords for ensuring grass root improvements.

3. Right person for the right job – continuous professional

development throughout for accountability and sharing of

responsibility.

4. Sustainability by building on success – The trend in Pakistan is to

abolish the previous government’s good efforts and re-invent the

step which causes hurdles in sustainability. Governments should

build on previous success irrespective of whose initiative was it for

sustainability in governance.

5. Learning from likeminded countries and cultures as opposed to

western systems. Pakistan has inherited the system from the British

and has continued to follow the same system which has caused

problems in managing it due to lack of knowledge and capacity of

human resources. Culture and tradition play a role and perhaps

Pakistan can better learn from similar developing countries like


131

Malaysia as opposed to European countries which have been the

case in the past.

6. Respecting and accepting diversity. Encouraging and promoting

diversity as strength for attaining success. Creating and respecting

diversity as a dividend not divide.

7. Urbanization in rural areas to manage and facilitate population.

Too much migration in urban cities for employment causes issues of

management and population influx. Rural areas should be developed

in order to maintain and encourage good governance through

decentralization.

8. Do it Yourself (DIY) – As opposed to waiting for donors and other

agencies to help us in various sectors which perhaps in normally

considered a hindrance as donors have their own set objectives.

Mindset will be difficult to change but possible through strong

campaigning. Spreading the notion of “Khudee” / Self Actualization

and believe in oneself.


132

Bibliography

Kaufmann, Daniel, Aart Kraay and Pablo Zoido-Lobatón (1999a).

“Aggregating Governance Indicators” World Bank Policy Research

Working Paper No. 2195, Washington, D.C pg 5

http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/pdf/gov.pdf ,The IMF

and Good Governance , (accessed on September 10, 2012 )

Husain, Ishrat Governance and development, Case Study of Pakistan,

A paper presented at the AKU-ISMC Seminar on Governance and

Development held at London on 7th March, 2008.

World Bank (1992) "Governance and Development" Washington.

(Accessed on September 10, 2012)

World Bank (2007), p. i, para. World Bank (2007) "Strengthening

World Bank Group Engagement on Governance and Anticorruption",

http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/comments/governancefeed

back/gacpaper-03212007.pdf (accessed on 22 November 2012)

Ibid Kaufmann, “Aggregating Governance Indicators”

Governance in Asia: From Crisis to Opportunity,” Annual Report

1998, the World Bank, (accessed on 17 November 2012)

http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/governance/ (accessed on 21

November 2012)

http://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/extaboutus/

extarchives (accessed on 17 November 2012)

http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/resources.htm

(accessed on 27 November 2012)

Ibid Ishrat Husain, Governance and Development

Rizvi, Sehar and Ismail, Zafar H. Some issues of Governance in

Pakistan, Conference Paper No 39, SPDC, Karachi, 2000, pp 1

Poverty in South Asia: Challenges and Responses, Human

Development Report 2006, the Mahbub ul Haq Human Development

Centre (HDC), (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2007), p.20


133

Freedom in the world report, 2012, Freedom House;

http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-

world/2012/pakistan (accessed on 29 November 2012)

Human Development in South Asia 2007: A Ten-Year Review, HDC

Report, 2008, pp 222

http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/mc_chart.asp (accessed

on 15 November 2012)

Jabbar, Javed. Pakistan: Unique Origins, Unique Destiny, Karachi,

National Book Foundation 2011, pp 88

Javaid, Umbreen . Corruption and its deep impact on Good

governance in Pakistan, Pakistan Economic and Social Review,

Volume 48, No. 1 (Summer 2010), pp. 123-134

Chene, Marie (2008), Overview of corruption in Pakistan. Retrieved

May17,2010,from

http://www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/query.cfm?id=174 (accessed

on 18 December 2012)

http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results (accessed on 13 March

2013)

http://www.prof-pakistan.com/2009/09/24/transparency-

internationalpakistan (accessed on 15 December 2012)

Imran Sharif Chaudhry, Shahnawaz Malik, Khurram Nawaz Khan and

Sohail Rasool, Factors Affecting Good Governance in Pakistan: An

Empirical Analysis, European Journal of Scientific Research Vol.35

No.3 (2009), pp.337-346

135

Pakistan’s Trade and Investment Environment: 1972 to 2010

Zobi Fatima*

Abstract

Trade and investment are two important sectors for

macroeconomic development. The healthy trends in

these sectors ensure the refined economic development

in any country. However, in case of Pakistan, the

situation of both trade and investment is very

dilemmatic in nature. There are numerous factors for

the low economic growth of country, which needs to be

point out, in order to avoid the mistakes in future

economic policymaking. Additionally, the researcher

believed that it is also necessary to explain the

historical trends of both sectors, which is necessary to

trace the causes of persistent issues related to both

sectors. The study is largely based on literature review,

to describe the historical trade and investments trends

in Pakistan’s economy. The first section specifically

deals with trade environment which has further

divided into sub-sections. Those sections describe the

history of trade environment since the beginning of

1970s to present, trade markets of Pakistan, and issue

of trade liberalization. The second section is about the

investment sector which elucidates the foreign direct

investment, domestic investment. The study covers

both public and private investment; and explores

reasons why it remained low. The study also attempts

to explain the interaction between trade and

investment and their combine prospects for the macro-

economic growth in Pakistan.

Keywords: Trade investment, Pakistani market, Government policy

* PhD Research Student, Area Study Center for Europe, University of Karachi.


136

1. Trade Environment of Pakistan

In the first half of 2000s, the World Bank considered Pakistan’s trade policy as “least restrictive” in nature (p.2), as compare to Sri Lanka. This policy has given numerous foreign companies to establish trade with Pakistan. In this regard, the exchange rate policy has especially devised to keep the stability of foreign exchange1. Similarly, according to the report of the World Bank, the previous Country Assistance Strategy of Pakistan faced crises due to high rate of inflation in 2008. However, the appointed democratic government of PPP has launched a reforming program to tackle the issues of account deficit, growth of GDP, restoration of foreign reserves, and inflation. Apart, from all these factors, the sudden rise in international fuel price has also forced government to adopt specific strategy. The report stated that in order to deal with all these problems, the basic solution is to introduce the value added tax and effective administration of taxes. Without these two measures, it is not much possible to improve the economic condition of country2. Pakistan, which is middle income country, is more sensitive to external global economic shocks, due to its trade and investment’s fragile structure. The situation becomes much more critical when import structure is of consuming in nature, instead of capitalistic. However, because of low economic growth and development the import structure is ‘consuming’ in nature, which become more vulnerable in case of global economic crises3. 1.1. Historical Trends in Pakistan’s Trade

Pakistan’s trade environment has witnessed several vicissitudes over the decades. Pakistan’s government had been adopting various trade policies at different times. The import substitution industrialization has remained prominent till 1970s. Both tariff and non-tariff trade restrictions have applied to keep the local industries steady. Nevertheless, during Bhutto’s era, government changed trade policies and converted them into “outward-oriented export-led

1 Ishrat Hussain, Pakistan’s Economic Turnaround – An Untold Story.

http://www.bis.org/review/r050412g.pdf (accessed 30 November, 2012). 2 The World Bank, Pakistan: Country Partnership Strategy FY 2010-2013 (Pakistan: The

World Bank, 2010), p.i. 3 Vaqar Ahmed & CathalO’ Donoghue, 2010.“External Shocks in a Small Open Economy: A

CGE – Microsimulation Analysis,” The Lahore Journal of Economics, 15(1), pp.45-90.


137

development strategy”4 (p. 228). In this particular strategy trade liberalization has more emphasized, restrictions on tariff have relaxed and policies of trade licensing also reviewed. Consequently, it led to more foreign direct investment in country. Before 1970, Pakistan had had “free market economy” (p. 187) which converted into socialist economy during 1970s 5 . Major industries and institutions of country got nationalized, government has established its control on domestic market, and trade policies explicitly came under the government domain. These measures of government along with constant intervention and lack of proper management put drastic impacts on national economy, especially on private sector investment. The dearth of funding has reduced national growth to lowest ebb and government ended up in asking foreign loans from World Bank and IMF6. The situation has improved since 1980s due to beginning of trade liberalization. Regionalization has been bringing in main focus for trade reforms which has huge potential to provide more trade liberalization for Pakistan7. During 1997 and 1998, Pakistan adopted radical trade liberalization policy which eased the tariff for imports. During 1996 to 2003, tariff barriers on imports were reduced to 17.3% from 42% and this trend has remained continued till 2006. Similarly, the government had reduced the tariff by 25% during 2002 and 2003. It has seen that import trends has remained more active as compare to export, the major reason behind this phenomenon is that Pakistan’s export are highly dependent on the import, especially in case of textile machinery8. As the textile machinery comes in, there are more probable chances of textile export.

4 Faiz M Shaikh, 2009.“Analysis of Bilateral Trade Liberalization and South Asian Free

Trade Agreement (SAFTA) on Pakistan’s Economy by Using CGE Model.”Journal of International Trade Law and Policy.8(3), pp.320-335.

5 M. Ghaffar Chaudhry, 1995. “Economic Liberalization of Pakistan’s Economy: Trends and Repercussions.” Contemporary South Asia.4(2), pp.187-192.

6 Ibid, p.187. 7 Op.cit., “Analysis of Bilateral Trade Liberalization and South Asian Free Trade Agreement

(SAFTA) on Pakistan’s Economy by Using CGE Model.”p.228 8 Guitard Philippe, Shahid Ahmed Khan &Derk Bienen, New Business Opportunities for EU

Companies in Pakistan, (Luxembourg: European Commission Asia-Invest Programme, Europ Aid Co-operation Office, 2005), pp.30-34.


138

Source: Pakistan: Federal Bureau of Statistics9 Nonetheless, in the budget of 2007 those tariffs were again increased to 30-35%10. In contemporary situation the national trade has hurried by substitution, lessening, and liberalization of “import substitution policies, trade barriers and non tariff barriers” (p. 522) respectively11. It has been believed that trade liberalization causes extensive economic growth. It played significant role during last decade, in which export (as part of GDP) and per capita income enlarged slowly and gradually12. On the other hand, it is not necessary that trade liberalization always generate positive impacts. In context of disadvantages of trade liberalization, it has been seen that liberalization causes the rise in trade deficit of country. The reason is that low prices on import commodities yields inflation in domestic economic environment13.

9 Ibid. 10 G. Pursell., “Trade Policies in South Asia,” in Routledge Handbook of South Asian

Economics, ed. RaghbendraJha (New York: Routledge, 2011), pp.218-287. 11 Abdul Hamid Khan, Mohibullah Khan & Muhammad Tahir Khan, 2012.“The impact of

trade liberalization on economic growth in Pakistan.”Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business.3(9), pp.700-711.

12 Ibid. 13 Op.cit., “External Shocks in a Small Open Economy: A CGE – Microsimulation

Analysis.”p.45


139

1.2. Trade Markets of Pakistan

USA is one of the closest and largest partners of Pakistan, in terms of trade. In this regard, it has found that within the paradigm of Trade and Investment Framework Agreement and Preferential Trade Agreement; Pakistan discussed and demanded the special market access of its certain products14. In addition, during early years of 2000s, the Government of Pakistan has taken considerable steps and introduced reforms in trade regime. These measures have helped the country to grab large market share in international market of trade. Similarly, during this period, the exports have reached up to the level of US $9 billion and US $11 billion, during the years of 2000 to 2001, and 2001 to 2002, respectively, in spite of critical environment and non-favorable policies around the business sector15 . USA and European Union are the two main markets of Pakistan’s export. They constitute more than 50% share of Pakistan’s exports, and rest export goes to Hong Kong, Japan, and the region of Middle East16. In EU countries, the role of UK is very important for Pakistan’s trade, because it comprised the largest share in both import and export, from rest of the global markets. UK is one of the strategic partners of Pakistan, in terms of trade and investment and played wide role as development partner of the country as well17.

Source: Pakistan: Federal Bureau of Statistics18

14 W. Y. Tsang& K. F. Au, 2008.“Textile and clothing exports of selected South and Southeast

Asian Countries: a challenge to NAFTA trading.” Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management.12(4), pp.565-578.

15 Op.cit. New Business Opportunities for EU Companies in Pakistan.p.21. 16 Ibid. 17 The Nation, “Pakistan Attaches Great Importance to its Relations with UK: President,”

http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/islamabad/10-Oct-2012/pakistan-attaches-great-importance-to-its-relations-with-uk-president (accessed November, 2012).

18 Op.cit. New Business Opportunities for EU Companies in Pakistan.p.23.


140

1.3. Trade Liberalization and Types

In case of unilateral, regional and unilateral-regional trade liberalization of Pakistan, Faiz M. Shaikh (2009) performed three experiments, by using CGE model and simulation method. The purpose of those experiments was to evaluate the relationship between trade liberalization of Pakistan with South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) and to judge the prospects of trade in Pakistan. The first experiment was related to unilateral trade in which uniform import tariff was assumed by 15% to rest of the world. The results revealed that if Pakistan would apply 15% uniform import tariff than GDP will increase by 1.53% approximately US$20,201 million. Under this result, import will increase by 3.3% and export will fall by 0.3%19. The second experiment was related to regional trade liberalization and to find out the impacts of SAFTA, in terms of Pakistan. In this experiment, he assumed that Pakistan and countries included in SAARC will diminish the tariff duties for each other, but maintain it for the rest of the world. According to the results, when countries will remove the trade barriers for each other, consequently, the regional trade will prosper and grow. The GDP of Pakistan earns 1.92% from SAFTA, therefore, the 4 percent of trade will improve but no such improvement will come on GDP, generally20. The third experiment of Shaikh (2009) was the combination of earlier two experiments. In this experiment, Pakistan is supposed to apply both conditions simultaneously. Its results stated that under this situation Pakistan will produce highest welfare gain, the GDP will increase by 3.35% and both producer and consumer will get benefits21. Through this discussion, the researcher evaluated that if Pakistan will apply these conditions of Faiz M. Shaikh (2009) in which the import tariff is reduced to 15% and all the SAARC countries remove trade barriers for each other. There is a huge chance of trade improvement of country along with considerable growth of GDP. As Pakistan mostly suffers from lack of trade and investment, and there are numerous reasons for this deficiency. One of the reasons of this lacking is that countries of South Asia, like Pakistan does not consider trade as engine for growth and hence, there is lack of policy making in this significant domain of country. It not only reflects the

19 Op.cit. “Analysis of Bilateral Trade Liberalization and South Asian Free Trade Agreement

(SAFTA) on Pakistan’s Economy by Using CGE Model.” p.239-242. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid.


141

“inward-looking” nature of country but also block the any prospect for growth and development (p.142)22. By explaining the prospects of trade environment, it has been believed that Pakistan should maintain a Free Trade Agreement with SAFTA countries, because it will bring the huge market of SAARC countries on its threshold. Producer will experience the huge competition and large market share; on the other hand, consumer will have wide choice of products on lower prices23. Similarly, it has been also found that trade liberalization need strategic policy support to work effectively. According to the views of Shahid Kardar, import-duty should not remove on every object entering Pakistan’s market. Only those imports should be duty free, which are related to “life-saving”, security and charity. Otherwise, there are chances of severe trade environment for Pakistan, in which exports will more likely to suffer24. 2. Investment Environment of Pakistan

Throughout the history, the political upheavals in Pakistan have remained major source for its economic mal-functioning. The diverse policies of different governments of Pakistan caused sluggish economic growth. In 1970s, the industrial and manufacturing sector has suddenly nationalized on wide basis. However, in 1980s, when it has realized that public sector is not performing well, then the process of nationalization has reversed, and government started privatization once again25. In 2008, the Asian Development Bank considered Privatization Act 2000, as mile stone for Pakistan’s private sector. According to Federal Bureau of Statistics Pakistan, after this Act manufacturing industry has contributed 19% and 18.5% of GDP growth in 2006 and 2010 respectively26.

22 Jim Love. & Ramesh Chandra, 2005.“Testing Export-Led Growth in South Asia.”Journal of

Economic Studies.32(2), pp.132-145. 23 Op.cit. “Analysis of Bilateral Trade Liberalization and South Asian Free Trade Agreement

(SAFTA) on Pakistan’s Economy by Using CGE Model.”p.245 24 Shahid Kardar, July 26, 2012. Customs Duties’

Structure.http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-9-122878-Customs-duties-structure (accessed November 30, 2012).

25 Sheikh Zahoor Sarwar, et al. 2012.“Identifying Productivity Blemishes in Pakistan Automotive Industry: A Case Study.”International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management.61(2),pp.173-193.

26 Ibid.


142

2.1. Foreign Direct Investment Foreign direct investment considered as a source which push-up the economic transformation of any country. It has further explained that there are advantages and disadvantages of FDI in any recipient country. In case of advantages, FDI has capacity to widen the opportunities for capital stock, and rising of employment scope. It also helps to enhance the technological development of recipient country, by introducing the host country’s own technological equipments and training to local officials. FDI also provides skills to labors, which not only benefits the subsidiary branch of mother firm in host country, but in long run, also facilitates the labor by increasing job opportunities for him/her. Additionally, FDI introduces new management techniques in host country, which increase the productivity of enterprises but also provide specific exemplary paradigm to local firms27. Apart from benefits, generated by multinationals and FDI in host country, there are further identified harms yielded bythem in local environment of host country. FDI put drastic impacts on the economic growth of host country, which become dependent of investments provided by mother country. In this context, the mother country flourish and keep the departments of policy making in its own hand, and in contrary, the host country remained to perform the duties of labor. The host countries also compromise their natural resources to multinationals, under the jurisdiction of several trade agreements, which brutally exploits by mother country, without consideration of environmental pollution or harm to local inhabitants. All these factors automatically lead to economic inequality between both segments of FDI28. With respect to foreign direct investment, it has been asserted that most of the times, Pakistan has been remained dependent of foreign inflows for the growth of its technological and financial development, and the extent of its economic problems have exacerbated during 1990s, which is still continued in the form of slow growth of economy. They also mentioned that the growth of cycle is not persistent in nature. Although, throughout the decades numerous opportunities came for economic growth, however, they remained unobserved due to different economic and political

27 Palamalai Srinivasan, M. Kalaivani & P. Ibrahim, 2011.“An Empirical Investigation of

Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in SAARC Nations.”Journal of Asia Business Studies.5(2),pp.232-248.

28 Ibid.


143

reasons29. In terms of Pakistan, they further concluded that FDI put impacts on different sectors of the country, such as, economic growth, human resources, and openness of trade, size of government and population, consumer price index30. If each factor is seen individually, than the impact of FDI seems very gloomy, however, the collective analysis shows the improvement. There are other factors too, which contribute to enhance the relationship between FDI and growth. One of them is the capability of host country, to extract out the maximum benefits from FDI. Because, they are mainly dependent on the labor power of host country, and by taking the advantage of this factor the host country may turn the situation in its own favor. Nevertheless, this aspect is also very tragic in context of Pakistan, and different scholars and researchers believed that it is mainly because of low investment on human capital, education, and training of main workforce of country. Due to all these discrepancies, the local enterprises are not capable to take maximum advantage from FDI, their trade patterns and from the reforms introduced by government in key financial institutions31. In 2001, the rate of foreign investment has remained very low. It only comprised less than average investment, which came in last five years of 1990s. During the years of 2002 and 2003, US $800 million poured in Pakistan, which was very big achievement unlike of 2001 and 2002, when only US $484 million investment entered in country. From the EU, the total investment was US $229 million, from which UK had the largest share of US $219.4 million32. This notion got also strengthen by the fact that Pakistan’s government has facilitated the FDI through its liberal policy, in which foreign companies have been provided the fully ownership of retail market. In spite of this facility and large consuming market, Pakistan was not much favored for retail investment33. Retail investments in Pakistan considered as latest improvement in country’s economic environment which started in second half of previous decade. In this context, Makro and Metro as best model of

29 Khalid Zaman, Iqtidar Ali Shah, Muhammad Mushtaq Khan, & Mehboob Ahmad, 2012.

“Macroeconomic Factors Determining FDI Impact on Pakistan’s Growth.” South Asian Journal of Global Business Research.1(1),pp.79-95.

30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 Op.cit. New Business Opportunities for EU Companies in Pakistan.p.30. 33 A. T. Kearney, Emerging Market Priorities for Global Retailers. AT Kearney 2005 Global

Retail Development Index, (Chicago, IL: AT Kearney, 2005) p.4.


144

retail investment of cash and carry, which entered in market during last months of 2006 and mid of 2007, respectively 34 . The establishment of both wholesalers occurred in the way that Makro signed a joint venture with House of Habib and SHV of the Netherlands, and entered in the Pakistan’s market by the name of Makro Habib Pakistan Ltd. On the other hands, Metro did not collaborate with local retail giants. Both retailers have provided the permit to establish their stores on the area of 8000 to 11,000 square meters, per outlet. Makro has set target of opening 30 stores all over the Pakistan, however, Metro decided to grab the market of Punjab province with 20 stores all over it35. Generally, it has been seen that government has welcomed the arrival of both retailers and provided them access to the market, but to the date, both only focused on large and developed cities of Pakistan. In spite of government’s support, both retailers faced the huge resistance from the local population, due to large land area allocated to them for opening of stores. Nevertheless, they were themselves reluctant to open their business at suburbs or outskirts of cities36. In the contrary, the 2010 World Bank has also reported the drastic economic situation of Pakistan, with regards to foreign direct investment. During the years of 2009 and 2010, the financial inflows of foreign investment and debt have suddenly reduced, mainly because of instability in macroeconomic structure of country, security issues, and overall global inflation. Similarly, the trends in capital inflowing also reached to lowest ebb. Earlier, during the years of 2008 and 2009, FDI has reduced to US$1.3 billion from US$2.8 billion, through the inverse trends in overall investment by foreign countries. However, with the help of IMF support, the State Bank of Pakistan managed to recover US $11 billion by March of year 201037. 2.2. Domestic Investment

About the local investment in Pakistan, there is a lack of chain stores, but, supermarkets are new type of local investment emerging in the country. These are independent stores, very much advanced and organized but do not contain their chains either within the city or other cities of province. These types of supermarkets generate $275

34 Asad Aman& Gillian Hopkinson, 2010.“The Changing Structure of Distribution Channels

in Pakistan.”International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 38(5),pp.341-359.

35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Op.cit. Pakistan: Country Partnership Strategy FY 2010-2013.p.5.


145

million of revenue and covers 10% of market. They further explained that traditional market of Pakistan which consists on small-independent general stores comprised 60% of food retail market and earn $500 million on annual basis38.

2.2.1. Government Investment

As researcher focused on the period from 1972 to till now, therefore, the discussion of investment has confined to under this time frame. Hence, it is evident that during 1970s, Pakistan’s economic policy has taken sudden U-turn and nationalization of institutions occurred. This policy also brought drastic impacts on investment scenario of Pakistan. In 1973, government shared 43% of investment from total national investment which reached to 63% in 1976. This trend has decline in 1980s and fell to 55% of total national investment. Under this context, government’s investment in total growth of economy also declined. During the period of 1980 to 1987, total growth investment was 6.25%, from which government shared only 2.86%39. During mid 1970s, government extensively invested on manufacturing enterprises likes “Indus Basin, Electricity and Gas, Agriculture” (p.522), about 33.44% which has remained average investment of 3% during four years of 1988 to 1992. In case of manufacturing industry, government invested more than 75% during 1970s, which declined by 13.01% in 1980s. In energy sector, government investment was 8.71% during 1970s, which increased to 14% from late 1980s to early 1990s40. However, during 1970s, there was least investment on GDP about 17%, while, 10.3% went to public investment and 5.6% of investment has poured on private sector of the country41. In contrast, private investment has much better progress, which has remained more stable as compare to public investment, which reached to 50% in 1992. Although, it’s progress was very gloomy in 1970s, around 2%, but increased to 10.94% by 199242.

38 Asif Farrukh, Pakistan Retail Food Sector Resport 2000 (Islamabad: USDA, 2000), p.2 39 Robert E. Looney, 1999. “Government Investment in Manufacturing: Stimulus or

Hindrance to Pakistan’s Private Sector?” International Journal of Social Economics.26(4), pp.521-436

40 Ibid. 41 Op.cit. “External Shocks in a Small Open Economy: A CGE – Microsimulation Analysis.”

p.53 42 Op.cit.“Government Investment in Manufacturing: Stimulus or Hindrance to Pakistan’s

Private Sector?”p.525


146

2.2.2. Private Investment

The investment trend during 1980s saw the restoration in the investment of private sector and open market. The GDP growth reached up to 6.5%, in which agriculture and manufacturing industries contributed to 5.45 and 8.2%, respectively. This phase also witnessed the higher fiscal deficit of 9% unlike to 7% during 1970s. It was mainly because of increase in import and reduction in export, which constituted 18.7% and 9.8%, respectively43. Both subsequent governments of 1990s favored open economy and promoted trade liberalization, deregulation and privatization. It led to overall national investment of 18.3% of GDP. Similarly, the investment trends of 2000s followed the tradition of 1980s, and contributed 18.6% of total investment in GDP growth44. 2.3. Causes of Lack in Investment

There are some of the causes of deficiency of investment in the way that those entities which never came across with bidding remained unsold. Bankruptcy was major reason of it. Therefore, it is responsibility of Privatization Commission that to recognize those companies which can be restructured once again. Similarly, government has also responsibility to expand the process of privatization not only in industrial but also in infrastructure and in field of services45. Pakistan-Britain Advisory Group gave its opinion on the investment environment of the Pakistan that though numerous well know international enterprises have invested in the country but new multinationals avoid to come here due to lowered-level of policy making in investment. The pattern of investment policy is adhered to political elites, like minister and cabinet, hence, it also becomes source of slow processes in investment process. The implementation of any policy is very slow in Pakistan; therefore, Advisory Group suggested that there should be creation of an Implementation Cell within the Presidency, which ensures the execution of every policy, especially related to investments46.

43 Op.cit. “External Shocks in a Small Open Economy: A CGE – Microsimulation Analysis.”

pp.53-54 44 Ibid. 45 Op.cit.“Government Investment in Manufacturing: Stimulus or Hindrance to Pakistan’s

Private Sector?”p.536 46 Op.cit. New Business Opportunities for EU Companies in Pakistan.pp.34-35


147

In the similar context, Shahid Javed Burki has opined his views that in order to enhance the investment environment of Pakistan, crucial steps are necessary to be taken. First, the transparent tax administration should widely apply to all economic sectors. Second, the accountability of economic system in Pakistan must be reformed and provided by certain autonomy and protection. Last but not least, the area of civil services needs innovation and reforms. These three areas may collectively boost the investment and economic environment of Pakistan47.

3. Trade-Investment Relationship

The countries’ economic life, trade and investment and healthy economic relations with other countries have deep cause and effect relationship. The trade policies have dire impact on domestic and foreign investment. The trade policies influence local and international investment and have huge role to design development schemes. It is a major factor to highlight country’s resources and market opportunities, which in return may cause large investment. Therefore, in today’s world, investment is directly proportional to trade48 . In term of liberalization free trade may hamper the investment in market and in order to generate enhanced system there is a need to wisely accommodate trade and investment with each other49. In context of trade and investment, the 2010 report of World Bank has mentioned three important aspects of Pakistan. It stated that Pakistan has strategic location and due to its huge population, it has wide tendency of being large market for trade and investment. Second, most of the population in country is young in age, which may help a lot to boost up the economic growth of country. Due to the fluctuation in economic growth and stagnation, there is wide imbalance in macroeconomic growth having low circulation of revenue and public savings50.

47 Shahid Javed Burki, September 2, 2012. Moving Out of the Slump.

http://tribune.com.pk/story/430200/moving-out-of-the-slump/ (accessed November 30, 2012)

48 Jonathan Gage & SébastienMiroudot, “Trade policy.” in Policy framework for investment: a review of good practices, ed. OECD (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2006), pp.53-88.

49 Brian Wilson, “A strategic overview of the debate and the key issues for the future”, in Trade, Investment and Environment, ed. Halina Ward & Duncan Brack (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2000), pp.3-36.

50 Op.cit. Pakistan: Country Partnership Strategy FY 2010-2013.” P.1.


148

For economic growth, it is necessary that both public and private sector performs parallel to each other. Government plays an influential role in policy’s design and decisions and should consider them as backbone for growth in industrial sector51. This notion on role of government in economic growth can be divided into two perspectives. According to first viewpoint Washington Consensus, the exhaustive role of public sector puts negative impact on private industries and manufacturing and reduces their growth. While, according to second perspective Development State View, the importance of private sector cannot be denied. But, in order to avoid any discrepancy, the role of government should remain high, as compare to private sector. Therefore, it is also necessary that government should control economic growth to some extent and also play efficient part to keep eye on private sector52. In similar context, the factor of globalization played an effective role on increased investment around the world. The companies separate some of the activities in their “value chain” and transfer them to other parts of the world as an investment. These activities include manufacturing of end product, research & development, IT, “marketing, human resources, procurement, accounting and finance, and legal support” (p. 50)53. With respect to globalization, the rise of overseas investment has occurred by today’s efficient communication and transference facilities. This phenomenon somehow comes under the boundary of famous IPLC theory which commonly known as International Product Life Cycle theory of trade and investment54. Latest products are first utilized by wealthy countries and then they directed to non-wealthy countries. However, developing countries play major role in final production of those goods (through the phenomenon of investment) and this process is further fastened by enhanced communication around globe55.

51 Zutchi R. K.& P. T. Gibbons, 1998.“The Internationalization Process of Singapore

Government-Linked Companies: A Contextual View.”Asia Pacific Journal of Management.15(2),pp.457-510.

52 Renuka Mahadevan, New currents in productivity analysis: where to now? (Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization, 2002), passim.

53 Zahir A. Quraeshi & Mushtaq Luqmani, 2011.“A Framework for Building Competitive Sectoral Capabilities in Developing Countries.”Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal incorporating Journal of Global Competitiveness. 21(1), pp.47-65.

54 Thomas L. Friedman The world is flat: a brief history of twenty-first century. (New York: Thorndike Press, 2005), passim.

55 Op.cit. “A Framework for Building Competitive Sectoral Capabilities in Developing Countries.” p.50.


149

In the light of above discussion, it has proved that trade and investment are most important factions of economic growth and development. According to scholars, Pakistan’s survival is not based on threat from India or USA; rather it is the economic environment which might put drastic impact on country’s survival56. 4. Conclusion

By reviewing the most of the relevant details regarding trade and investment environment of Pakistan, the researcher concluded that there is a need of rigorous policy making regarding both sectors. In Pakistan, it has been seen that economic development is widely dependent on political trends, throughout the previous decades. This phenomenon became major source of slow and hampered economic growth and did not let the trade and invest sectors to flourish in the way, as they were supposed to. In this context, first, there is need to separate the political and economic trends from each other. Second, government should design the certain and specific policy structure of trade and investment growth on the decade span, so that both sectors could acquire the maximum time and space to flourish. Third, there is severe need to invest on education and technological development of country, to generate the skillful human capital. This strategy would also hamper the process of brain drain and save the capable human resource for country’s own development in trade and investment sector. Fourth, in spite of providing access to multinationals in investment and trade liberalization for import, government also need to develop the market for local investors. It will automatically lead to the generation of entrepreneurship and through these strategy harms of multinationals could also be minimize by generating the competition from local firms. According to the researcher, in contemporary scenario there is severe need to put attention on the sectors of trade and investment in Pakistan. The reason is factor of Pakistan’s population cannot be avoided. As more than 50% of population is youth, therefore, government is supposed to generate employment for them and also provide them access to fine education and skill full training. The security issues are also on stakes and there is a wide need to ensure the secure environment for foreign investors. The researcher considers these two factors as very significant both for improvement of trade and investment environment in country. As the population

56 S Akbar Zaidi, May 21, 2012. The Worst Ever? http://dawn.com/2012/05/21/the-worst-

ever/ (accessed November 30, 2012).


150

would be skilled and educated along with enough security measure and proper law and order situation, the foreign investors will automatically enter in country, and prospects for import and export will also brighten.


151

Bibliography

Ahmed, Vaqar & CathalO’ Donoghue, 2010. “External Shocks in a Small Open Economy: A CGE – Microsimulation Analysis.” The Lahore

Journal of Economics, 15(1),pp.45-90 Aman, Asad& Gillian Hopkinson, 2010.“The Changing Structure of Distribution Channels in Pakistan.”International Journal of Retail &

Distribution Management, 38(5), pp.341-359. Burki, Shahid Javed. September 2, 2012. Moving Out of the

Slump.http://tribune.com.pk/story/430200/moving-out-of-the-slump/ (accessed November 30, 2012). Chaudhry, M. Ghaffar, 1995. “Economic Liberalization of Pakistan’s Economy: Trends and Repercussions.” Contemporary South Asia.4(2), pp.187-192. Farrukh, Asif. Pakistan Retail Food Sector Resport 2000. (Islamabad: USDA, 2000). Friedman, Thomas L. The world is flat: a brief history of twenty-first

century. (New York: Thorndike Press, 2005). Gage, Jonathan & Sébastien Miroudot, “Trade policy.” in Policy

framework for investment: a review of good practices, ed. OECD (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2006). Hussain, Ishrat. Pakistan’s Economic Turnaround – An Untold Story. http://www.bis.org/review/r050412g.pdf (accessed 30 November, 2012). Kardar, Shahid. July 26, 2012. Customs Duties’ Structure. http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-9-122878-Customs-duties-structure (accessed November 30, 2012). K., Zutchi R. & P. T. Gibbons, 1998. “The Internationalization Process of Singapore Government-Linked Companies: A Contextual View. Asia Pacific Journal of Management.15(2),pp.457-510. Khan, Abdul Hamid, Mohibullah Khan & Muhammad Tahir Khan, 2012.“The impact of trade liberalization on economic growth in Pakistan.”Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in

Business.3(9), pp.700-711.


152

Looney, Robert E., 1999 “Government Investment in Manufacturing: Stimulus or Hindrance to Pakistan’s Private Sector?” International

Journal of Social Economics.26(4), pp.521-436. Love, Jim. & Ramesh Chandra, 2005 “Testing Export-Led Growth in South Asia.”Journal of Economic Studies.32(2), pp.132-145. Mahadevan, Renuka. New Currents in Productivity Analysis: Where to

Now? (Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization, 2002). Philippe, Guitard, Shahid Ahmed Khan & DerkBienen, New Business

Opportunities for EU Companies in Pakistan, (Luxembourg: European Commission Asia-Invest Programme, EuropAid Co-operation Office, 2005). Pursell, G., “Trade Policies in South Asia,” in Routledge Handbook of

South Asian Economics, ed. RaghbendraJha (New York: Routledge, 2011). Quraeshi, Zahir A. &Mushtaq Luqmani, 2011.“A Framework for Building Competitive Sectoral Capabilities in Developing Countries.”Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal

incorporating Journal of Global Competitiveness. 21(1), pp.47-65. Sarwar, Sheikh Zahoor, et al.,2012. “Identifying Productivity Blemishes in Pakistan Automotive Industry: A Case Study.” International Journal of Productivity and Performance

Management.61(2),pp.173-193. Shaikh, Faiz M, 2009 “Analysis of Bilateral Trade Liberalization and South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) on Pakistan’s Economy by Using CGE Model.” Journal of International Trade Law and

Policy.8(3),pp.320-335. Srinivasan, Palamalai, M. Kalaivani & P. Ibrahim, 2011.“An Empirical Investigation of Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in SAARC Nations.”Journal of Asia Business Studies.5(2), pp.232-248. The Nation, “Pakistan Attaches Great Importance to its Relations with UK: President,” http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/islamabad/10-Oct-2012/pakistan-attaches-great-importance-to-its-relations-with-uk-president (accessed November, 2012).


153

The World Bank, Pakistan: Country Partnership Strategy FY 2010-

2013 (Pakistan: The World Bank, 2010). Tsang, W. Y. & K. F. Au, 2008.“Textile and clothing exports of selected South and Southeast Asian Countries: a challenge to NAFTA trading.” Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management.12(4),pp.565-578. Wilson, Brian, “A strategic overview of the debate and the key issues for the future”, in Trade, Investment and Environment, ed. Halina Ward & Duncan Brack (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2000). Zaidi, S. Akbar. May 21, 2012. The Worst Ever? http://dawn.com/2012/05/21/the-worst-ever/ (accessed November 30, 2012). Zaman, Khalid, Iqtidar Ali Shah, Muhammad Mushtaq Khan, & Mehboob Ahmad, 2012.“Macroeconomic Factors Determining FDI Impact on Pakistan’s Growth.” South Asian Journal of Global Business

Research.1(1), pp.79-95.

Advertize your product@

The International Journal of History and Social ScienceBi-annual publication of the Department of General History

Advertisement Policy

!

!

We accept advertisement inblack & white.

We accept academia relatedproducts, programs andevents. For example,stationeries, banks,computers, governmentprograms, call for papers,institutions, admissions,etc.

For further queries Pleasecontact:Naveed-ru-RehmanBusiness Consultant @ jhss

Journal of History and Social

Science

Dr. Nasreen Afzal

Editor-in-Chief

Department of History


Karachi, 75270

phone: 021-99261300/ 2272

Email

Website: www.jhssuok.com

: [email protected]

J H S S p r o v i d e s a nexcellent opportunity tointroduce your products,institutions, programs andevents through the officialweb site of Pakistan’sl a r g e s t u n i v e r s i t y ,University of Karachi toour large readership atnational and internationallevel. We hold credibilityand quality in basic andapplied social scienceresearch.

The International Journal of History and

Social Science aims to provide an

intellectual forum for academia, business

organizations, policy and management

practitioners and concerned civil societies.

Its hard print and electronic version reach

out to national, regional and international

academic institutions, corporations,

governments, business associations and

libraries. our website is connected with

national and international audience.

JHSS focuses issues of economy, politics

and society with special emphasis on

growth, development and public issues.

Journal of History and Social Sciences

University of Karachi.

ISSN 2221-6804

jhssThe International

2012July - December

EISSN 2305-0187

VOLUME 3 No. 2

Patron:

Bi-annual publication of the Department of General History

PRINTED AT: BCC&T PRESS UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI

Documents

ISSN 2221-6804 EISSN 2305-0187 - jhssuok.com. 3 No. 2/Volume 3 No. 2.pdf · Dean of Subcontinent and South Asian ... Cameroon juts into the Gulf of Guinea. ... rebellion broke out