ISSN 2042-9738 Smart charging of electric vehicles ... Charging EST-2013-0025.pdf · wireless charging based on electromagnetic coupling may be considered as a potential charging

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Published in IET Electrical Systems in TransportationReceived on 2nd May 2013Revised on 9th March 2014Accepted on 14th April 2014doi: 10.1049/iet-est.2013.0025

T Electr. Syst. Transp., pp. 1–8oi: 10.1049/iet-est.2013.0025

ISSN 2042-9738

Smart charging of electric vehicles – integrationof energy and informationChing Chuen Chan1,2, Linni Jian3, Dan Tu2,4

1Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Room 601, Chow Yei Ching Building,

Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong2Institute for Advanced Sustainability Study, Berliner Strasse 130, Potsdam 14467, Germany3Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, South University of Science and Technology of China,

Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China4Technical University of Berlin, Berlin 10243, Germany

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The study deals with the characteristics of smart charging of electric vehicles. The study begins with the introduction ofthe engineering philosophy of electric vehicle system. Then the identification of key players in electric vehicles system and theirdifferent demands, namely perspectives from automakers, electricity providers, vehicle owners and charging service providers.The key is the integration of information flow and energy flow to stimulate synergy and achieving win–win ecosystem. Theinformation should be able to provide integration and intelligence layer between grid and vehicles; to create smart chargingschedules based on vehicle data, grid data and driver’s desire; and to develop dynamic charging schedule based on updateddemand side or grid side inputs. In summary, sustainable electro-mobility requires sustainable power system andelectrification of transportation with the aid of intelligent information system.

1 Introduction

The success of commercialisation of electric vehicles dependson the satisfactory tackling of four factors: initial cost,convenience of use, energy consumption and exhaustemission, in which, only the latter two are fulfilled andsatisfied so far. Therefore we need to pay further effortstoward the following three fundamental enablers or threegoodness factors:

1. availability of good performance products at affordablecost;2. availability of good infrastructures that is efficient andfriendly to use;3. availability of good business model to leverage the cost ofbatteries.

We need compromise to make this happen, which means,we need the hand shake among key players in theautomobile industry and the electric power industry, as wellas the alliance with all the stakeholders to be involved.Electric vehicle industry can be a disruptive industry, sincethe function, production and commercial chain of electricvehicles are not at all the same as conventional vehicles. Interms of function, electric vehicle is not only just atransportation means, but also an electric device withenergy storage capability. Thus the integration, orcollaboration, of electric vehicles and smart gird, of electricvehicles and information and communication technologies,

is quite essential. Such integration and collaboration shouldaim at gradually achieving the common goal of four zeros:zero emission, zero gasoline, zero traffic accident and zerotraffic jam. This is going to be a long and sophisticatedmarch, and the smart charging could be the very next stepclose to the current stage.

2 Engineering philosophy of electric vehiclesystem

The engineering philosophy of electric vehicle essentially isthe marriage of automotive engineering and electricalengineering which includes motor, power electronicconverter, digital controller, battery or other energy storagedevices and energy management system [1]. Marriageimplies that the bride and the groom have fully understoodthe characters of the partner and are able to cope togetherharmoniously, so as to best perform for achieving therequired driveability at maximum energy efficiency andminimum exhaust emission [2].The engineering philosophy of electric vehicle commercial

system is even a broader concept, which includes theintegration, collaboration and optimisation of automakers,electricity providers, vehicle owners and charging serviceproviders, to achieve win–win ecosystem, and graduallyevolve into zero emissions society.The core of engineering philosophy is system integration

and optimisation. The principles of integrated system designcan be summarised into the following six points:

1& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2014

Table 1 Fast charging, rapid charging and quick charging

Charging type Charging power rating, kW

Heavyduty

SUV/sedan

Smallsedan

fast charing, 10 min, 100% Soc 500 250 125rapid charing, 15 min, 60% Soc 250 125 60quick charging, 60 min, 70% Soc 75 35 20

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1. Debate, define, revise and pursue the purpose/objective:The system exists to deliver capability, the end justifies themeans. The statement of a requirement must define how itis to be tested. Requirements reflect the constraints oftechnology and budgets.2. Think holistic: The whole is more than the sum of the parts –and each part is more than a fraction of the whole.3. Be creative: See the wood before the trees.4. Follow a disciplined procedure: Divide and conquer,combine and rule.5. Take account of the people: To err is human; ergonomics;ethics and trust.6. Manage the project and the relationships: All for one, onefor all.

3 Smart charging

The traditional method to charge the plug-in electric vehicles(PEVs), which include plug-in hybrid electric vehicles andbattery electric vehicles, are either fast charging or slowcharging [3]. The key difference between them lies in thecharging power rating, thus the charging time. Generally,slow charging takes about 6–8 h to bring the battery to afull charge with a charging power of around 3 kW.Therefore slow charging is typically associated with theovernight charging. Comparatively, fast charging is muchquicker and with much more complex definition. In a word,any scheme other than slow charging can be considered asfast charging. Sometimes, it can be further specified as fastcharging, rapid charging and quick charging as shown inTable 1.Both slow charging and fast charging operate regardless of

the status of the utility grid. With the increase of penetrationof PEVs, these new electric loads will definitely triggerextreme surges in demand at rush hours, and therefore,threaten the stability and security of the power grid.Consequently, smart charging that carries information into

Fig. 1 Overall power load curves of regional grid with different charg

a Traditional chargingb Smart charging


power is considered as a promising solution to thischallenge. In smart charging, both the real-time status ofpower grid and the demand of the PEV owners are takeninto consideration, so that the charging power is adjusted online under the smart charging strategies so as to avoid theconventional peak loads. Fig. 1 illustrates the overall powerload curves of a regional gird within 1-day period. It can beobserved that smart charging is able to flatten the powerload curve [4]. This can help improve the stability andefficiency of the power grid, as well as reduce the overalloperating cost of the grid [5–7].Another remarkable benefit that is expected can be

offered by smart charging is to charge the EV batteries byusing electric power generated from renewable energysources, such as wind power, solar power and soforth. Depending on climate conditions, renewable energysources are significantly different from the traditionaldispatchable power sources. How to integrate suchintermittent electricity into conventional power gridsbecome a hot issue [8]. In the scheme of smart grid andsmart charging, EV batteries could help seamlessly matchthe availability of renewable energy with power loadconsumption [9, 10].Fig. 2 depicts the principal scheme of smart charging

within the smart grids [11–14]. The informationcommunication among PEV, electric vehicle supplyequipment (EVSE), regional power grid and the controlcentre is the key to effectively execute smart charging.Although smart charging do not support feeding the electricenergy deposited in EV batteries back to power grid, whichis an essential feature of the vehicle-to-grid (V2G)technology [15–25], it will definitely be a solid step towardV2G.

4 Stakeholders

The success of commercialisation of PEVs needs thecooperation, collaboration and coordination among severalkey players/stakeholders, namely automakers, electricityproviders, vehicle owners and charging service providers.Different stakeholders resort to different demands [26].From the vehicle-owners’ perspective firstly, they want a

safe charging system to ensure the safety of both personand property; secondly, they want convenient and friendlycharging facilities, which means EVSE or charging postsare available at the parking spaces and are easy to use;thirdly, they want affordable charging cost with differentpayment options, such as paying by cash, debit card, credit

ing strategies

IET Electr. Syst. Transp., pp. 1–8doi: 10.1049/iet-est.2013.0025

Fig. 2 Principal scheme of smart charging

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card or even by mobile phone; and finally, they want tocharge their PEVs with electric power generated fromrenewable energy where it is applicable.From the electricity providers’ perspective firstly, they

want to sell electricity to charging service providers atoff-peak hours, so that they can benefit from the flattenedoverall power load curves; secondly, they want to avoid

Fig. 3 Existing connector standards for EV charging


grid problems or faults that may arise from EV charging,such as extreme surges in electricity consumption, changesin power flows, grid losses and voltage profile patterns [27]and so forth; and finally, they also want to integrate asmuch renewable energy as possible.From the automakers’ perspective firstly, they want

convenient and friendly charging facilities; secondly, they


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want the charging cost to be affordable; thirdly, they want theEVSE or the charging posts to support different connectorstandards; and finally, they want to maintain a long-termrelationship with their customers. The former two items arein agreement with those of the vehicle owners. With nodoubt, fulfilling customer’s demands could enhance thecompetitiveness of their products. Fig. 3 shows the existingconnector standards for EV charging in different regions allover the world. What is more, the non-contact charging orwireless charging based on electromagnetic coupling maybe considered as a potential charging option in the future[28–31]. It is not difficult to understand that automakersexpect that their products are conveniently rechargeableanytime anywhere.From the charging service providers’ perspective firstly,
they want to maximise the use of their charging facilities;secondly, they want to charge at a price that can get profit;and finally, they want a long-life equipment at lowoperating cost.It is worth noting that some power companies and charging

service providers are promoting the battery swapping scheme[31–33]. The battery swapping scheme is a kind of electricvehicle infrastructure and business model which is believedto be able to offer the following major advantages:

1. Dramatically reducing the initial cost of electric vehicles,since the battery pack is excluded from the vehicle andowned by power companies or charging service providers.The vehicle owners only pay the cost of energy and servicewhenever using them.2. Possible quick refueling since the battery swapping can becompleted within few minutes. The latest report shows thatthe battery swapping is able to get electric vehicles back onroad in less than 1 min, even quicker than that takes to filloil tanks of traditional fuel vehicles [34]. Of course, this isin optimum situation which depending on the swappingfacility. Normally it will take few minutes.3. Possible optimisation of power grid and renewable energy:Power companies can decide the best time slots to charge thebattery which can help enhance the efficiency and stability ofthe power system, particularly with the integration ofrenewable energy.

Fig. 4 Scalable financial settlement system for smart charging


4. Possible increase the lifetime of battery, since the batterycan be charged and discharged at better schedule.5. Possible fully utilisation of the battery packs over theirwhole life cycle, since the old battery packs can be furtherused for energy storage on other occasions, such as at thepower plants.

Nevertheless, the automakers may have reservation onbattery swapping scheme. They tend to advocate that thebattery pack is an integrated part of the whole vehiclesystem, and cannot be separated from the electric vehicles.Otherwise, it may inevitably cause serious impacts on theoverall design considerations, such as the vehicle coolingsystem, the whole vehicle control strategy, the vehicle bodystructure and strength etc. In addition to these technicalconcerns, automakers may also worry on legal aspect of theliability of battery pack and the possible loss of corebusinesses. Therefore the automakers, the power companiesand the charging service providers should try to reachcompromise at a win–win featured battery swappingscheme, particularly for those application that need fastrefueling, such as taxi, or where charging stations areinfeasible.Battery leasing scheme is also another kind of

infrastructure and business model. It has distinct advantageof reducing the initial selling cost of electric vehicles, sincethe battery is owned by the service provider. It also has theadvantage of possible optimising the charging schedule thatis good for the grid and prolongs the cycle life of batteries.However, it still needs the compromise between theautomaker and service provider, since the automaker wouldhave similar concerns as in the case in battery swappingscheme.Anyway, the basic principles of the integration of

information and energy would be applicable to all kinds ofinfrastructures and business models.Fig. 4 illustrates a scalable financial settlement system for

supporting smart charging. Charging service providers canbuy electricity from the power retailers or directly from thepower grid company. Moreover, they should pay rent to thereal estate owners for accommodating their chargingfacilities. Of course, vehicle owners pay the charging fee tothe charging service providers. Generally, government


Fig. 6 Integration of energy flow and information flow in smartcharging

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would impose tax on electricity providers, real estate ownerand charging service providers. In the early stage,government may also provide subsidies to electricityproviders, charging service providers and vehicle owners soas to promote the popularisation of the usage of batteryelectric vehicles and plug in hybrid electric vehicles.The time-based variable price or smart price [35–37] of
electric energy will be a major incentive to push all the keyplayers to move forward toward maximising the overallenergy efficiency and minimising the green house gasesemission.It is regrettably to note that currently detailed knowledge of

PEVs connectivity conditions within the stakeholder groupwas limited and gaps remained in the knowledge base.These gaps were attributed to the combined effects of earlymarket development, where stakeholders are still on alearning curve [38]. Therefore we should accelerate theknowledge base for mutual understanding amongstakeholders and hence to achieve consensus.

5 Integration of energy flow and informationflow

The integration of energy and information is crucial. Theessential feature of the emerging smart grid lies in theintegration of energy flow and information flow asillustrated in Fig. 5. Smart grid allows the bi-directionalenergy flow, and this is a key enabler for distributedrenewable energy utilisation, smart charging or even V2Gtechnology.Similarly, the key issue of EV smart charging is also the

integration of energy flow and information flow. As shownin Fig. 6, the energy flow and information flow amongrenewable energy generation, smart grid, advanced meteringinfrastructure, smart home, distributed network, micro-grid

Fig. 5 Integration of energy flow and information flow in smart grid


and electric vehicles should be harmoniously correlated[39]. By such integration, some goals are expected to beachieved, such as 10% penetration of PEVs by 2020, 40%utilisation of renewable energy for EV charging and so on.As illustrated in Fig. 7, planning the optimal charging

schedule can be a sophisticated task. The status of powergrid, the parameters of onboard EV batteries, the trafficconditions, the weather conditions and the EV owners’demands or personal behaviours are all should be taken intoaccount. This will definitely consume a huge computingresource, and the cloud computing technology [40–43] mayneed to be engaged for generating the optimal chargingreferences for the EVSEs.

6 Challenges

The key point of smart charging is to what extent theinformation flow can be effectively integrated into theenergy flow. The theoretical challenge is to thoroughlyfigure out: (i) what kinds of information have impacts onthe energy exchange between power grid and PEVs;(ii) how these information affect the overall energy


Fig. 7 Various information related to conducting smart charging

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efficiency and exhaust emission; (iii) how to acquire, transmitand process these information; (iv) how to effectively andcorrectly use these information to turn the complicated,disordered and chaotic process into somewhat ordered andeffective process, so that the maximum benefits toward awin–win ecosystem can be achieved.As shown in Fig. 8, the problem could be considered from

three levels. The top level question is what the basic businessmodel should be. Battery onboard charging, battery swappingor battery leasing? Who invests? Who benefits? This is aquestion that involves many issues, such as the people’slifestyles; the geographical environment; urbanisation; dailytravel distance; EVSE location at home, public and workplace; parking condition in housing and buildings; thecondition of the existing power grid; the governmentpolicy; and so on. The middle level question is how tomodel and formulate the problem. What are the control

Fig. 8 Three-layer consideration for smart charging of PEVs


objects? What are the key variables? What are theconstraints? How to solve the real-time charginginstructions? The bottom level question is how to realise thedesigned business model and optimal charging strategy.This includes how to layout the charging posts or chargingstations, how to build up the sensor network and how toconfigure the computing resources.Solar and wind powers are new kinds of generation in

power systems, whereas electric vehicles and plug-in hybridelectric vehicles are new kinds of loads in power systems. Itis a large complex system, low physical transparency,lack of general, comparable and transferable approaches.It is difficult to reveal the internal mechanism of interaction.It is not easy to decouple and build a simplified analyticalmodel. The authors propose to build a comprehensiveanalytical model, based on power system total supply anddemand, where each adjustment measures are required to


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maintain a balance of demand and supply with reasonablecriteria for backup. Schedules for load shifting andfrequency regulation that interact with new energy supplieswill be derived. Their interaction mechanisms and laws willbe explored, thus overall coordination and globaloptimisation. These will be the substance of authors’coming papers.There is further fundamental issue behind all this: whether
there is any physically inherent correlation betweeninformation and energy? Information, in its most restrictedtechnical sense, is a sequence of symbols that can beinterpreted as a message. In physics, information also has awell-defined meaning. Bekenstein [44] claims that agrowing trend in physics was to define the physical worldas being made of information itself. Information was linkedwith energy for the first time by Maxwell’s demon thoughtexperiment in 1867 [45], which implied that informationcould be thought of as interchangeable with energy. In2010, Maxwell’s demon was experimentally verified byseveral Japanese scholars. It demonstrates that theinformation on the motion of a nanoscale polystyrene beadin a bath of buffer solution can indeed be converted to itspotential energy [46]. We should take this into accountwhen we formulate the model of the correlation betweeninformation and energy. The correlation betweeninformation and energy may be expressed by (1), where∑

I are various information,∑

E are various energy

∑I ⇔

∑E (1)

The practical challenges in electrical vehicle smart chargingincludes: (i) interoperability among all the key players.Sometimes mutual compromises among the stakeholdershave to be made to put the programme forward together.(ii) Standardisation of the connectors, sockets andcommunication protocols. The organising and guidance bygovernments and professional institutes are desired toachieve widely accepted standards. (iii) Users’ experience,is it friendly or conveniently to use? The customer’sappeals and suggestions should be investigated.(iv) Affordability of both the electrical energy cost and theservice cost. The profit pattern and the governmentalsubsidies should be addressed.

7 Conclusion

In this century, a major sustainable transportation meanssustainable electricity plus electrification of transportation.This paper has addressed the big picture of electro-mobility.To salute the new era of electro-mobility, what we need isnot only to have good product, but also to have goodinfrastructure and good business model. In this connection,the key stakeholders, namely automakers, electricityproviders, vehicle owners and charging service providershave been identified, and their different demands has beenanalysed. The key enabler is the integration of informationflow and energy flow. By this integration, the differentdemands from different stakeholders can be harmonised,and a dynamic smart charging schedule can be generatedbased on vehicle data, grid data and drivers’ desire. Thechallenges ahead were also discussed. The challenge infundamental theory is to further explore the correlationbetween information and energy. The challenge in practicalimplementation is mainly the interoperability facilities and


related standardisation. The overall goal is to achieve win–win ecosystem.

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ISSN 2042-9738 Smart charging of electric vehicles ... Charging EST-2013-0025.pdf · wireless charging based on electromagnetic coupling may be considered as a potential charging