Iran Through the Looking Glass History, Reform, and Revolution

Part 1: From Cyrus to Reza ShahIrans Culture and history played an important role in the Iranian Revolution of 1979The Iranians have obtained these cultural values through their long and complex history

Early IranFormally known as PersiaMany tribes inhabited this area, they spoke different languages and had different ethnic originsBut these tribes were pulled together by one environmental factor, The scarcity of waterThe desire for the equal distribution of this scarce resource gave them 2 major cultural tiesDevelopment of religion that emphasized justice and fairnessDevelopment of an effective government able to implement the rules that governed society

What Was Zoroastrianism?Born around the 10th century BCE, a prophet named Zoroaster traveled through Iran teaching about the responsibilities of humansZoroastrianism emphasized order, social justice, the idea that people were on earth to improve the world, and ultimate accountability before a single god

What were the contributions of the Achamenian Empire? (530-330 bc)Persian King Cyrus was the first in a dynasty called the Achamenian Empire Cyrus and his successors developed a postal system, built roads established a legal system, taxation system and a gvmt so efficient that the Romans later used it as a model for their own gvmt Ended aprox. 330 BC after Alexander the Great invaded130 years later the Greeks were overthrown and a series of nomadic wars insuedA man named Ardeshir reestablished central rule over the tribesThis era was known as the Sassanian Dynasty and lasted until 637 BC

What were the important developments of the Sassanian Dynasty? (220-647 CE)One of the main goals was to unify the empire and to create political stability Persian culture flourished in this eraRigid Class structures developed with the king at the top of the hierarchyThe barriers between classes were rigid These social rules marked the beginning of a political order and hierarchy that was viewed as oppressive and unjustThe peoples opposition to this hierarchy set the stage for the arrival of Islam

Islam and the SafavidsIslam arrived when the Arabs conquered Iran between 637-651 BCThe message of justice and fairness appealed to the many Iranians who resented the Sassanian ruleIslam shared some common ideas with Zoroastrianism making it easier for Islam to take rootBy the 10th century most Iranians were Islamic but they still held on to their pre-Islam culture

Who was the Prophet Mohammad?According to Islam in 610 CE, Mohammad had a revelation form the angel Gabriel His preaching had a great effect on the impoverished people because he talked about sharing wealth with the poorAbout 100 years after Mohammads death a controversy divided the Islamic Faith into two branches, the Shii and the Sunni

ShiismShiism is the main form of Islam in Iran todayThe Muslims elected a new prophet after Mohammad's death called a Caliph The Shia only recognize the fourth caliph, Ali, as a true caliph because he was related to Mohammad Shia- followers of Ali Later the Shia later split up over succession conflictsTwelvers because they recognize 12 Imams (leaders) after AliSeveners (Ismailis) because they recognize the seventh leader

What was economic life like during the Safavid Dynasty? (1501-1736)To gain control of the largely nomadic population Shah Ismail granted tribal leaders large areas of land in return for payments and taxesThe Safavids built roads and exported silk and other textiles as well as ceramics to European countriesThe most famous Safavid ruler, Shah Abbas encouraged support of other religions to help trade with EuropeShah Abbas collected huge amounts of money in taxes and trades, he used this money to fund a large army to protect the Iranians from the boardering Ottoman Empire

The Qajar Dynasty (1779-1925)Established by Agha Mohammad Khan in 1779The Qajars werent really religious. This enhanced the separation of the clergy that had greater influence over the population than the ShahIn the early 19th century almost of the population was nomadic, the leaders of these tribes were of the appointed as governors of their area and the surrounding areasThe Qajar dynasty was hierarchical and corrupt, with the citizens taxes going to provide a life of luxury for the ShahThe economy lacked the infrastructure to grow making it susceptible to interventions by other countries (Britain & Russia) looking to expand their own wealth

How did Russia and Britain compete over Iran?Russia wanted to expand southward and obtain ports on the Persian GulfBritain viewed this expansion as a threat to their colony, India. Iran fought (and lost) 2 wars with Russia and eventually signed the Treaty of Turkomanchai which allowed Russian merchants special privileges and favorable Tariff Britain informed Russia that it would not tolerate any further expansion in Iran. Iran became a buffer state between the 2 nations empiresBritain later negotiated a treaty with Iran that gave their merchants similar rights as the Russians

What were concessions?With Britain and Russia competing for trade in Iran, the shah decided to grant concessions to foreign merchantsThey gave foreigners the right to develop parts of Irans economyBritish and Russian squabbles over these concessions slowed the development of infrastructure in IranThe Foreign influence and wealth, along with the thought that they were plundering Iran lead to increased distrust of Europeans and other outsiders, this played a powerful role in Irans politics

Why did the Shahs policies anger Iranians?The concessions benefitted the British, Russian and the Shah but did little to help the political hardships in Irans economyThe Iranians who had contact with Europeans of had studied abroad worried that Iran had fallen behindThe government of Iran had stood in contrast with the organized European governmentsThey viewed western science and technology as the key to building Iranian national power and wealthThese brought liberal ideas, In response to these ideas, Nasir al-Din Shah resorted to repressive measures.

Constitutional Revolution of 1906-1911Some Iranians believed that the influx of foreigners, the Shahs corruption and economic hardship threatened the well-being of IraniansIntellectuals, merchants, and clergy formed secret societies to discuss their unhappiness about the state of Iran Intellectuals- wanted an Iran without the absolute and corrupt monarchyMerchants- wanted an economic system that would be more fair and efficientClergy- wanted to strengthen the role of Shii Islam in the governmentThe intellectuals brought the idea of reform to Iran but the clergy spread it to the masses

How did protests lead to a parliament and constitution?1905- Protests against the Shah beganThe public demands for change led to the Constitutional RevolutionProtestors demanded a constitution and a parliament (Majlis- Persian word for parliament)The shah, who was mortally ill and had hoped to preserve the monarchy, agreed1906- Irans first elections for the parliament were held

How did the Constitution change Iranian politics?Majlis received authority over treaties, loans, budgets, and concessions, and the power to appoint and dismiss cabinet membersConstitution defined the rights of the Iranian citizensMembers of the Majlis debated each other in public and had to answer to the citizensTwelver was designated as the official religion of Iran, and a group of clergy was hired to make sure that the government didnt contradict the principles of Shiism

How did foreign roles in Iran help the Shah weaken the new constitution?Mohammad Ali Shah didnt want to relinquish his power as monarch Public discontent helped him helped him challenge the new constitutionHe argued that the new gvnmt was even worse at protecting Iran from foreign interference After encouragement from Russia the shah ordered his army to attack the Majlis building and had the officers arrested and executedOnce the society was divided and the central government was weakened fighting broke out1909- Pro-constitution militias deposed the shah and replaced him with his 9 year old son

How did Russia and Britain respond to war in Iran?1911-Britain sent troop to protect the newly discovered oil fieldsThe occupation of the Russians and British increased resentment because they were seen as helping the Shah end the Constitutional Revolution

How did WWI affect Iran?Irans economy shrunk by 25%Parts of Iran were occupied by the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Great BritainIran considered itself an unwilling victim of war and petitioned for redress at the Paris Peace ConferenceThe Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the withdrawal of Russian Troops from the northBritain became the biggest influenceThe Iranian PM decided to embrace the British involvement, in hope that it would help strengthen the central governmentAnglo-Persian Agreement of 1919 would have made Iran a British protectorateThe Majlis refused to ratify the agreement

Reza Shah (1925-1941) Pahlavi Dynasty1921-Colonel Reza Khan took 3,000 soldiers into Tehran arrested some leading politicians, and demanded the Shah to appoint a new PM1923-Reza Khan had become PM himself, expanded the armed forces and purchased weapons1925- Majlis abolished the Qajar dynasty and appointed Reza Khan as shah

What did Reza Shah hope to change in Iran?Hoped to build Iran into a modern state and economy like the western states of EuropeHe worked to strengthen the central gvmnt, concentrate his powerOrdered the construction of new roads, railroads, factories, hospitals and portsExpanded public education for both boys and girlsLimited the tribes movements and forced them to disarm

How did Reza Shah try to reduce the power of the ulama?Reza Shah believed that the clergys power prevented Irans modernization, so many of his plans were designed to weaken the clergy and make Iran a more secular societyCentral component of his reforms included significant changes in the legal systemNew laws required men to dress in the western style and prohibited hijab (veiling) for women Many Iranians embraced his modernization of Iran, his efforts to reduce Islam nade him unpopularEnforced his policies with Violence, terror and fear1935- Religious leaders protested the forced unveiling of women at a mosque. Reza Shah had the army massacre more than 100 protestors

How did the lives of women change during the reign of Reza Shah?The Shah encouraged the education of women, though 3x as many boys received a formal educationWomen began to have more opportunities for work.Women were admitted to the UniversityMainly only affected women in middle and upper classes and did little to change traditional assumptions about the subjugation of women to men

How did Reza Shah attempt to limit the influence of foreign powers in Iran?Reza Shah attempted to reduce the role of foreign powers in Iran- particularly BritainThe Shah prohibited the sale of property to foreigners, refused to take loans from foreign countries to fund his building projects, and ended a concession that had given the British the sole right to manage Iranian currency Britain controlled its monopoly on Iranian oil

How did the German presence in Iran lead to the Shahs abdication?1930s the shah allowed Nazi Germany to play an increasing role in Iran The Shahs deep distrust of Britain hoped a German presence would balance the power of the BritishAllied leaders worried that Nazi Germany would use Iran as a base for military operations against the USSRAfter the Allies had expelled the Nazis, Reza Shah gave the throne to his young son, Mohammad RezaMohammad Reza was seen as someone whom the allies could influence

How did the occupation of Iran during WWII affect Irans Politics?During WWII, neither the shah nor the Majlis had final control over the policy in IranThe US sent financial advisors to assist the Iranian Government and military officers who trained the Iranian police and armyThe US and the USSR wanted a share in Irans oil after the war

How did WWII affect Irans economy?The wartime allies took the use of Irans transportation facilities like the railroad to send supplies, making internal trade more difficult for IranThere was little money for the government to invest in infrastructure or programs to develop Irans economy By the time WWII ended Iran was economically destroyed, still subject to foreign influence, and ruled by a weak shah

Part II: Mossadegh to KhomeiniAt the end of WWII Iran stood at a crossroadsBritain, the Soviet Union, and the US agreed to withdraw their occupation forces six months after the end of the warThe constitution of 1906 was still in affect, and with the departure of the dictator Reza Shah, the Majlis and PM assumed increasingly important roles in Iranian politics

How did the shah attempt to strengthen his power?Following an assassination attempt in 1949, Mohammad Reza Shah drew on public sympathy to back his efforts to increase his powerHe put pressure on the Majlis to accept a new law that would allow him to dissolve the Majlis and call for new elections. He was also given the power to appoint a new PM

Cont.Many different political views developed during this time The lower class was concerned about basic economic issues60% of Iranians who lived in towns and cities lived in slumsThe upper class wished for a more efficient government, free from foreign controlUniversity graduates used their education to join and lead social protest movements

Mohammad Mossadegh and Oil NationalizationIncreasing profits and rising prices brought more and more profit to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, but no more to the Iranian gvmtBy the late 1940s, Iran had become the worlds fourth largest oil exporter, and produced 90% of Europes oilWhile the AIOC provided jobs for many Iranians, they were low level with no chance of moving up in the companyWorking conditions were atrocious, paying only around 50cents a day with no vacations or sick days Riots in Abadan (1946) demanded that the gvmt renegotiate the terns of the arrangement with the AIOC

What were the results of negotiations between AIOC and Iran?Britain had built its empire by extracting resources from its colonies greatly advantageousLocal interests were never a concern Britain manipulated local politicians with bribes or coercionBritain needed the oil money for its post war expensesThey offered to train more Iranians for high level positions and promised that royalty payments would not drop below 4 million pounds per year ($134 million)

Why did the shah want to support the Supplemental Agreement with Britain?British officials were responsible for Mohammad Reza succeeding his father to the throne, so Mohammad felt he owed the British for thisHe thought he could strengthen his power by helping the British even though the agreement benefited Britain more that IranThe Shah ordered the cabinet members to accept this agreement, which they did, but the Majlis refused to pass it

Why did the Majlis refuse to support the Supplemental Agreement?The constitution required the Majlis to ratify the agreement for it to become lawMajlis knew that the public was strongly against accepting the terms dictated by the British, but they were afraid to anger the shahThe Shah used bribes and electoral fraud to place his supporters in the MajlisProminent politician named Mohammad Mossadegh led protests in Tehran for new and fair elections of the MajlisMany political groups sprang forth at this time with one united factor: the desire to nationalize Irans oil

How did the shah respond to demands of the political parties?In Feb.. 1951 Mossadegh proposed full nationalization of the AIOCThe PM rejected this proposal. On march 7, a member of the Fedaian-e Islam assassinated himOn March 15, the Majlis passed a bill nationalizing the AIOC. They also requested that the shah appoint Mossadegh as the PM

How did Britain respond to the nationalization? Britain increased its military forces in the region, filed a complaint with the ICJ and asked the UN Security council to interveneThe US worried that a continuing crisis in Iran could lead to increased Soviet influence or even control of IranBritain led an international boycott of Iranian oil British spying proved to Mossadegh that the British could not be trustedIn Oct. 1952, Mossadegh broke diplomatic relations with Britain and expelled all British officials form Iran

What other reforms did Mossadegh attempt to enact in Iran?Mossadegh was a strong nationalist who hoped to rid Iran of foreign influenceStrong advocate for the rule of law and the ConstitutionReduce the power of the shah and the size of the army Enact land reforms- reduce power of wealthy landowners and allow peasants to own their own land

How did the British and the Americans overthrow Mossadegh ? US officials worried about Iran falling under Soviet influenceUS & Britain aimed to rid Iran of the Mossadegh gvmnt, and increase the power of the shah, whom they thought would do their biddingThe CIA and the SIS came up with a plan to overthrow Mossadegh

Cont.The plan was to convince the Iranian people that Mossadegh was corrupt, an enemy of Islam, and pro-communistCIA agents bribed newspapers and religious leaders to spread these IdeasCIA also paid for physical attacks on Religious leaders and made it appear as if the attacks had been by Mossadegh supportersUs involvement turned Iran into a hotbed of instability, rioting and chaosAug 19, 1953 they captured Mohammad Mossadegh He was dismissed as prime minister

Royal DictatorshipTo avoid a repeat of the threats to his power the Mohammad Reza Shah took steps to ensure that these events would not occur againHe had the support of the US and Britain, who wanted a stable, oil-producing Iran as an ally against the USSR

What steps did the shah take to consolidate his power?The shah moved to settle the oil dispute: Iran would receive 50% of oil revenues, similar to other US deals in the RegionBanned the Pro-soviet Tudeh partyFormed SAVAK (Intelligence and Security Organization of the Country), a secret police organization which he used to hunt down his opponents, known for its mistreatment, torture and execution of opponentsUS gave more than $500 million in military aid to the shah; shah followed a strongly Pro-American foreign policyAnd the Shah only allowed 2 political parties to exist which were both under his control

The White Revolution: Plagued by the WestAn economic downturn in Iran coincided with US pressure on the shah to ease restrictions on political expression as a conditioned for ongoing financial and military aidAs the repression eased, unrest and discontent simmered again in IranA Cleric named Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini opposed the shahs close relations with the US, Irans sale of oil to Israel, the corruption of the regime, and Irans failure to help its masses of poor people

What was the White Revolution?Not a revolution at allName given to reforms the shah adopted to reduce the growing unrestMost important reform was the redistributing land to peasant farmers and sharecroppers, giving women the right to vote and creating the Literacy Corps (increasing education)Gave 2 million peasants ownership of the land that they farmedThis took land away from wealthy landowners as well as the ulama who used the land to support religious schools and mosques75% of the peasants did not receive enough land to even reach a level of subsistence

How did the shah change the status of women?He gave women the right to vote and increased educational and employment opportunitiesHe also introduced laws that gave women more rights in marriagePolygamy was still permitted, but now the husband had to obtain permission of his current wife before taking another

Why were relations with the US a sore point for many Iranians?The shah spent hundreds of millions of dollars on US weaponsThe US was happy to supply most of its advanced weapons to an ally against the USSRMajlis approved a law that made Americans residing in Iran exempt from Iranian laws and taxation, the Ayatollah Khomeini spoke out, risking the wrath of the shahKhomeini believed the shah and his reforms were an assault on Islam and the role of the clergy in Iranian societyKhomeini considered the shah to be an enemy on Islam and a ruler who was unconcerned about the welfare of the Iranian people

Why did Khomeinis message appeal to so many Iranians?Khomeinis ideas struck a chord with Iranians of many classes and ideologiesWhen the shahs soldiers killed protesting theology students, Khomeini compared the shah to the man who had ordered the killing of Iman Hussein, a central figure in ShiismThe students were seen as Shii martyrsNot all Iranians agreed with Khomeinis ideas but they were pleased to have someone speak out against the shah

What important idea did Khomeini develop in exile?The shah ordered Khomeini arrested and exiled to Najaf in Iraq, a shrine frequently by Iranian pilgrimsThese pilgrims would smuggle pamphlets and cassette recordings made by Khomeini back into IranKhomeini developed a religious and political framework for Irans futureFrame work called Velayat-e Faquh Guardianship of the JuristThought that clergy should be the ultimate conscience of the state And that an Islamic gvmnt needed to replace the corrupt influence of kings, which believed were illegitimate rulers

How did the shah respond to Khomeini?The shah used SAVAK to suppress and weaken the religious leadership in IranPrevented large religious gatherings from taking placeThe shah hoped to reduce the influence of Islam by replacing it with Iranian nationalism and by emphasizing monarchy as the lynchpin of the Iranian nation1971- more than $100 million (almost 500 million in todays dollars) was spent for a celebration al Persopolis only a few wealthy or powerful Iranians were invitedFor many, $100 million dollars spent on a banquet while Iranians remained in poverty illustrated his lack of compassion and judgment

How did opposition begin to grow?The ulama quietly spread the word that the shahs celebration of the pre-Islamic kings showed his disrespect for IslamThe shah repressed political dissent, but small groups met in secretSAVAK fiercely repressed dissent through arrests, torture, and executions. 1975- shahs efforts to tighten control, made 1 political partyHe was able to remain in power for 3 reasons: brutal suppression of his opponents and political dissent, nearly unconditional support from the US & Britain, vast amounts of money brought into Iran through oil revenues

How did the rising price of oil affect Iran?1973- Arab-Israeli War led Arab nations to impose an oil boycott on nations that supported IsraelOil prices doubled worldwide, the shah pushed OPEC to double the prices again due to the huge sums of money now flowing into Iran The shah devoted new oil revenue to large scale industry and agriculture, and billions of dollars on the most advanced US armamentsThe new large-scale agricultural business failed to produce more food. Shortages led to price increases outpaced growth in wages

How did international criticism of Irans human rights record affect Iran? Amnesty International had drawn attention to Irans terrible record on human rights 1975The shah, anxious to restore its international image, loosened press censorship and promised to allow more political participationThis hindered the shahs ability to use brutality and force against those who dared to oppose him publiclyThose who dared speak out called for the 1906 constitution to be followedThey also demanded freedom of the press and fair elections

How did the shahs efforts to discredit Khomeini backfire?In Jan. 1978, a gvmnt newspaper published an article attacking Khomeini in an effort to discredit himLeading members of the clergy who opposed the shah called for Iranians to protest, and then attend mosques for forty days to mourn the slaying of the Iranian martyrs by the shah, in accordance with the Islamic traditionProtests were mainly peaceful, except in the city of Tabriz where the gvnmt sent in tanks to control the demonstrations, and killed more than 100 protestersThe crowds attacked buildings that they considered symbols of the West, like banks liquor stores, and movie theatresThe shah was loosing his iron grip on Iran

1979: Iranians Debate Their Future1978- the shah imposed a new economic policy that was intended to help the economy, instead it froze wages and lead to a sharp increase in unemploymentThe protests had moved beyond demanding the restoration of the constitution to demanding the death of the shahSept 8, 1978 soldiers with tanks put down a massive protest in Tehran. Hundreds died on this day which would be known as Black FridayIn early Dec. more than 2 million people took to the streets of Tehran Many soldiers especially those who had been drafted into the army, refused to fire on unarmed demonstrators, some even joined the protests

Cont.The PM , Shapour Bahkriar, negotiated a departure for the shahOn Jan. 16 1979 the shah left, people sand and danced and celebratedKhomeini announced that he would return from exile, he was seen as the leader who ended the tyranny of the shahMany Iranians saw the PM as a puppet of the US and a tratior because he was appointed by the shah, but he vowed to review foreign contracts, eliminate SAVAK and to cut back on military Khomeini claimed that he had appointed a man named Mahdi Bazargan as the actual prime minister

Cont. In March 1979 a referendum was held. Iranians could only vote for or against forming an Islamic republic98% of the 20 Million Iranians voted for an Islamic republic, process of drafting a new constitution beganIran was in turmoil: groups from all points of the political spectrum attempted to assert that their vision for the future of Iran was the correct oneThe unity Iranians had used to overthrow the shah was dissolving