Islam NotesJoseph & Azim

Geography and Trade ● The Middle East is at the junction between Africa, Asia, and Europe, and in

between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean● This central location made it a major crossroads for international trade● Luxury goods such as fine cloth, spices, rugs, art, etc. were the most

commonly traded items● During the formative period of Islamic culture the Middle East was an

advanced urban and mercantile world● The region was composed of many peoples, primarily falling into the

category of pastoral nomadic tribes (shepherds)

Map

http://boylehist9.phoenix.wikispaces.net/file/view/Ummayad_Empire/167468263/Ummayad_Empire

Law and Economics● Although luxury trade crossed the Middle East, the region itself was sparse

and composed of regional economic hubs and not part of a globally integrated market

● Each region usually produced its own food, cloth and tools● Village peasants, people who lived in city-dwellings, and nomads traded in

major towns and cities, which were regional economic hubs● The absence of government meant that tribal law was usually the accepted

code of conduct. It was primitive, unclear, could change regionally, and often caused tribal wars and minor conflicts

● Infrastructure was built by international traders and regional merchants to facilitate trade: cities existed for this reason

● Merchants could become very rich in the Middle East if they were skilled and well-connected, in cities they often became the ruling class

Regional Economy: Damascus● An example of a regional economic hub is the city of Damascus in Syria● Over 100 villages were close to Damascus● The villagers traded food and raw materials used for craft industries● Pastoral nomads traded wool and dairy products● Townspeople traded manufactured goods and food● Merchants based in Damascus often acted as middlemen, facilitating and

making great sums of money off of these transactions● Merchants organized the long-distance international trade of luxury goods● This situation of interrelationship between peasants, townspeople,

nomads, and merchants existed around major towns or cities across the Middle East

Muhammad and Islam: Mecca● Muhammad was a young trader, raised largely by his uncle Abu Talib who

was the leader of a powerful clan in the Quraysh who were a powerful nomadic tribe of Mecca

● When east-west trade routes changed, the tribal merchants of Mecca became very rich and a wealthy mercantile establishment became the ruling class of Mecca

● East-west trade routes crossed straight through Mecca, it was also a regional place of worship with people conducting polytheistic and animistic pilgrimages to worship idols in Mecca

● Because of trade and pilgrimage, the people of Mecca and its region were aware of varied schools of thought from events in Byzantium, Persia, and Abyssinia, civilizations that were better developed than the Arabian Peninsula at the time

Muhammad and Islam: Idol Worship● Most of the people in Arabia believed in animist and polytheistic theologies,

which is to say that objects are demi-gods with souls● People making pilgrimage to Mecca worshipped idols, statues meant to

represent gods which were revered as gods themselves● Often people who were very poor would make this pilgrimage to ask the

gods for help● Pilgrims left money and goods at the foot of the idols as tribute, then the

ruling merchants who owned the place where the idols were located took the tributes, claiming the gods themselves took them

● The use of idols in Arabia was a primitive ‘scam’, Muhammad viewed the merchants who engaged in this conduct with great contempt

Muhammad and Islam: Revelations● When he was around 40 Muhammad began to spend time meditating● Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad travelled to in a cave called Hira in Mount Jabal al-Nour,

now called Mount Hira, to meditate in solitude.● Muhammad was concerned with social unrest, injustice, discrimination against women and

minorities, tribal infighting, and the abuse of power prevalent in Arabian society● The moral degeneration of the once simple Arab peoples was fueled by the vast amounts of

wealth and power produced by trading and the extreme avarice that came with it● It is said that at this time Muhammad began to have prophetic dreams and visions which were

later fulfilled, marking the beginning of Muhammad's divine revelations

Muhammad and Islam: Conquest ● Muhammad was said to have had his first revelation in Hira during a period of meditation in 610● During this revelation the Archangel Gabriel was said to have spoken directly with Muhammed● In Islamic tradition it is said that the Archangel Gabriel, holding a slightly crushed pink birthday

cake, turned to Muhammad and said: “You’re a prophet Muhammad!”... (joke)● Basically, Muhammad received the knowledge that he was the final messenger of God and that

God had created a code of conduct for the people of Arabia and the world who were in need of moral and spiritual guidance

● Gabriel relayed this code to Muhammad during a series of divine revelations● Muhammad was at first opposed by powerful merchants and nomadic chiefs who disliked some

of Islam’s tenets and wished to retain their power through the use of idol worship● Eventually Islam, being popular amongst the common peoples, began to gain a following and by

the time Muhammad passed away most of the Arabian peninsula had non-violently converted to Islam

5 Pillars of IslamThe five pillars of Islam are: ● Shahadah: declaring there is no god except the one

true God, and Muhammad is God's messenger● Salat: daily ritual prayer (usually 5 times)● Zakat: giving a percentage of one’s savings to the poor

and needy as alms (usually 2.5%)● Sawm: fasting and self-control during the period

(month) of Ramadan● Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca to be done at least once in a

lifetime if one is able

Diversity and Dissention● After Muhammad died, there was no clear successor who could match his

influence and religious authority● Islam was spreading and becoming the faith of a diversity of peoples and

cultures● There were multiple emerging interpretations of the Quran, leading to

disagreements● This led to the split between Sunni and Shi’i Islam, the division started due

to a political quarrel over Muhammad's proposed spiritual successor● The Sunni majority believed that his successor should be decided by

election● The Shi’i believed that Muhammad's leadership should be passed on to

his family, with Ali, the prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, being the first successor

Diversity and Dissention: continued● The Sunni majority believed that the individuals and societies should

conduct themselves according to both the Qur’an and the sunna, which was the word for how Muhammad conducted himself

● They believed that guidelines for Muslim life should be based on study of the Qur’an and the sunna, and this should be the basis for Islamic law

● The Shi’is also believed that Islamic law should be based on the Qur’an and the sunna, but they disagreed over what Muhammad’s conduct actually was

● The Shi’is believed that Ali and his successors, whom they called imams would have better insight into the interpretation of Islamic law

Diversity and Dissention: continued● Islamic law began to develop in the early Middle Ages. It provided legally

binding rules for social conduct, marriage, divorce, inheritance, economics and criminal penalties.

● Instead of applying religious law to criminal cases, it was more common to use state courts, that generally applied local customs. This was an example of common law

● Religious law was used as a code regarding civil matters, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, property etc. This was civil law.

● In most Muslim countries, religious law is the basis for civil law, but some countries use it for criminal law as well.

Islamic Philosophy● As the Islamic faith began to expand and evolve, Islamic philosophers

began to emerge in Islamic society● Islamic philosophers sought to examine and interpret the world while

considering the teachings of the Quran, demonstrating their faith through philosophy

● Islamic philosophy absorbed and altered the philosophic works of previous civilizations, such as the Greeks, rather than dismissing it

● The defensive mood of the Islamic world following the crusades caused patronage of philosophers to diminish, and religious scholars began to focus solely on teachings contained in only traditional Islamic texts

● By the time of the Mongol conquests in the 13th century, most religious scholars had all but abandoned the idea of Islamic philosophy

Islamic Conquests● By the time of Muhammad’s death Islam was widely practiced in the

Arabian Peninsula● Under the Caliphs, Muhammad's politico-spiritual successors, the reach of

Islam expanded greatly● Arabian tribes, forbidden from conquering one another by the tenets of

Islam, turned their war efforts outward towards the weakened Persian and Byzantine Empires

● Within 20 years of Muhammad's death Islam was prevalent in Egypt, the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia), and the Iranian Plateau, it subsequently began to spread westward to North Africa and Spain and eastward to Central Asia and India

Umayyad Caliphate● Umayyads were a ruling dynasty established in 661 CE and ruled until 750

CE. They were originally an aristocratic Meccan family● When Mecca converted to Islam, the Umayyads jumped on that

bandwagon and started leading Islamic invasions● They made Damascus their capital. They put Muslim Arabs in charge as

governors of provinces. ● They took over areas formerly ruled by Byzantines and Persians, then

made the existing administrative institutions conduct everything in Arabic.● Muslim Arabs were a powerful ruling class in these conquered areas, and

the common, polytheistic people of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Persia gradually began to convert to Islam.

● Umayyads developed political institutions throughout the Arab kingdom, but they enemies of many Arab tribes, the Shi’ites and the powerful Abbasid family. These enemies united under Abbasids to overthrow Umayyads in 750 CE.

Abbasid Caliphate● The rule of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 CE) was the Islamic Empire’s

peak.● Abbasids embraced non-Arab Muslims, and spent a lot of money on

developing bureaucracy, the military, the arts, and luxuries.● There was considerable Persian Empire influence on their style of

governance.● Initially, the Islamic Empire under the Abbasids extended from North Africa

to Central Asia. Around 850 CE, Abbasid authority began to decline, with the province governors becoming more autonomous.

● Communications started to break down between provinces and Abbasids.● Eventually, they could only really exert their power over Baghdad, their

centre, and the surrounding area.

Abbasid Caliphate (continued)● The Islamic Empire became a rather loose commonwealth of fairly

autonomous local dynasties, states and principalities, although most of them at least recognized the Abbasids as their leaders.

● The Fatimids of Egypt (969-1171 CE), established a Shi’i caliphate in direct opposition to the Abbasids. They were quite successful in strengthening their rule in Egypt, and even managed to extend as far as the rest of North Africa and Syria as well.

● The Fatimid dynasty collapsed after about 200 years, and Egypt was under Sunni leadership again. By this time, however, the Abbasid Caliphate was even more fragmented and weakened.

Foreign Threats: The Crusades

● In 1096 CE, Frankish knights launched a Crusade to take the Holy Land from the Muslims, and aid the suffering Byzantine Empire. They were inspired by the Pope.

● Abbasid Caliphate was fighting Fatimids at the time, so the Franks were able to take some coastal areas of Syria and Palestine. They managed to capture the city of Jerusalem in 1099 CE, massacring the Muslim and Jewish defenders and inhabitants.

● Christians struggled to exert any real political authority over the region.● The Sunni warrior Saladin reunited the Caliphate with Syria and Egypt in

1171, and went on to take back Jerusalem and destroy the Crusaders.● These Crusades achieved little more than to make the Christian minorities

the most hated group in the Middle East.

The Reconquista ● Spain had been under Muslim rule since around 760 CE, as an Umayyad

prince established his own dynasty in Cordoba. Spain had become a centre for Islamic-Arab civilization, while the rest of Europe was still in the Dark Ages.

● By the 11th century, Muslim rule was weakening, and in 1085 the Christian rulers began to reconquer the peninsula, and over hundreds of years they drove the Muslims south until they finally took Granada in 1492.

● The Christian rulers were intolerant of Muslims and Jews, and forced them to convert or exiled or killed them.

Foreign Threats: The Mongols● Mongols were horse-mounted warriors from the steppes of Mongolia.● Unified under Genghis Khan in the late 12th century● Conquered Central Asia, then moved west into Persia and Iraq● Used fear tactics - terrorized populations with their brutality in order to

avoid resistance.● Local leaders submitted and became vassals.● Last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta’sim decided to fight the Mongols. Mongols

besieged Baghdad with siege engines and wearing arrow-resistant silk under their armour. They breached the city walls and slaughtered everyone, including the caliph.

● Mongols plundered the rich capital of the Islamic Empire, burned the libraries, slaughtered over 90,000 inhabitants. Baghdad still hasn’t recovered. This was the end of the Islamic Golden Age.

● In 1260 CE, Mamluks (Turkish slave soldiers) from Egypt attacked Mongols, saving Cairo from destruction.

The Mongols: Reloaded

● Cairo became the new capital of Islamic culture and learning for the next 200 years.

● Persia recovered, under Il-Khan rule. Il-Khans converted to Islam and encouraged the culture. A revival of Islamic art occured.

● Il-Khan dynasty ended in 1350

Bureaucratic Patrimonial States● After Mongol invasion, Islamic rulers adopted the concept of the

bureaucratic-patrimonial state. ● In the bureaucratic-patrimonial state, the entire state apparatus - soldiers,

government workers etc. were all property of the ruler. ● Civil servants were technically slaves of the ruler, but they were high-

ranking in society because they (the ruler and his slaves) were part of the ruling class, separated by law from “the ruled.”

● Two powerful bureaucratic-patrimonial states emerged during the early sixteenth century -- the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia.

Ottoman Empire● Starting in the 11th century, Muslim Turks conquered Byzantine Anatolia.

The Christian Greek-speakers in the region began to adopt the Turkish language and Islamic religion.

● One Turkish dynasty, the Ottomans, became especially powerful, and expelled their Turkish rivals, and the Christian rulers in the Balkans.

● Byzantine capital city of Constantinople was incorporated into Ottoman Empire in 1453. By 16th century, Ottomans extended into Egypt, Mesopotamia and North Africa, and had the most powerful land army in Europe. They remained a major European power until 18th century.

● Ottoman society was highly diverse. The bureaucratic-patrimonial government worked for a while. The Ottomans allowed religious/cultural communities to self-govern as long as they paid taxes.

Safavid Persia● While the Ottomans were rising to power, the Iranian Plateau was unified

under the Safavid dynasty. ● In 1501, the Safavids, who were powerful political and religious leaders,

claimed kingship of Persia.● Made Shi’i islam the state religion, causing a rivalry with Sunni Ottomans.● Persia was initially Sunni majority, but by the 17th century Shi’ites were a

majority due to the new leadership.● Like the Ottomans, the Safavids governed with the bureaucratic-

patrimonial system. Isfahan was their capital. Persia began to thrive and rivaled the Ottoman Empire in its power.

Social Structure and Regions

● The social structure of the Islamic Middle East varied depending on the physical environment in which people lived

● There were 5 main types of environments in the Middle East: river basins, mountain regions, steppes, desert regions, and urban regions

River Basins● Peasant societies with peasants and landlords● Serfdom - peasants lived in villages and paid the

landlords for use of the land● These areas were the most productive of the Islamic

Middle East and their populations were heavily exploited by the landlords

● The resources of River Basin agriculture made the regions of mesopotamia and egypt both powerful and culturally distinct during the Islamic period

Mountain Regions● Chieftains and peasant cultivators● Peasants raised livestock and cultivated small amounts of land, moving up

and down the mountain slopes with the changing seasons● The tribes in the mountain regions were almost completely isolated from

larger centralized societies and were largely independent● Tribal mountain chieftains were not as rich as river basin landlords as they

were not known to exploit their peoples● Generally mountain peoples lived content but isolated lives

Steppes● Mainly useful for rainfall agriculture● Settled peasants in steppes were exploited either by state-supported

landlords or nomadic tribes demanding tribute● Nomadic pastoral tribes themselves were more egalitarian● Nomads were generally isolated from large society, but not as much as

mountain tribes● Clan solidarity was necessary to provide security as nomadic tribes were

somewhat isolated, so they had to rely on only their own peoples for protection

● Nomads treated their people fairly and redistributed wealth to keep the peace and avoid infighting

Desert Regions● Very sparsely populated, incapable of supporting a

large population● Small communities developed around scattered oases

where cultivation was possible● Unofficially ruled by pastoral nomads who made large

profits from their control of caravan trade and transport ● Oasis cultivators were subject to pastoral nomads

however close ties to the nomadic communities prevented any real exploitation from occurring

Urban Regions● Located in a highly prosperous center of any of the four other types of

geographical regions● Prosperity of an urban city or region depended on many factors including

location, administration, manufacturing, and trade● Social hierarchy was: Soldiers and Bureaucrats>Merchants>

Landowners>Religious Scholars>Artisans and Manufacturers>Simple Labourers

● Artisans served local and regional markets ● If a city or region became famous for a certain product the artisans who

produced it and the merchants who traded it would prosper● Every class was important in Islamic society and each was treated with

dignity and respect

Role of Women● In the pre-Islamic pastoral nomadic society of arabia women were

considered inferior to men, and after the acceptance of Islam women were unfortunately still considered inferior to men

● Women nevertheless had important roles in society; they could be respected politicians or religious leaders in Arabian society

● In some tribes polyandry, marriage to multiple husbands, was permitted● Women could advise tribe leaders, but could not themselves be tribe

leaders, although they were allowed to occupy lesser positions of political power

● In times of extreme hardship female infanticide was practiced as a form of population control

Customs and Festivals● The two main festivals in Islam are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha ● Eid al-Fitr the feast which marks the end of the Ramadan, the 30 day fast● The purpose of fasting in Islam is to bring believers closer to God and to

learn the practice of regimentation and self-control as well as to learn to sympathise with the suffering of those who must do without

● Traditionally Eid al-Fitr is celebrated with a large traditionally prepared meal with family and friends

● Eid al-Adha or “Bayram”, meaning feast of the sacrifice, marks the end of the annual Mecca pilgrimage

● Traditionally, families sacrificed sheep to mark the occasion and wealthy families would distribute the meat from their animals to the poor

Educational Video: Bayram

Islamic Culture● Education: Education was conducted through the interpretation of the Quran, a class of scholars

called the Ulama was created to study the interpretation and application of religious law. Ulama would travel to learn from different branches of Islamic civilization and brought back a diversity of knowledge with them

● Literature: Poetry and stories told through poetry were very well respected in Arabian society and Arabian poetry predates Islam itself, one particularly famous Islamic poet is Rumi who wrote things like:“Your task is not to seek for love, but merely to seek and find all the barriers within yourself that you have built against it.” - Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī, aka. Rumi

● Architecture: The most beautiful and ornate buildings in Islamic civilisations were mosques as these prayer halls were dedicated to Allah himself

● Pictorial representations were usually avoided in mosques with arabesques: intricate and usually abstract geometric patterns meant to represent the beauty of the world, and Quranic calligraphy being favored instead

● Islamic art consisted of depictions of poems, stories, and whatever else the artist wished to portray; it was varied, whimsical, and sometimes drew on Greek and western influences

Beautiful MosquesIslamic Art from different periods and dynasties

Cross-cultural Influences● Islamic civilization itself was a mixture of cultures - that of the Egyptians,

Persians, Indians, and Byzantines. The innovations of these cultures spread across the Islamic world via trade routes.

● The Arabic language was spread along with the Quran to all the areas under Muslim rule, because Muslims weren’t huge fans of Quran translations. Persian language revived after Islamic conquest as a medium of poetry, literature and administration, now using the Arabic script. Under the Ottomans, the Turkish language also adopted Arabic Script.

● Middle Easterners at this time were not heavily influenced by the Europeans, instead it was the other way around. In terms of science, technology and art, Islamic civilization was far ahead of the Europeans during the Dark Ages and the Middle Ages.

The Caravanserai ● Caravanserai was a traditional Middle Eastern building which combined

the functions of a wholesale market and a hotel for visiting merchants● Particular Caravanserais were often identified with certain trades or

regions such as the silk Caravanserais● Caravanserai were usually two storey structures surrounding a central

square or courtyard, pack animals and goods would be kept on the ground level and travellers would stay on the upper level

● Urban Caravanserais were usually part of a large market complex called a Bazaar in in Persian and Turkish and a Souk in Arabic

● Smaller Bazaars existed on major trade routes, serving the purpose of a resting stop for merchants and travellers

VocabularyMuhammad - The final prophet and founder of Islam.

Mecca - A significant Arabian city, the birthplace of Muhammad and a site of pilgrimage.

Sunni - A religious sect comprising the majority of Muslims. Originally believed Muhammad’s successor should be elected. Also believe that the Quran and the sunna should be the basis for religious law.

Shi’i - A minority Islamic sect. Believed Muhammad should be succeeded by his kinsman Ali. Disagree with Sunnis.

Bayram - Sacrifice, specifically that of a sheep during Eid al-Adha

Quran - The Islamic holy book that contains the religion's tenets and an extensive code of conduct tailored for .

Sunna - The conduct of Muhammad during his life, usually conveyed through stories.

Caliphate - An area and political body ruled by a Caliph - a supreme social and religious leader

Umayyads - The first ruling dynasty of the Islamic Empire

Abbasids - The ruling dynasty that overthrew and succeeded the Umayyads

Fatimids - A shi’i dynasty that started in Egypt, opposing the Abbasids

Bazaar/Souk - A large market complex

Safavids - The first dynasty to rule a unified, Islamic Persia

Ulama - A class of scholars who studied the interpretation and application of Islamic law

Vocabulary: ContinuedMongols - Invaders from Mongolia, famous for horse-mounted warriors.

Baghdad - Capital of Abbasid Empire

Ottoman - A type of padded footstool

Ottomans - A ruling Turkish Muslim dynasty

Bureaucratic-patrimonial state - A form of government where all state apparatus and workers belong to the ruler.

Eid al-Fitr - The feast marking the end of Ramadan’s 30-day fast

Eid al-Adha - The feast of the sacrifice

Mosque - An Islamic house of worship

Caravanserai - A building that was both a market and a hotel for visiting traders. Often found in Bazaars.

Shahadah - The declaration that there is no god except the one true God, and Muhammad is God's messenger

Salat - The act of daily ritual prayer (usually 5 times)

Zakat - The act of giving a percentage of one’s savings to the poor and needy as alms (usually 2.5%)

Sawm - The act of fasting and self-control during the period (month) of Ramadan

Hajj - The act of pilgrimage to Mecca to be done at least once in a lifetime if one is able