ISAT VocabularyISAT Vocabulary

Preparation for the 10Preparation for the 10thth Grade Grade

Spring Language Usage Spring Language Usage

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I. Parts of SpeechI. Parts of Speech NounNoun: A : A nounnoun is a word used to name a person, animal, is a word used to name a person, animal,

place, thing, and abstract idea. place, thing, and abstract idea. VerbVerb: A : A verbverb asserts something about the asserts something about the subjectsubject of the of the

sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. PronounPronoun: A : A pronounpronoun can replace a can replace a nounnoun or another or another

pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your "you" to make your sentencessentences less cumbersome and less less cumbersome and less repetitive.repetitive.

AdjectiveAdjective: An : An adjectiveadjective modifies a modifies a nounnoun or a or a pronounpronoun by by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. describing, identifying, or quantifying words.

AdverbAdverb: An : An adverbadverb can modify a can modify a verbverb, an , an adjectiveadjective, , another adverb, a another adverb, a phrasephrase, or a , or a clauseclause. .

PrepositionPreposition: A : A prepositionpreposition links links nounsnouns, , pronounspronouns and and phrasesphrases to other words in a to other words in a sentencesentence. .

ConjunctionConjunction: You can use a : You can use a conjunctionconjunction to link words, to link words, phrasesphrases, and , and clausesclauses. .

InterjectionInterjection: An : An interjectioninterjection is a word added to a is a word added to a sentencesentence to convey emotion. to convey emotion.

Nouns Nouns Proper NounsProper Nouns: You always write a : You always write a proper nounproper noun with a with a

capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. specific person, place, or thing.

– ExampleExample: Last year, I had a : Last year, I had a BaptistBaptist, a , a BuddhistBuddhist, and a , and a GardnerianGardnerian WitchWitch as roommates. as roommates.

Common NounsCommon Nouns: A : A common nouncommon noun is a noun referring to a is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense. A common noun person, place, or thing in a general sense. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.is the opposite of a proper noun.

– ExampleExample: All the : All the gardensgardens in the in the neighborhoodneighborhood were were invaded by invaded by beetlesbeetles this this summersummer. .

Concrete NounsConcrete Nouns: A : A concrete nounconcrete noun is a noun which is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.

– ExampleExample: Whenever they take the : Whenever they take the dogdog to the to the beachbeach, it , it spends spends hourshours chasing chasing waveswaves. .

NounsNouns

Abstract NounsAbstract Nouns: An : An abstract nounabstract noun is a noun which is a noun which names anything which you can names anything which you can notnot perceive through your perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun.

– ExampleExample: : JusticeJustice often seems to slip out of our grasp. often seems to slip out of our grasp.

Countable NounsCountable Nouns: A : A countable nouncountable noun (or (or count nouncount noun) is ) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can anything (or anyone) that you can countcount. .

– ExampleExample: Since he inherited his : Since he inherited his aunt'saunt's librarylibrary, Jerome , Jerome spends every spends every weekendweekend indexing his indexing his booksbooks. .

Non-Countable NounsNon-Countable Nouns: A : A non-countable nounnon-countable noun (or (or mass mass nounnoun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and ) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. usually count.

– ExampleExample: The : The furniturefurniture is heaped in the middle of the room. is heaped in the middle of the room.

NounsNouns

Collective NounsCollective Nouns: A : A collective collective nounnoun is a noun naming a group of is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole; generally as one group as a whole; generally as one unit. unit.

– ExampleExample: The : The flockflock of geese spends of geese spends most of its time in the pasture. most of its time in the pasture.

VerbsVerbs Transitive VerbsTransitive Verbs: The meaning of a : The meaning of a

transitive verbtransitive verb is incomplete without a is incomplete without a direct objectdirect object. .

What is a What is a direct objectdirect object? Direct objects are words or ? Direct objects are words or phrases that receive the object of the action. The direct phrases that receive the object of the action. The direct object always answers the question “What?” object always answers the question “What?”

– INCOMPLETE: INCOMPLETE: The child The child brokebroke. .

– COMPLETE: COMPLETE: The child The child brokebroke the plate. the plate.

Intransitive VerbsIntransitive Verbs: An : An intransitive verbintransitive verb, , on the other hand, on the other hand, cannotcannot take a direct take a direct object.object.– ExampleExample: It : It rainedrained across the state. across the state.

Intransitive verbs can be followed by a prepositional Intransitive verbs can be followed by a prepositional phrase or an adverb to add to the thought being phrase or an adverb to add to the thought being expressed, expressed, but they can neverbut they can never be followed by a noun, be followed by a noun, which would act as the object of the sentence. which would act as the object of the sentence.

VerbsVerbs Linking VerbsLinking Verbs: A : A linking verblinking verb connects a connects a subjectsubject

to a to a subject complimentsubject compliment which identifies or describes which identifies or describes the subject. the subject.

– ExampleExample: Some of us thought that the play : Some of us thought that the play waswas very good. very good.

Auxiliary VerbsAuxiliary Verbs: The most common : The most common auxiliary verbsauxiliary verbs (helping verbs) are "be," "do," and "have”. Other (helping verbs) are "be," "do," and "have”. Other common auxiliaries are "can," "could," "may," common auxiliaries are "can," "could," "may," "might," "must," "ought," "should," "will," and "might," "must," "ought," "should," "will," and "would." "would."

– ExampleExample: My roommates and I : My roommates and I dodo the laundry every second the laundry every second week. week.

Compound VerbsCompound Verbs: You construct a : You construct a compound compound verbverb out of an auxiliary verb and another out of an auxiliary verb and another verbverb..

– ExampleExample: They : They will meetwill meet us at the newest café in the us at the newest café in the market. market.

VerbalsVerbalsA Noun or Adjective Formed From a VerbA Noun or Adjective Formed From a Verb

Present ParticiplePresent Participle: A : A participleparticiple is an adjective formed is an adjective formed from a verb. To make a from a verb. To make a present participlepresent participle, you add "-ing" , you add "-ing" to the verb.to the verb.

– ExampleExample: "think" becomes "thinking" ; "fall" becomes "falling“ : "think" becomes "thinking" ; "fall" becomes "falling“ ; "run" becomes "running" ; "run" becomes "running"

Past ParticiplePast Participle: The second type of participle, the : The second type of participle, the pastpast participleparticiple, is a little more complicated, since not all verbs , is a little more complicated, since not all verbs form the form the past tensepast tense regularly. regularly.

– ExampleExample: the : the sunkensunken ship; a ship; a ruinedruined city; a city; a misspelledmisspelled word word

GerundsGerunds: A : A gerundgerund is a noun formed from a verb. To is a noun formed from a verb. To make a gerund, you add "-ing" to the verb, just as with a make a gerund, you add "-ing" to the verb, just as with a present participle. The fundamental difference is that a present participle. The fundamental difference is that a gerund is a noun, while a participle is an adjective.gerund is a noun, while a participle is an adjective.

– Gerund: “Gerund: “I enjoy I enjoy runningrunning” ("Running" is a noun acting as the ” ("Running" is a noun acting as the direct objectdirect object of the verb "enjoy.") of the verb "enjoy.")

– Participle: “Participle: “Stay away from Stay away from runningrunning water” ("Running" is an water” ("Running" is an adjective modifying the noun "water".) adjective modifying the noun "water".)

Verb TensesVerb TensesPast, Present, FuturePast, Present, Future

SimpleSimple: The : The basic formbasic form (or (or rootroot of the verb) is the form listed in of the verb) is the form listed in the dictionary (walk, paint, think, grow). Used when the precise the dictionary (walk, paint, think, grow). Used when the precise beginning or ending of an action, event, or condition is unknown beginning or ending of an action, event, or condition is unknown or is unimportant to the meaning of the sentence. or is unimportant to the meaning of the sentence.

– ExampleExample: “I : “I walkedwalked”; “I ”; “I walkwalk”; “I ”; “I will walkwill walk””

ProgressiveProgressive: Used to describe : Used to describe ongoing actionsongoing actions as related to as related to past, present, and future.past, present, and future.

– ExampleExample: “I : “I was paintingwas painting”; “I ”; “I am paintingam painting”; “I ”; “I will be paintingwill be painting””

PerfectPerfect: Used to describe something that : Used to describe something that waswas completed, completed, isis currently being completed, or currently being completed, or will bewill be completed in the future. completed in the future.

– ExampleExample: “I : “I had thoughthad thought”; “I ”; “I have thoughthave thought”; “I ”; “I will have will have thoughtthought””

Perfect-ProgressivePerfect-Progressive: Used to describe actions that : Used to describe actions that werewere ongoing in the past, ongoing in the past, areare currently ongoing, or ongoing actions that currently ongoing, or ongoing actions that will occurwill occur in the future. in the future.

– ExampleExample: “I : “I had been growinghad been growing”; “I ”; “I have been growinghave been growing”; “I ”; “I will will have been growinghave been growing””

PronounsPronouns AntecedentAntecedent: : PronounsPronouns usually refer to other words, called usually refer to other words, called

their their antecedentsantecedents because they (should) come before the because they (should) come before the pronoun. A pronoun's antecedent may be either a pronoun. A pronoun's antecedent may be either a nounnoun or or another pronoun, but in either case, it another pronoun, but in either case, it mustmust be clear what the be clear what the antecedent is. antecedent is.

– ExampleExample: : TheyThey promised to come to the party even though promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time. they had a final exam at the same time.

Personal PronounPersonal Pronoun: A : A personal pronounpersonal pronoun refers to a refers to a specific person or thing.specific person or thing.– ExampleExample: : YouYou are surely the strangest child are surely the strangest child II have ever met. have ever met.

Demonstrative PronounDemonstrative Pronoun: A : A demonstrative pronoundemonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.away in space or time.

– ExampleExample: : ThisThis is puny; is puny; thatthat is the tree I want. is the tree I want.

PronounsPronouns Interrogative PronounInterrogative Pronoun: An : An interrogative pronouninterrogative pronoun is used to is used to

ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffixsuffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever").

– ExampleExample: : WhoWho will meet the delegates at the train station? will meet the delegates at the train station?

Indefinite PronounIndefinite Pronoun: An : An indefinite pronounindefinite pronoun is a pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.

– ExampleExample: : ManyMany were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up. up.

Relative PronounRelative Pronoun: a : a relative pronounrelative pronoun is used to link one is used to link one phrasephrase or or clauseclause to another phrase or clause. The relative to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns. relative pronouns.

– ExampleExample: I will read : I will read whicheverwhichever manuscript arrives first. manuscript arrives first.

PronounsPronouns Reflexive PronounReflexive Pronoun: You can use a : You can use a reflexive reflexive

pronounpronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence. The reflexive pronouns are "myself," sentence. The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." "yourselves," and "themselves."

– ExampleExample: After the party, I asked : After the party, I asked myselfmyself why I had faxed why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building. invitations to everyone in my office building.

Intensive PronounIntensive Pronoun: An : An intensive pronounintensive pronoun is a is a pronoun used to emphasize its pronoun used to emphasize its antecedentantecedent. Intensive . Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.

– ExampleExample: They : They themselvesthemselves promised to come to the party promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time. even though they had a final exam at the same time.

AdjectivesAdjectives Possessive AdjectivePossessive Adjective: A : A possessive adjectivepossessive adjective

(“my,'' “your,'' “his,'' “her,'' “its,'' “our,'' “their'') is (“my,'' “your,'' “his,'' “her,'' “its,'' “our,'' “their'') is similar or identical to a similar or identical to a possessive pronounpossessive pronoun; ; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun. noun.

– ExampleExample: I can't complete : I can't complete mymy assignment because I don't assignment because I don't have the textbook. have the textbook.

Demonstrative AdjectiveDemonstrative Adjective: The : The demonstrative demonstrative adjectivesadjectives “this,'' “these,'' “that,'' “those,'' and “this,'' “these,'' “that,'' “those,'' and “what'' are identical to the “what'' are identical to the demonstrative pronounsdemonstrative pronouns, , but are used as adjectives to modify nouns. but are used as adjectives to modify nouns.

– ExampleExample: When the librarian tripped over : When the librarian tripped over thatthat cord, she cord, she dropped a pile of books. dropped a pile of books.

AdjectivesAdjectives Interrogative AdjectiveInterrogative Adjective: An : An interrogativeinterrogative

adjectiveadjective (“which'' or “what'') is like an (“which'' or “what'') is like an interrogative pronouninterrogative pronoun, except that it modifies , except that it modifies a noun rather than standing on its own. a noun rather than standing on its own. – ExampleExample: : WhichWhich plants should be watered twice plants should be watered twice

a week? a week?

Indefinite AdjectiveIndefinite Adjective: An : An indefinite indefinite adjectiveadjective is similar to an is similar to an indefinite pronounindefinite pronoun, , except that it modifies a noun or pronoun. except that it modifies a noun or pronoun. – ExampleExample: : ManyMany people believe that corporations people believe that corporations

are under-taxed. are under-taxed.

AdverbsAdverbs An An adverbadverb indicates indicates mannermanner, , timetime, , placeplace, , causecause, or , or

degreedegree and answers questions such as "how," and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much". "when," "where," "how much". – ExampleExample: The : The boldlyboldly spoken words would return to haunt spoken words would return to haunt

the rebel. the rebel.

Conjunctive AdverbConjunctive Adverb: You can use a : You can use a conjunctive conjunctive adverbadverb to join two clauses together. Some of the to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is notnot strong enough to join two strong enough to join two independent clausesindependent clauses without the aid of a without the aid of a semicolonsemicolon. . – ExampleExample: The crowd waited patiently for three hours; : The crowd waited patiently for three hours;

finallyfinally, the doors to the stadium were opened. , the doors to the stadium were opened.

PrepositionsPrepositions A A prepositionpreposition usually indicates the temporal, usually indicates the temporal,

spatial or logical relationship of its object to the spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence.rest of the sentence.

The most common prepositions are "about," The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without." "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."

PrepositionsPrepositions

Object of PrepositionObject of Preposition: : The word or The word or phrase that the preposition phrase that the preposition introduces is called the introduces is called the objectobject of the of the preposition.preposition.– ExampleExample::The book is The book is onon the tablethe table. .

In the preceding sentence, a preposition In the preceding sentence, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time locates the noun "book" in space or in time and places it in reference to the object of and places it in reference to the object of the preposition, “the preposition, “the tablethe table”.”.

PrepositionsPrepositions

Prepositional PhrasePrepositional Phrase: : A A prepositional phraseprepositional phrase is made up of is made up of the preposition, its object and any the preposition, its object and any associated associated adjectivesadjectives or or adverbsadverbs. . – ExampleExample: : The spider crawled slowly The spider crawled slowly

alongalong the banisterthe banister. . The preposition "The preposition "alongalong" introduces the noun " introduces the noun

phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase "phrase "along the banisteralong the banister" acts as an " acts as an adverb, describing where the spider adverb, describing where the spider crawled.crawled.

ConjunctionsConjunctions Coordinating ConjunctionCoordinating Conjunction: : You use a You use a coordinating coordinating

conjunctionconjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and join individual words, phrases, and independent clausesindependent clauses. . *Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" *Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as as prepositionsprepositions..– ExampleExample: : Lilacs Lilacs andand violets are usually purple. violets are usually purple.

Subordinating ConjunctionSubordinating Conjunction: : A A subordinating subordinating conjunctionconjunction introduces a introduces a dependent clausedependent clause and indicates and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).– ExampleExample: : AfterAfter she had learned to drive, Alice felt more she had learned to drive, Alice felt more

independent. independent.

Correlative ConjunctionCorrelative Conjunction: : Correlative conjunctionsCorrelative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an conjunction linked to an adjectiveadjective or adverb.) or adverb.)– ExampleExample: : Corinne is trying to decide Corinne is trying to decide whetherwhether to go to medical to go to medical

school school oror to go to law school. to go to law school.

InterjectionsInterjections

An An interjectioninterjection is a word added to a is a word added to a sentencesentence to convey emotion. It is not to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.the sentence. You usually follow an You usually follow an interjection with an interjection with an exclamation markexclamation mark. . Interjections are uncommon in formal Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct academic prose, except in direct quotations.quotations.– ExampleExample: : HeyHey!! Put that down! Put that down! – ExampleExample: : Oh no!Oh no! I forgot that the exam was I forgot that the exam was

today. today.

HomeworkHomework – Due Next – Due Next ClassClass

Parts of SpeechParts of Speech– Pages 2, 5, 6, 11-18, 21, 22, 25, Pages 2, 5, 6, 11-18, 21, 22, 25,

26, 30-32, 38-41, & 44-4626, 30-32, 38-41, & 44-46 These total 25 pages of practice These total 25 pages of practice

material. You material. You MUSTMUST choose 12 of choose 12 of these pages for a grade, but can do these pages for a grade, but can do more for extra credit.more for extra credit.

II. Parts of SentencesII. Parts of Sentences SubjectSubject: : what (or whom) the sentence is what (or whom) the sentence is

aboutabout PredicatePredicate: : tells something about the subjecttells something about the subject ObjectObject: : completes the verb's meaningcompletes the verb's meaning

– Direct ObjectDirect Object: : always a always a nounnoun or or pronounpronoun – Indirect ObjectIndirect Object: : always a always a nounnoun or or pronounpronoun

ModifierModifier: : adds information to another adds information to another element in the element in the sentencesentence

PhrasePhrase: : a group of two or more grammatically a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a linked words without a subjectsubject and and predicatepredicate

ClauseClause: : a collection of grammatically-related a collection of grammatically-related words including a words including a predicatepredicate and a and a subjectsubject

Subject & PredicateSubject & Predicate Every complete Every complete sentencesentence contains two parts: a contains two parts: a

subjectsubject and a and a predicatepredicate. . SubjectSubject: : what (or whom) the sentence is aboutwhat (or whom) the sentence is about. .

To determine the subject of a sentence, first To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the isolate the verbverb and then make a question by and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.is the subject.

PredicatePredicate: : always includes the verb andalways includes the verb and tells tells something about the subjectsomething about the subject..– In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in

braces ({}), while the subject is braces ({}), while the subject is highlightedhighlighted.. JudyJudy {runs}. {runs}. Judy and her dogJudy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}. {run on the beach every morning}.

Simple Subject/Simple Simple Subject/Simple PredicatePredicate

Every subject is built around one Every subject is built around one nounnoun or or pronounpronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the words that (or more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the modify it, is known as the simple subjectsimple subject. . Consider the following example:Consider the following example:– A A piecepiece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger. of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.

The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- words of the subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.

A predicate has at its center a A predicate has at its center a simple predicatesimple predicate, , which is always the verb or verbs that link up with which is always the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple predicate is "the simple predicate is "would satisfywould satisfy" -- in " -- in other words, the verb of the sentence.other words, the verb of the sentence.

ObjectObject ObjectObject: : A A verbverb may be followed by an may be followed by an

objectobject that completes the verb's meaning. that completes the verb's meaning. Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. objects and indirect objects.

Direct ObjectDirect Object: : always a noun or pronounalways a noun or pronoun– to determine, isolate the verb and make it into a to determine, isolate the verb and make it into a

question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct objectThe answer, if there is one, is the direct object ExampleExample: : The advertising executive drove The advertising executive drove a flashy a flashy

red Porschered Porsche. . Indirect ObjectIndirect Object: : always a noun or pronounalways a noun or pronoun

– to determine, to determine, isolate the verb and ask isolate the verb and ask to to whom?whom?, , to what?to what?, , for whom?for whom?, or , or for what?for what? after after it. The answer is the indirect object.it. The answer is the indirect object. ExampleExample: : Her secret admirer gave Her secret admirer gave herher a bouquet of a bouquet of

flowers. flowers.

ModifiersModifiers A A modifiermodifier can be an can be an adjectiveadjective, an , an adverbadverb, or a , or a

phrasephrase or or clauseclause acting as an adjective or adverb. acting as an adjective or adverb. The modifier adds information to another element The modifier adds information to another element in the in the sentencesentence..

ComparativeComparative: Used to compare: Used to compare exactlyexactly two two things. Form the comparative by adding the things. Form the comparative by adding the suffixsuffix "-er" to the "-er" to the modifiermodifier (for some short words) or by (for some short words) or by using the word "more" with the modifier:using the word "more" with the modifier:– ExampleExample: : Now that it is March, the days are getting Now that it is March, the days are getting

longerlonger. (longer now than before) . (longer now than before) SuperlativeSuperlative: Used to c: Used to compare three or more ompare three or more

things. Form the superlative by adding the suffix things. Form the superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the modifier (for some short words) or by "-est" to the modifier (for some short words) or by using the word "most" with the modifier:using the word "most" with the modifier:– ExampleExample: : This is definitely the This is definitely the smartest, wittiest, smartest, wittiest,

most imaginativemost imaginative comic strip I have ever seen. comic strip I have ever seen. (implying that I have seen more than two) (implying that I have seen more than two)

ModifiersModifiers Misplaced ModifierMisplaced Modifier: : modifiers that are positioned modifiers that are positioned

so that they appear to modify the wrong thing.so that they appear to modify the wrong thing.– ExampleExample: : After our conversation lessons, we After our conversation lessons, we

could understand the Spanish spoken by our could understand the Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid visitors from Madrid easilyeasily. . Do we Do we understandunderstand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors the Spanish easily, or do the visitors

speakspeak it easily? it easily? Dangling ModifierDangling Modifier: : a phrase that functions as an a phrase that functions as an

adjectiveadjective but does not modify any specific word in but does not modify any specific word in the sentence, or (worse) modifies the the sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrongwrong word. word. – ExampleExample: : Raised in Nova ScotiaRaised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss , it is natural to miss

the smell of the sea. the smell of the sea. The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it

is meant to modify a person or persons, but no one is is meant to modify a person or persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such introductory mentioned in the sentence. Such introductory adjective phrasesadjective phrases, because of their position, automatically , because of their position, automatically modify the first modify the first nounnoun or or pronounpronoun that follows the phrase -- in that follows the phrase -- in this case, "it." this case, "it."

Split InfinitiveSplit Infinitive

Split InfinitiveSplit Infinitive: : The The infinitiveinfinitive form of form of the the verbverb consists of the word "to" consists of the word "to" followed by the base form of the verb: followed by the base form of the verb: "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. Inserting a word or words between the Inserting a word or words between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known as a what is known as a split infinitivesplit infinitive. . – ExampleExample: It is not okay : It is not okay to purposely to purposely

serveserve yourself before your guest. yourself before your guest.

PhrasesPhrases A A phrasephrase is a group of two or more grammatically is a group of two or more grammatically

linked words linked words withoutwithout a a subjectsubject and and predicatepredicate Noun PhraseNoun Phrase: : A A noun phrasenoun phrase consists of a consists of a

pronounpronoun or noun with any associated or noun with any associated modifiersmodifiers..– ExampleExample: : Small childrenSmall children often insist that they can do often insist that they can do

it by themselves. it by themselves. Verb PhraseVerb Phrase: : A A verb phraseverb phrase consists of a verb, consists of a verb,

its its directdirect and/or and/or indirect objectsindirect objects, and any adverb, , and any adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb phrases, or adverb clausesadverb clauses which happen which happen to modify it. The to modify it. The predicatepredicate of a of a clauseclause or or sentencesentence is always a verb phrase.is always a verb phrase.– ExampleExample: : Corinne Corinne is trying to decide whether she is trying to decide whether she

wants to go to medical school or to go to law wants to go to medical school or to go to law schoolschool. .

PhrasesPhrases Adjective PhraseAdjective Phrase: : An An adjective phraseadjective phrase

is any phrase which modifies a noun or is any phrase which modifies a noun or pronoun. You often construct adjective pronoun. You often construct adjective phrases using phrases using participlesparticiples or prepositions or prepositions together with their objects:together with their objects:– ExampleExample: : My father-in-law locked his keys in My father-in-law locked his keys in

the trunk the trunk of a borrowed carof a borrowed car. . the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts as an the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts as an

adjective modifying the noun "trunk."adjective modifying the noun "trunk." Adverb PhraseAdverb Phrase: : A prepositional phrase A prepositional phrase

can also be an can also be an adverb phraseadverb phrase, functioning , functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences. as an adverb, as in the following sentences. – ExampleExample: : Lightning flashed brightly Lightning flashed brightly in the in the

night skynight sky.. In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night

sky" functions as a adverb modifying the verb sky" functions as a adverb modifying the verb "flashed." "flashed."

ClausesClauses A A clauseclause is a collection of grammatically-related is a collection of grammatically-related

words words including a including a predicatepredicate and a and a subjectsubject (though (though sometimes is the subject is implied). Clauses are sometimes is the subject is implied). Clauses are the building blocks of the building blocks of sentencessentences: every sentence : every sentence consists of one or more clauses. consists of one or more clauses.

Independent ClauseIndependent Clause: : If a If a clauseclause can stand alone can stand alone as a as a sentencesentence, it is an , it is an independent clause.independent clause.– ExampleExample: : TThe Prime Minister is in Ottawahe Prime Minister is in Ottawa..

Dependent ClauseDependent Clause: : Some clauses, however, Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they are are dependent clausesdependent clauses or or subordinate clausessubordinate clauses. . – ExampleExample: : WWhen the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.hen the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.

ClausesClauses Noun ClauseNoun Clause: : A A noun clausenoun clause is an entire clause is an entire clause

which takes the place of a noun in another clause or which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrasephrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the . Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subjectsubject or or objectobject of a verb or the object of a of a verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?". "what?". – ExampleExample: : I know thatI know that Latin is no longer spoken as a Latin is no longer spoken as a

native languagenative language.. In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of

the verb "know." In the second example, the entire clause "that the verb "know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct object.Latin ..." is the direct object.

Adjective ClauseAdjective Clause: : An An adjective clauseadjective clause is a is a dependent clause which takes the place of an dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind of?" kind of?" – ExampleExample: : the coat the coat which I bought yesterday.which I bought yesterday.

ClausesClauses

Adverb ClauseAdverb Clause: : An An adverb clauseadverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adverb in another clause place of an adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such as "when?", "where?", questions such as "when?", "where?", "why?", "with what goal/result?", and "why?", "with what goal/result?", and "under what conditions?"."under what conditions?".– ExampleExample: : The premier gave a speech The premier gave a speech

where the workers were strikingwhere the workers were striking. .

AppositionApposition

When two words, When two words, clausesclauses, or , or phrasesphrases stand stand close together and share the same close together and share the same part of the sentencepart of the sentence, they are in , they are in appositionapposition and are called and are called appositivesappositives. Appositives give . Appositives give more information about the subject or object, more information about the subject or object, but without the use of linking verbs, and are but without the use of linking verbs, and are seperated by commas.seperated by commas.– ExampleExample: My brother, : My brother, the research associatethe research associate,,

works at a large polling firm. works at a large polling firm. – ExampleExample: I have never met Jean, : I have never met Jean, the magistratethe magistrate. .

HomeworkHomework - Due Next - Due Next ClassClass

PhrasesPhrases– Page 49, 52, 53, & 55 – odd questionsPage 49, 52, 53, & 55 – odd questions

ClausesClauses– Page 58 & 64 – even questionsPage 58 & 64 – even questions

Subject/PredicateSubject/Predicate– Page 68 & 70 – odd questions Page 68 & 70 – odd questions

Direct/Indirect ObjectDirect/Indirect Object– Page 72 – even questionsPage 72 – even questions

PunctuationPunctuation– Page 108 & 109 – even questionsPage 108 & 109 – even questions

III. Structure of a SentenceIII. Structure of a Sentence

SimpleSimple: : contains only a single clausecontains only a single clause CompoundCompound: : consists of two or more consists of two or more

independent clausesindependent clauses ComplexComplex: : contains one independent contains one independent

clause and at least one clause and at least one dependent clausedependent clause Compound-ComplexCompound-Complex: : joins two complex joins two complex

sentences, or one simple sentence and sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentenceone complex sentence together together

Simple SentencesSimple Sentences Simple SentenceSimple Sentence: : The most basic type of The most basic type of

sentence and contains only one clause. sentence and contains only one clause. A A simple sentencesimple sentence can be as short as one word. can be as short as one word.

Usually, however, the sentence has a Usually, however, the sentence has a subjectsubject as as well as a well as a predicatepredicate and both the subject and the and both the subject and the predicate may have predicate may have modifiersmodifiers. All of the following . All of the following are simple sentences, because each contains are simple sentences, because each contains only one clauseonly one clause::– MeltMelt! ! – Ice Ice meltsmelts. . – The ice The ice meltsmelts quickly. quickly. – The ice on the river The ice on the river meltsmelts quickly under the warm quickly under the warm

March sun. March sun. – Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the

river river meltsmelts quickly under the warm March sun. quickly under the warm March sun.

Compound SentencesCompound Sentences Compound SentenceCompound Sentence: : consists of two or more consists of two or more

independent clausesindependent clauses (or simple sentences) joined (or simple sentences) joined by by coordinating conjunctionscoordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and like "and," "but," and "or":"or":– SimpleSimple

Canada is a rich country. Canada is a rich country. – SimpleSimple

Still, it has many poor people. Still, it has many poor people. – CompoundCompound

Canada is a rich country, Canada is a rich country, butbut still it has many poor people. still it has many poor people. A A compound sentencecompound sentence is most effective when is most effective when

you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces between two (or more) equally-important pieces of information.of information.

Complex SentencesComplex Sentences Complex SentenceComplex Sentence:: contains one contains one

independent clause and at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clausedependent clause. Unlike a compound . Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are contains clauses which are notnot equal. equal. – Simple Simple

My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go. My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go. – CompoundCompound

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go. My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go. – ComplexComplex

Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.want to go.

– A complex sentence makes clear which ideas are most A complex sentence makes clear which ideas are most important. In the first two examples, the reader will have important. In the first two examples, the reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most trouble knowing which piece of information is most important. With the important. With the subordinating conjunctionsubordinating conjunction "although" at "although" at the beginning of the first clause, however, it is made clear the beginning of the first clause, however, it is made clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than, or than, or subordinatesubordinate, to the fact that you do not want to , to the fact that you do not want to go.go.

Compound-Complex Compound-Complex SentencesSentences

Compound-Complex SentenceCompound-Complex Sentence: : rather than joining two simple rather than joining two simple sentences together, a coordinating sentences together, a coordinating conjunction sometimes joins two conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentence.sentence and one complex sentence. – ExampleExample: : The package arrived in The package arrived in

the morningthe morning, but , but the courier left the courier left before I could check the contents.before I could check the contents.

IV. Order of a SentenceIV. Order of a Sentence Not all Not all sentencessentences make a single point -- make a single point --

compound sentencescompound sentences, especially, may , especially, may present several equally-important pieces present several equally-important pieces of information -- but most of the time, of information -- but most of the time, when you write a sentence, there is a when you write a sentence, there is a single argument, statement, question, or single argument, statement, question, or command which you wish to get across.command which you wish to get across.

When writing sentences, use one of the When writing sentences, use one of the following following positions of emphasispositions of emphasis at the at the beginning or end of the sentence.beginning or end of the sentence.– LooseLoose– PeriodicPeriodic

Loose SentencesLoose Sentences Loose SentenceLoose Sentence: : If you put your main If you put your main

point at the beginning of a long sentence, point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are writing a you are writing a loose sentenceloose sentence..– ExampleExample: : I am willing to pay slightly higher I am willing to pay slightly higher

taxes for the privilege of living in Canadataxes for the privilege of living in Canada,, considering the free health care, the cheap considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, and the low crime rate. tuition fees, and the low crime rate. The main point of this sentence is that the writer The main point of this sentence is that the writer

prefers to live in Canada, and the writer makes the prefers to live in Canada, and the writer makes the point at the very beginning: everything which follows is point at the very beginning: everything which follows is simply extra information. simply extra information.

Loose sentences are the most natural for English Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in loose sentences: speakers, who almost always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. sentences.

Periodic SentencesPeriodic Sentences Periodic SentencePeriodic Sentence: : If the main point is at If the main point is at

the end of a long sentence, you are writing the end of a long sentence, you are writing a a periodic sentenceperiodic sentence..– ExampleExample: : Considering the free health care, the Considering the free health care, the

cheap tuition fees, and the low crime rate, cheap tuition fees, and the low crime rate, I I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canadathe privilege of living in Canada.. While a periodic sentence can be useful for making While a periodic sentence can be useful for making

an important point or for a special dramatic effect, it an important point or for a special dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often requires is also much more difficult to read, and often requires readers to go back and reread the sentence once readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand the main point.they understand the main point.

The periodic sentence has become much rarer in The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing, but is still a powerful rhetorical formal English writing, but is still a powerful rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the readers do not dramatic but persuasive: even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read your agree with your conclusion, they will read your evidence first with open minds. evidence first with open minds.

HomeworkHomework – Due Next – Due Next ClassClass

Structure of a SentenceStructure of a Sentence– Page 74 & 78 – odd questionsPage 74 & 78 – odd questions– Page 79 (Ex. A), 81, & 82 – even Page 79 (Ex. A), 81, & 82 – even

questionsquestions PunctuationPunctuation

– Page 111 & 113 – odd questionsPage 111 & 113 – odd questions

V. Purpose of a SentenceV. Purpose of a Sentence

Purpose of a sentencePurpose of a sentence is is why why you you have written the sentences in the first have written the sentences in the first place. place. – DeclarativeDeclarative: : simply states a fact or simply states a fact or

argumentargument – InterrogativeInterrogative: : asks a direct question asks a direct question – RhetoricalRhetorical: : a question which you do not a question which you do not

actually expect the reader to answeractually expect the reader to answer – ExclamatoryExclamatory: : a more forceful version of a more forceful version of

a declarative sentencea declarative sentence– ImperativeImperative: : gives a direct command to gives a direct command to

someone someone

Declarative SentencesDeclarative Sentences

Declarative SentenceDeclarative Sentence: S: Simply states a imply states a fact or argument, without requiring either fact or argument, without requiring either an answer or action from the reader. The an answer or action from the reader. The declarative sentencedeclarative sentence is the most is the most important type. important type. – Can and often will write entire essays or Can and often will write entire essays or

reports using reports using onlyonly declarative sentences declarative sentences– Should always use them far more often than Should always use them far more often than

any other type. any other type. – Always punctuate declarative sentences with a Always punctuate declarative sentences with a

simple simple periodperiod.. ExampleExample: : Boise is the capital of Idaho. Boise is the capital of Idaho.

Interrogative SentencesInterrogative Sentences

Interrogative SentenceInterrogative Sentence: : An An interrogative interrogative sentencesentence asks a direct question and always asks a direct question and always ends in a ends in a question markquestion mark..– ExampleExample: : How far do I have to walk?How far do I have to walk?

Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative:interrogative:

– Direct/InterrogativeDirect/Interrogative When was Lester Pearson prime minister?When was Lester Pearson prime minister?

– Indirect/DeclarativeIndirect/Declarative I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.

A direct question requires an answer from A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect question does the reader, while an indirect question does not.not.

Rhetorical SentencesRhetorical Sentences

Rhetorical SentenceRhetorical Sentence: : a question a question which you do not actually expect the which you do not actually expect the reader to answerreader to answer. C. Can be a very an be a very effective way to introduce new topics effective way to introduce new topics or problems in the course of a paper.or problems in the course of a paper. – ExampleExample: : How many roads must a How many roads must a

man walk down before we can man walk down before we can callcall him a man? Many scholars him a man? Many scholars believebelieve ... ...

Exclamatory SentencesExclamatory Sentences

Exclamatory SentenceExclamatory Sentence: : simply a simply a more forceful version of a declarative more forceful version of a declarative sentence, marked at the end with an sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation markexclamation mark..– ExampleExample: : Look hLook how beautiful this ow beautiful this

river is! river is! Note that an exclamation mark can also Note that an exclamation mark can also

appear at the end of an imperative appear at the end of an imperative sentence.sentence.

Imperative SentencesImperative Sentences

Imperative sentences (sentences that give a Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from command or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed.than expressed.– Stand on your head.Stand on your head. ("You" is understood ("You" is understood

before "stand.") before "stand.") this type of sentence can end either with a period or this type of sentence can end either with a period or

with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command isthe command is..

– Sit!Sit! – Read this book for tomorrow.Read this book for tomorrow.

HomeworkHomework – Due Next – Due Next ClassClass

Purpose of a SentencePurpose of a Sentence– Page 73 – odd questionsPage 73 – odd questions

Writing Complete SentencesWriting Complete Sentences– Page 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95–100 – all Page 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95–100 – all

even questionseven questions PunctuationPunctuation

– Page 114 & 117 – odd questionsPage 114 & 117 – odd questions

Literary TechniquesLiterary Techniques AlliterationAlliteration: : The repetition of consonant The repetition of consonant

sounds within close proximity, usually in sounds within close proximity, usually in consecutive words within the same consecutive words within the same sentence or line. sentence or line. – PPeter eter PPiipper er ppicked a icked a ppeck of eck of ppickled ickled ppeeppppers.ers.

Figurative LanguageFigurative Language: : Any use of Any use of language where the intended meaning language where the intended meaning differs from the actual literal meaning of differs from the actual literal meaning of the words themselves. the words themselves. – The poet makes extensive use of The poet makes extensive use of figurative figurative

languagelanguage, presenting the speaker’s feelings , presenting the speaker’s feelings as colors, sounds and flavors.as colors, sounds and flavors.

Literary TechniquesLiterary Techniques ForeshadowingForeshadowing: : Where future events in a Where future events in a

story, or perhaps the outcome, are story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggestedsuggested by the author before they happen. by the author before they happen. – Willy’s concern for his car Willy’s concern for his car foreshadowsforeshadows his his

eventual means of suicide.eventual means of suicide.

HyperboleHyperbole: : A description which is an over-A description which is an over-exaggeration; “hype.”exaggeration; “hype.”– The author uses The author uses hyperbolehyperbole to describe Mr. Smith, to describe Mr. Smith,

calling him “the greatest human being ever to walk calling him “the greatest human being ever to walk the earth.”the earth.”

ImageryImagery: : Language which describes Language which describes something in detail, using words to describe something in detail, using words to describe our five senses. our five senses. – The author’s use of The author’s use of visual imageryvisual imagery is impressive; is impressive;

the reader is able to see the island in all its lush, the reader is able to see the island in all its lush, colorful splendor by reading Golding’s detailed colorful splendor by reading Golding’s detailed descriptions.descriptions.

Literary TechniquesLiterary Techniques IronyIrony: : Where an outcome of events is Where an outcome of events is

contrary to what was, or might have been, contrary to what was, or might have been, expected. expected. – Three Types of Irony – Dramatic, Three Types of Irony – Dramatic,

Situational, VerbalSituational, Verbal Dramatic IronyDramatic Irony:: This is the contrast between This is the contrast between what what

the character thinksthe character thinks to be true and to be true and what we (the what we (the reader) knowreader) know to be true. to be true.

– Romeo responds with disbelief when Juliet lies ‘dead’ in Romeo responds with disbelief when Juliet lies ‘dead’ in front of him; front of him; ironicallyironically, , unbeknownst to him, Juliet has unbeknownst to him, Juliet has falsified her own death.falsified her own death.

Situational IronySituational Irony:: It is the contrast between It is the contrast between what what happenshappens and and what was expectedwhat was expected. .

– IronicallyIronically, Bob sprayed shaving cream in his own face , Bob sprayed shaving cream in his own face when he was trying to spray his best friend.when he was trying to spray his best friend.

Verbal IronyVerbal Irony:: This is the contrast between what is This is the contrast between what is saidsaid and what is and what is meantmeant. .

Orwell gives his torture and brainwashing facility Orwell gives his torture and brainwashing facility the the ironicironic title, “Ministry of Love.” title, “Ministry of Love.”

Literary TechniquesLiterary Techniques MetaphorMetaphor: : A direct relationship where one thing A direct relationship where one thing

or idea substitutes for another. or idea substitutes for another. – Shakespeare often uses light as a Shakespeare often uses light as a metaphormetaphor for Juliet; for Juliet;

Romeo refers to her as the sun, as “a rich jewel in an Romeo refers to her as the sun, as “a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear,” and as a solitary dove among crows.Ethiop’s ear,” and as a solitary dove among crows.

OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia: : Where sounds are spelled out Where sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds as words; or, when words describing sounds actually sound like the sounds they describe.actually sound like the sounds they describe.– Remarque uses Remarque uses onomatopoeiaonomatopoeia to suggest the dying to suggest the dying

soldier’s agony, his last gasp described as a soldier’s agony, his last gasp described as a “gurgling “gurgling rattle.”rattle.”

OxymoronOxymoron: : A contradiction in terms. A contradiction in terms. – Romeo describes love using several Romeo describes love using several oxymoronsoxymorons, such , such

as “as “cold fire,” “feather of lead”cold fire,” “feather of lead” and and “sick health,”“sick health,” to to suggest its contradictory nature.suggest its contradictory nature.

Literary TechniquesLiterary Techniques ParadoxParadox: : Where a situation is created which Where a situation is created which

cannot possibly exist, because different cannot possibly exist, because different elements of it cancel each other out.elements of it cancel each other out.– A Tale of Two CitiesA Tale of Two Cities opens with the famous opens with the famous

paradoxparadox, , “It was the best of times, it was the “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.worst of times.

ParallelismParallelism: : Use of similar or identical Use of similar or identical language, structures, events or ideas in language, structures, events or ideas in different parts of a text.different parts of a text.– Hobbs’ final strikeout Hobbs’ final strikeout parallelsparallels the Whammer’s the Whammer’s

striking out against him at the beginning of the striking out against him at the beginning of the novel.novel.

Literary TechniquesLiterary Techniques PersonificationPersonification Where inanimate objects or Where inanimate objects or

abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with human self-awareness; where human thoughts, human self-awareness; where human thoughts, actions, perceptions and emotions are actions, perceptions and emotions are directlydirectly attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. – Malamud Malamud personifiespersonifies Hobbs’ bat, giving it a name, Hobbs’ bat, giving it a name,

Wonderboy, and referring to it using personal pronouns; Wonderboy, and referring to it using personal pronouns; for example, “for example, “hehe went hungry” during Hobbs’ batting went hungry” during Hobbs’ batting slump.slump.

RepetitionRepetition: : Where a specific word, phrase, or Where a specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, usually in structure is repeated several times, usually in close proximity, to emphasize a particular idea. close proximity, to emphasize a particular idea. – The The repetitionrepetition of the words “What if…” at the of the words “What if…” at the

beginning of each line reinforces the speaker’s confusion beginning of each line reinforces the speaker’s confusion and fear.and fear.

Literary TechniquesLiterary Techniques SimileSimile: : An indirect relationship where one An indirect relationship where one

thing or idea is described as being similar thing or idea is described as being similar to another. Similes usually contain the to another. Similes usually contain the words “like” or “as,” but not always.words “like” or “as,” but not always.– The The similesimile in line 10 describes the lunar in line 10 describes the lunar

eclipse: “The moon appeared crimson, like a eclipse: “The moon appeared crimson, like a drop of blood hanging in the sky.”drop of blood hanging in the sky.”

SymbolismSymbolism: : The use of specific objects or The use of specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. A images to represent abstract ideas. A symbolsymbol must be something tangible or must be something tangible or visible, while the idea it visible, while the idea it symbolizessymbolizes must must be something abstract or universal. be something abstract or universal. – Poe uses Poe uses symbolssymbols to represent the various to represent the various

aspects of human nature as they are revealed aspects of human nature as they are revealed in the short story. The heartbeat in the short story. The heartbeat symbolizessymbolizes guilt.guilt.

Literary ElementsLiterary Elements AllegoryAllegory: : Where every aspect of a story is Where every aspect of a story is

representative, usually symbolic, of something else, representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event.historical/geopolitical event.– Animal FarmAnimal Farm provides a compelling provides a compelling allegoryallegory of human of human

nature, illustrating the concept of absolute power.nature, illustrating the concept of absolute power.

AntagonistAntagonist: : Counterpart to the main character Counterpart to the main character and source of a story’s main conflict. The person and source of a story’s main conflict. The person may not be “bad” or “evil” by any conventional may not be “bad” or “evil” by any conventional moral standard, but he/she opposes the protagonist moral standard, but he/she opposes the protagonist in a significant way. in a significant way.

CharacterCharacter: : The people who inhabit and take part in The people who inhabit and take part in a story. When discussing character, as distinct from a story. When discussing character, as distinct from characterizationcharacterization, look to the essential , look to the essential function function of of the character, or of all the characters as a group, in the character, or of all the characters as a group, in the story as a whole.the story as a whole.– Golding uses his main Golding uses his main characterscharacters to represent the to represent the

different parts of the human psyche, to illustrate mankind’s different parts of the human psyche, to illustrate mankind’s internal struggle between desire, intellect, and conscience.internal struggle between desire, intellect, and conscience.

Literary ElementsLiterary Elements ClimaxClimax: : The turning point in a story, at which the The turning point in a story, at which the

end result becomes inevitable, usually where end result becomes inevitable, usually where something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the “dramatic high point” of a story. “dramatic high point” of a story. – The story reaches its The story reaches its climaxclimax in Act III, when Mercutio and in Act III, when Mercutio and

Tybalt are killed and Romeo is banished from Verona.Tybalt are killed and Romeo is banished from Verona.

ConflictConflict: : A struggle between opposing forces A struggle between opposing forces which is the driving force of a story. which is the driving force of a story. – The The conflictconflict between the Montague’s and Capulet’s between the Montague’s and Capulet’s

causes Romeo and Juliet to behave irrationally once they causes Romeo and Juliet to behave irrationally once they fall in love.fall in love.

ContextContext: : Conditions, including facts, Conditions, including facts, social/historical background, time and place, etc., social/historical background, time and place, etc., surrounding a given situation. surrounding a given situation. – Madame Defarge’s actions seem almost reasonable in the Madame Defarge’s actions seem almost reasonable in the

contextcontext of the Revolution. of the Revolution.

Literary ElementsLiterary Elements MoodMood: : The atmosphere or emotional The atmosphere or emotional

condition created by the piece, within the condition created by the piece, within the setting. Mood refers to the general sense or setting. Mood refers to the general sense or feeling which the reader is supposed to get feeling which the reader is supposed to get from the text; it does from the text; it does notnot, as a literary , as a literary element, refer to the author’s or characters’ element, refer to the author’s or characters’ state of mind. state of mind. – The The moodmood of of The Princess BrideThe Princess Bride is light and is light and

happy, creating a sense of love and certainty.happy, creating a sense of love and certainty.

MotifMotif: : A recurring important idea or image. A recurring important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that A motif differs from a theme in that it can be it can be expressed as a single word or expressed as a single word or fragmentary phrasefragmentary phrase, while a theme usually , while a theme usually must be expressed as a complete sentence.must be expressed as a complete sentence.– Blood is an important Blood is an important motifmotif in in A Tale of Two A Tale of Two

CitiesCities, appearing numerous times throughout the , appearing numerous times throughout the novel.novel.

Literary ElementsLiterary Elements PlotPlot: : Sequence of events in a story. When Sequence of events in a story. When

discussing plot, it is generally more useful to discussing plot, it is generally more useful to consider and analyze its consider and analyze its structurestructure, rather than , rather than simply recapitulate “what happens.”simply recapitulate “what happens.”

Point-of-ViewPoint-of-View: : The identity of the narrative voice; The identity of the narrative voice; the person or entity through whom the reader the person or entity through whom the reader experiences the story. experiences the story. – May be May be third-personthird-person (no narrator; abstract narrative (no narrator; abstract narrative

voice, omniscient or limited) or voice, omniscient or limited) or first-personfirst-person (narrated by a (narrated by a character in the story or a direct observer). character in the story or a direct observer). Though it is written in Though it is written in third-personthird-person, , Animal FarmAnimal Farm is told from is told from

the the limitedlimited point-of-viewpoint-of-view of the common animals, unaware of the common animals, unaware of what is really happening as the pigs gradually take over the of what is really happening as the pigs gradually take over the farm. farm. 

ProtagonistProtagonist: : The main character in a story, the The main character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The person is not necessarily “good” by any person is not necessarily “good” by any conventional moral standard, but he/she is the conventional moral standard, but he/she is the person in whose plight the reader is most invested. person in whose plight the reader is most invested.

Literary ElementsLiterary Elements SettingSetting: : The time and place where a story The time and place where a story

occurs. The setting can be specific (e.g., New occurs. The setting can be specific (e.g., New York City in 1930) or ambiguous (e.g., a large York City in 1930) or ambiguous (e.g., a large urban city during economic hard times). urban city during economic hard times). – The novel is The novel is setset in the South during the racially in the South during the racially

turbulent 1930’s, when blacks were treated unfairly by turbulent 1930’s, when blacks were treated unfairly by the courts.the courts.

SpeakerSpeaker: : The “voice” of a poem; The “voice” of a poem; not not to be to be confused with the poet him/herself; equivalent to confused with the poet him/herself; equivalent to the narrator in prose fiction.the narrator in prose fiction.

StructureStructure: : The manner in which the various The manner in which the various elements of a story are assembled.elements of a story are assembled.– The play follows the traditional Shakespearean five-act The play follows the traditional Shakespearean five-act

plot plot structurestructure, with exposition in Act I, development in , with exposition in Act I, development in Act II, the climax or turning point in Act III, falling action Act II, the climax or turning point in Act III, falling action in Act IV, and resolution in Act V.in Act IV, and resolution in Act V.

Literary ElementsLiterary Elements ThemeTheme: : The main idea or message conveyed by the The main idea or message conveyed by the

piece. A theme should generally be piece. A theme should generally be expressed as a expressed as a complete sentencecomplete sentence. . – Orwell’s Orwell’s themetheme is that absolute power corrupts absolutely. is that absolute power corrupts absolutely.

ToneTone: : The apparent emotional state, or “attitude,” The apparent emotional state, or “attitude,” of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as conveyed of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as conveyed through the language of the piece. Tone refers through the language of the piece. Tone refers only only to the narrative voice; not to the author or to the narrative voice; not to the author or characters. characters. – The poem has a bitter and sardonic The poem has a bitter and sardonic tonetone, revealing the , revealing the

speaker’s anger and resentment.speaker’s anger and resentment.

TragedyTragedy: : Where a story ends with a negative or Where a story ends with a negative or unfortunate outcome which was essentially unfortunate outcome which was essentially avoidable, usually caused by a flaw in the central avoidable, usually caused by a flaw in the central character’s personality. character’s personality.

Literary ElementsLiterary Elements Tragic Hero/Tragic FigureTragic Hero/Tragic Figure: : A protagonist A protagonist

who comes to a bad end as a result of his who comes to a bad end as a result of his own behavior, usually cased by a specific own behavior, usually cased by a specific personality disorder or character flaw. personality disorder or character flaw. – Brutus is one of the best-known Brutus is one of the best-known tragic figurestragic figures

in Greek literature, choosing to focus on the in Greek literature, choosing to focus on the outcome of his country rather than his own outcome of his country rather than his own personal outcome.personal outcome.

Tragic FlawTragic Flaw: : The single characteristic The single characteristic (usually negative) or personality disorder (usually negative) or personality disorder which causes the downfall of the which causes the downfall of the protagonist.protagonist.– Brutus’ Brutus’ tragic flawtragic flaw is his love of country, which is his love of country, which

consumes him so thoroughly that he is driven to consumes him so thoroughly that he is driven to murder Julius Caesar. murder Julius Caesar.