Iran: Governance & Policy-Making

AP Comparative Government

Spring 2008

Mr. Saliani

Iran’s Political System

Is Iran a theocracy, a democracy, a hybrid?• It is considered a theocracy with

democratic features. • Theologians (the clergy) control the most

powerful political positions.• Elements of democracy are also present

with some high officials, including the president, elected directly by the people.

• Is this similar to Plato’s Republic?

Organization of the State

• Iran’s state rests on the Islamic constitution designed by the Assembly of Religious Experts after the 1979 revolution. Later amended in 1989.

• The final document is a highly complex mixture of theocracy and democracy.

• Supreme power is granted to the senior clergy.• All laws, institutions, and state organizations have to

conform to these “divine principles”.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Islamic_Republic_of_Iranhttp://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution.html

Khomeini & Khameini

Is there a movie for Ayatollah Sean in the future?

The Leader• The constitution named Khomeini leader for life with overwhelming

approval. After his death Ali Khameini was elected by senior clerics.• The Islamic republic can often be described as regime of the

ayatollahs (high-ranking clerics) but is more aptly a regime of hojjat al Islams (middle-ranking clerics). Other senior ayatollahs have reservations about the role of the clerics and theocratic role.

• The constitution gives wide-ranging powers to the Leader. Is vital link and can mediate between the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary.

• He can “determine the interests of Islam,” “supervise the implementation of general policy,” and “set political guidelines for the Islamic Republic.”

• Can eliminate presidential candidates as well as dismiss the duly elected president. He can grant amnesty.

• As commander-in-chief, he can mobilize the armed forces declare war and peace, convene the Supreme Military council.

• Appoint and dismiss the commanders of Revolutionary Guards and military.

Khomeini & Khameini

On your own you need to wiki these guys and get some information that you can use if needed…

Khomeini - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini

Khameini – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khameini

The Leader (cont.)• The Leader has extensive power over the judicial system.• He can nominate and remove the chief judge, the chief prosecutor,

the revolutionary tribunals.• Nominates six clerics to the 12-man Guardian Council which can

veto parliamentary bills. The GC can also review ALL candidates for public office.

• Appoints members of the Expediency Council, which has the authority to resolve differences between the GC and the Majles (the legislature) and to initiate laws of its own.

• The Leader is authorized to fill a number of important nongovernment posts: the preachers (Imam Jum’ehs) at the main city mosques, the director of the national radio-tv network, the heads of main religious endowments, etc.

• Free Elections? Figure 2 – page 604• Law based on Shari’a and who interprets Shari’a?• All legislation is reviewed accordingly what does that mean?

The Leader

• How would you describe the role of the leader?• How does this compare to the absolute

monarchies of Europe in the 16th-19th Centuries or possibly dictators?

• How could you compare the Leader to other executive leaders we have studied?

• How would you compare Khomeini & Khameini?• What limitations are there in this theocracy with

democratic elements?• How would you evaluate this governmental

system?

Executive (President & Cabinet)

• The constitution reserves some power for the president (reserved through amendments)

• Chief executive & highest state official after the Leader

• Elected through popular vote in a national election (four-year term) – two term limit

• Must be a pious Shi’i faithful to the principles of the Islamic Republic

Mohammad Khatami

Iran’s reformist President 1997-2005

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khatami

Current President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

Conservative/Populist President

Elected in 2005

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmadinejad

The President’s Powers1. Economic• Draws up annual budget • Supervises economic matters• Chairs the plan and budget organization

2. Political• Proposes legislation to Majles• Conducts the country’s internal & external policies • Signs all international treaties, laws, & agreements• Chairs National Security Council (resp. for defense matters)• Selects vice presidents and cabinet members• Must choose minister of intelligence from clergy (parliament law)• Appoints most senior officials - provincial governors, town mayors,

and ambassadors

• Names directors of some of the large public organizations

The Bureaucracy

Iran’s revolution led to a larger bureaucracy, even though Khomeini had often taken the shah to task for having a bloated government

Ministries (Examples)• Culture and Islamic Guidance - controls the media and

enforces “proper conduct” in public life• Intelligence - main security organization, replaced SAVAK• Heavy Industries - manages nationalized factories• Reconstruction - expands social services and takes “true

Islam” to the countrysideThe clergy dominate the bureaucracy through nepotism and

cronyism.

Semipublic Institutions

• Autonomous in name but are directed by clerics appointed personally by the Leader (List on page 606)

• Annual income possibly half of the government, exempt from taxes, allocated foreign currencies at favorable rates subsidized by oil revenues, most of assets are property confiscated from old elite

• Foundation for the Oppressed (largest institution) - administers over 140 factories, 120 mines, 470 agribusinesses, 100 construction companies, and owns the two leading newspapers Ettela’at and Kayhan.

Are they states within states or clerical fiefdoms?How could you use this information (bureaucracy and semipublic

institutions) to discuss the power of the clergy or concerns about democracy in Iran?

The Military

• The clergy also dominate the control of the nation’s military• The Leader, as commander in chief, appoints the chiefs of

staff, the top commanders and defense minister (who bypasses the president and the cabinet).

• Chaplains oversee regular officers in military units• After revolution, the top ranks of the military were purged and

officers from Revolutionary Guard filled command posts• Regular army defends the borders• The Revolutionary Guard protects the republic from internal

enemies

What are the political sentiments of those in the regular army?

The Judiciary• The judiciary has been Islamicized by enacting a penal code, the

Retribution Law, based on a narrow reading of the Shari’a. This is a controversial law that critics say counters the UN Charter of Human Rights.

• Harsh punishments - including the death penalty exist for “moral transgressions” (page 607)

• Inequality exists between men and women as well as Muslims and non-Muslims

• “Law on banking without usury” was passed as money lending with interest is anti-Islamic

• Some of this has been revisited and altered - 1. Banks can charge modest interest (usury is taboo term)

2. Harsh penalties in shari’a are rarely implemented - due to public sensitivities & international objections

3. Modern method of punishment (imprisonment) replaced traditional one (corporal punishment)

Subnational Government

• Although Iran is a highly centralized state, it is divided into provinces, districts, subdistricts, townships, and villages - headed by appointed officials of the Interior Ministry.

• Appointed leaders must consult with local councils • Khatami pushed for election of councils and in

1999 and reformists won a landslide (75% of the seats) - showed vitality of the participatory democracy at the grassroots. This trend was turned back in the 2003 election as reformists largely abstained in protest for conservative actions

The Policy Making Process

• Described as highly fluid and diffuse, reflecting the regime’s factional divisions

• Clerics claim they have “divine mandate to govern” - their common political, economic, educational backgrounds/experiences and social connections reinforces their beliefs

• Two loose but identifiable blocs emerged 1. Society of the Militant Clergy (Majmu’eh) -

statist reformers or populists2. Association of the Militant Clergy (Jam’eh) -

laissez-faire (free-market) conservatives

Who is who?

• Reformers - major platform - creation of comprehensive welfare system (sought lower-class support), recently have begun to emphasize the democratic over the theocratic features of the constitution, individual rights, the rule of law, government accountability to the electorate. Considered as more progressive.

• Conservatives - mostly economic platform - including lowering business taxes and privatization (sought middle-class support) - considered more traditionalists.

• Polarization is evident in reformer-dominated Majles clashing with conservative-dominated Guardian Council (vetoed legislation)

• Khomeini broke the constitutional gridlock by introducing the Sunni concept of maslahat - “public interest” which could overrule all

Khomeini steps in…

• Broke the constitutional gridlock by introducing the concept of maslahat (Sunni) - “public interest” which could overrule all

• Instituted the Expediency Council (staffed by mix of Majles and GC reps) - to resolve conflicts between the Islamic Majles and the Guardian Council. (EC - similar to a bipartisan comm.)

• Conflict was resolved as EC passed some of the reformers legislation

• After Khomeini’s death however Khameini packed it with his conservative supporters and gave it new powers such as promulgating new laws rather than resolving legislative differences

• EC is referred to as a secretive supraconstitutional body only accountable to the Leader and rivaling the power of the Majles (though it did not exist in the original constitution) - Its numbers have grown to 32 members and are considered the inner circle of ruling elite

Questions

• What are the powers of the position of Leader?• How is legislation passed in Iran?• What are the major differences between the reformers and the

conservatives? • Who holds the upper hand in this rivalry?• What is the role of President?• How has the judiciary modernized while maintaining shari’a

influence?• Why are the semipublic institutions controversial?• Why is the policy-making process considered complex in Iran?• What is the role of the Expediency Council and how did it

develop?