IPOE

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Intelligence Preparation

of the OperationalEnvironment (IPOE)

IPB 1/97CLASSIFIED

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LESSON OBJECTIVE

Define IPOE and understandIPOE process

Identify IPOE products andexplain how each product isused

IPB 2CLASSIFIED

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SCOPE OF PRESENTATION

Definition

Review of MDMP Where IPOE fits into the

MDMP

Four (4) Steps of IPOE

IPB 3CLASSIFIED

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I ntel l igence Preparation oftheBattlefield

WHY SHOULD YOU KNOW

IPOE?War is tough---its tougher when youre stupid

John Wayne

The enemy invariably attacks on two

occasions ------ when you are ready andwhen you are not

MURPHYS Law of Combat Operations

IPB 4CLASSIFIED

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IntelligencePreparation of theOperational Envt

I ntel l igence Preparation oftheOperational Envir onment

- a systematic continuousprocess of analyzing thethreat and the environment

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..follows certainprocedures andtechniques

I ntel l igence Preparation oftheOperational Envir onment

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.. performed as acycle, from conceptionof the operations toexecution

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.. (METT-T) Mission;Enemy; Terrain; Time;

Troops

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IPOE is common sense process

applied to a map which shows youhow to avoidENEMYstrength

and attackENEMYweakness

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Helps Commanders applyand maximize combatpower at critical time andspace in the battlefield

h

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Supports staff estimatesand the MDMP

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Military Decision Making Process

WRITE

OPORD

I ntell igence Preparation of the Battlefi eld

MISSION

RECEIPT

Step 1

MISSION

ANALYSIS

Step 2

DEVELOP

COAs

Step 3

ANALYZE

COAs

Step 4

COMPARE

COAs

Step 5DECISION

& COA

APPROVAL

Step 6

OPORD

OPLANor

FRAGO

Step 7

-AO/AOI

-Terrain/WX

Analysis

-Threat Models

-Pertinent

Threat COAs

-Refined

Threat COAs

-Draft Event

Temp &

Matrix

-Prioritized

Threat COAs

-Event Temp

-ID Intel Reqs

-Collection Plan

-Intel Synch Matrix

-Intel Annex &

Estimate

IPOE

STEPs1 - 4

th

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- concerned with what ourforces are doing

S3

S2 - what theenemyis doing- concerned with

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BAD GUY

Think RED!You have to f igu re ou t :Who are they?

What do they have?

How many do they have?

Where is it?

What are they go ing to do w ith i t?How wel l do they do i t?

Can they sustain i t?

I ntell igence Preparation oftheBattlefield

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Step 1- Define the Battlefield

Step 2- Describe the Battlefields Effects

Step 3- Evaluate the Threat

Step 4- Determine Threat COAs

Intelligence Preparation of the

Operational Envt (IPOE)

IPB 15CLASSIFIED

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Why is defining Area of

Operations important?

I PB Step 1Define Battlef ield Environment

IPB 17CLASSIFIED

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Area of Operations A geographical area where the commander is

assigned the responsibility and authority to

accomplish his mission. Normally specified in the OPORD from higher

headquarters

A thorough knowledge of the characteristics of

this area leads to its effective use


IPB 18CLASSIFIED

I PB S 1 D fi B l f i ld E i

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Assigned by higher based on METT-T

Defined by boundaries: left, right, rear, objective

Of sufficient size to allow completion of mission

Cmdr has authority and responsibility to operate

FLOT

Area Of Operations

Area of Operations

II

II

X XFEBARear


IPB 19CLASSIFIED

I PB Step 1 Define Battlef ield Environment

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BN AREA OF

OPERATIONS

x

x

AO


I PB St 1 D fi B ttl f i ld E i t

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Area of Interest A geographical area from which information and

intelligence are required to permit planning for

successful conduct of the commands operation Based on the ability of the threat to project power

or move forces into the AO


IPB 21CLASSIFIED

I PB St 1 D fi B ttl f i ld E i t

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Area of Interest

Determined by Cmdr Input from S2/S3/

Battle staff

Area in which threat may influence mission-

space and time

FLOT

Serves to focus intelligence development

Area ofInterest

II

II

X Area of Operations XFEBARear


IPB 22CLASSIFIED


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BN AREA OF

INTEREST

x

x

AO


AI

AI

AI

AI

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AO

AI

AI

AI


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STUDENT CHECKQ: Who assigns your AO?

Q: What is the definition of AI?

A: Higher assigns it.

A: A geographical area from which

information and intelligence are required to

permit planning or successful conduct of

the commands operationIPB 25CLASSIFIED


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Weather Analysis Different from forecasting

Terrain Analysis

Modified Combined Obstacle Overlay (MCOO)

Step 2 IPOE Describe the

Battlefields Effects

IPB 26CLASSIFIED

I PB Step 2 Describe the Battlef ield Effects

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Key Word is Effects

Sir the terrain is very rugged and the

temperature w il l r ise 10 degrees

tomorrow.-(Statemen t of a Bn S2 to

his Bn Comdr dur ing a m iss ion/s i tuat ion

br ief ing on or about 2200H)

I PB Step 2Describe the Battlef ield Effects

Do no t be a histor ian, you mus t descr ibe

how the batt lef ield w i l l af fect both enemy

and fr iend ly operat ions

IPB 27CLASSIFIED


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Terrain Analysis

S2: The flat, slightly rolling terrain

will have no impact on mounted

movement.


IPB 28


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OCOKA

Avenues of Approach

Cover and Concealment

Obstacles

Key Terrain

Observation and Fields of Fire


IPB 29CLASSIFIED


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Obstacles

Natural or manmade

features that will stop,

impede, or divert movement.

IPB 30CLASSIFIED



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Obstacles

Obstacles to ground mobility:

Buildings Cities

Steep slopes Jungles

Rivers Minefields

LakesForests

Deserts

Swamps

IPB 31CLASSIFIED



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Obstacles

Obstacles to air mobility

(greater than 75 feet)

Trees

TowersBuildings

Rapidly rising terrain

Mountains

Smoke or other obscurants

IPB 32CLASSIFIED



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Mobility Classifications

Unrestricted (0-30% slope) - terrain free of anyrestriction to movement. Typically flat to moderately

slopping.

Restricted(31-45% slope) -Terrain hindersmovement to some degree. Little effort required. Speed

may be hindered.

Severely Restricted (>45% slope) - Severely

hinders or slows Movement in combat formations.

Great effort required.

IPB 33CLASSIFIED



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Symbology

Restricted

Terrain

Severely Restricted

Terrain

Water

Obstacle

Man Made

Obstacle

K

Key

Terrain


IPB 34CLASSIFIED


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Cover and Concealment

Cover: protection from the effects of direct

and indirect fires

Concealment: protection from ground, air

and sensor observation

IPB 35CLASSIFIED



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Observation and Fields of Fire

Observation: ability to see either visually or through

surveillance devices, from both ground & air

Fields of Fire: ability to effectively utilize direct and

indirect fires

Masked Terrain(Dead Space)

Inter-visibility

lines

IPB 36CLASSIFIED



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Key Terrain:

Decisive Terrain:

K8

D

Any locality, or area, the seizure or retention of which

affords a marked advantage to either combatant.

IPB 37CLASSIFIED


Key Terrainwh ich seizure, retent ion , or contro l

of is necessary for miss ion accom pl ishment

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Avenues of Approach

X

Ground or air route of an attacking force of a given size

leading to its objective or key terrain

IPB 38CLASSIFIED


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Mobility Corridors (MC)

Area w i th in an Avenue of

App roach which allows a

smal ler sized un i t to dep loy

and maneuver in i ts doc tr inal

tact ical fo rmat ion .


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IPB 40CLASSIFIED

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MCOO

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IPB42

CLASSIFIED

K1

K2

MCOO

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TERRAIN ANALYSIS MATRIX

ASPECTS DESCRIPTION

Obstacles

Avenues of

Approach

Key Terrain

Observation &Fields of fire

Cover &

Concealment

LOCATION EFFECTS ON EN EFFECTS ON FF DEDUCTIONS T T Ps

IPB 43CLASSIFIED

http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/Terrain%20Analysis%20Matrix.dochttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/Terrain%20Analysis%20Matrix.doc

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Weather Analysis

p

IPB 44CLASSIFIED


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Military Aspects of Weather

Visibility

Wind

Precipitation

Cloud Cover

Temperature & Humidity

p

IPB 45CLASSIFIED


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Visibility Effects

Reduced visibility:

Provides concealment

Impedes reconnaissance and

surveillance ( R&S) Hinders target acquisition

IPB 46CLASSIFIED


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Wind Effects

Strong Winds:

Impact airborne and aviation operations

Hinder communications and collection

Impact smoke and chemical operations

IPB 47CLASSIFIED


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Precipitation Effects

Heavy rain or snow can impact:

Trafficability

Visibility

Electro-optical systems

IPB 48CLASSIFIED


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Cloud Cover Effects

Limits illumination

Degrades optical target acquisition

Limits aviation operations

Doctrinally viable cloud ceiling for

CAS - 1,000 ftIPB 49CLASSIFIED


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Temperature & Humidity Effects

Extremes of temperature and humidity:

Reduce personnel and equipment capabilities

Reduce aircraft payloads

Create logistical problems

IPB 50CLASSIFIED

WEATHER FORECAST

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BMNT: 0414

SR: 0516 SS: 1929

EENT: 2032

MR: 0828 MS: 2237

BMNT: 0414

SR: 0517 SS: 1929

EENT: 2032

MR: 0927 MS: 2243

BMNT: 0414

SR: 0517 SS: 1929

EENT: 2032

MR: 1025 MS: 2315

BMNT: 0415

SR: 0517 SS: 1930

EENT: 2032

MR: 1124 MS: 2344

BMNT: 0415

SR: 0517 SS: 1930

EENT: 2032

MR: 1224 MS: 0012

HI: 81

LO: 63

HUM: 73%

PRECIP: 100%

VIS: 40 MilesWINDS: 7 kts

GUSTS: 10 kts

0K

4K

1K

3K

2K

6K

5K

7K

10K

9K

8K

21 JUN 22 JUN 23 JUN 24 JUN

12% 37%19% 27%

HI: 86

LO: 69

HUM: 25%

PRECIP: 50%VIS: 30 Miles

WINDS: 5 kts

GUSTS: 15 kts

25 JUN

HI: 88

LO: 69

HUM: 29%

PRECIP: 75%VIS: 25 Miles

WINDS: 13 kts

GUSTS: 20 kts

47%

CEILING

ILLUM

RAIN: 1 Inch

(During evening hrs)

RAIN:

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WEATHER ANALYSIS MATRIX

FACTORS

Visibility

Light Data

Winds

Cloud Cover

Precipitation

EFFECTS ON EN EFFECTS ON FF DEDUCTIONS T T Ps

Temperature and Humidity

IPB 52CLASSIFIED

http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/Weather%20Analysis%20Matrix%20bn%20phase.dochttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/Weather%20Analysis%20Matrix%20bn%20phase.doc

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Products Produced

MCOOWeather and TerrainAnalysis

IPB 53CLASSIFIED

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STUDENT CHECK

Q: What is the definition of Key Terrain?

A: Any locality, or area, the seizure or retention

of which affords a marked advantage to eithercombatant.

Q: What are the military aspects of weather?

Visibility, Wind, Precipitation, Cloud Cover,

Temperature, and Humidity

IPB 54CLASSIFIED

QUESTIONS ?

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QUESTIONS ?

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THREAT MODEL is a model of the threat

forces doctrine and TTPs for the conduct of

a particular operation. Threat models are

based on a study of all available

information, structured by the OB factors of

the particular threat force under

consideration. Ideally, threat modelsconsider all WFFs in detail. Threat models

are normally prepared prior to deployment.

Step 3 IPOE Evaluate the Threat

IPB 56CLASSIFIED

STEP 3Evaluate the Threat

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Create Threat Model Order of Battle

Doctrinal Template

Identification of type HVTs

IPB 57CLASSIFIED


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Order of Battle

Composition

Disposition

Strength

Tactics Training

Logistics

Combat Effectiveness

Tech Data

Misc. Data

IPB 58CLASSIFIED

ORDER OF BATTLE

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TBM ICC

TBM DAC

WHETSTONE

TBM DAC

HUACHUCA

CITY/TOMBSTONE

TBM DAC

SIERRA VISTA

X 5X 5X 5

DUKE LUMINOSO

SPF SIERRA

VISTA, HC,WHETSTONE,

TOMBSTONE,

BISBEE

DIRECT ACTION CO INSURGENT CELL CO

X 3

8 MEMBER CELLS; AMBUSHES, RAIDS, URBAN FIGHTING, RIOTS 10 MEMBER CELLS; ATTACKS TARGETING KEY PERSONALITIES AND FACILITIES

MARLOPIAN PEOPLES

LIBERATION PARTY

TBM ICC

WHETSTONE

TBM ICC

HUACHUCA CITY

TBM ICC

SIERRA VISTA

X 2X 2X 2

UNK NUMBER OF:

RPGAK-47

SNIPER (SVD)

SEMTEX/DET

UVBT (UNDER VEHICLE BOOBY TRAP)

UNK NUMBER OF:

SEISMIC SENSORS

SAT TELEPHONES

UHF/VHF RADIOS3-4 M37 MORTARS PER CO

CS/PEPPER GAS CAPABILITY


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1/120 MIBR (+)

HQ

3 x BTR-60

6 x 120mm

AGL

6 x AGS-17

3 x BMP-2

x3

3 x AT-5

3 x BRDM-2

11xBTR-602xBRDM-2

1xBRM-1K

x3

9 x SA 18

3 x BMP2

3 x AT-7

1 x BMP-2

9xAT-5

3xAT-5

10xT-62

3xT-62

x3x3

E

3 x GMZ

4 x Bridge

1 x IMR

1 x MDK

1 x BAT

3 x BRDM-2RKh

Situational Order of Battle

E

1 x GMZ 3 x SA 18

1 x BRDM-2

2 x 120mm(-)(-)(-) (-)

Disruption

Zone

Battle

Zone

Support

Zone

Brigade

Assets


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Doctrinal Templates

(Historical Patterns of Operation) Graphically Portrays the Threat employment without

weather and terrain restrictions.

Visualize how the threat deploys and employs his

units and BOS assets.

Considerations:

Preferred FormationsSpacing between units / vehicles

Width / Depth

Location of Supporting elementsIPB 61CLASSIFIED

DOCTRINAL TEMPLATE FOR OFFENSE

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HVY

WPNSPT GUARD

VANGUARD MAIN GUARD

FLANK GUARD

FLANK GUARD

REAR GD

IPB 62CLASSIFIED

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Battle ZoneSupport Zone Disruption Zone

LOR

LOR

I II

I I

I

X

I I

I I

IX X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

LEGEND

Ambush

Disrupt

Fix

Contain

Ctr Attack

X X

I

I

Doctrinal Template for the Defense

I I

I I

I I

I I

Distances defined by range (and time) 0Km2Km4Km12Km14Km16Km

10Km

20Km

30Km

63

KEY SYSTEMS BY WFF

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WFF/Criteria SYSTEM CAPABILITY STRENGTH WEAKNESS REMARKS

Movement

and

Maneuver

SD-44

MAX. RANGE 1500M

15 RDS/MIN

Crew 3 + 6

Thermals

Wire ATGM

Poor ArmorRange 800M Night

8-12 pax

BTR 6012.7mm Dshk, 100 RD/MIN,

range 1.5 km

Crew 2 + 12

Amphibious

Top Hatch exit for

dismounts

Poor Armor

8-12 pax infantry

squad

Chieftan400-500m range, 120mm

rifled MG, 7.62 coaxFire on the move

Zulfikar

MBT / T72

125mm smooth bore cannon,:

3km, 12.7 AA MG: 2km, 7.62

coax MG: 1.8km,

ThermalsArmor Penetration

460mm at 2,000 M

BMT-2 APCToophan -3 ATGM, range

3850 meters, 23mm cannonMobility Poor Armor

BMP-2M

(Boragh)

30mm automatic gun, 1700m

range, 7.62 coax, ATGM AT4

2.5k range

Amphibious, crew of

3+7, 400mm armor

penetration w/ AT4

Wire guided ATGM

and poor armor

protection

2A45125mm (MTR) antitank gun,

range 10.5kmEasily concealed Towed

SPFRecon, Ambush, Surveillance,

Intelligence, DisruptionsMobility

KEY SYSTEMS BY WFF

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Fires

Fadjr-3240mm MRL, Frag HE,

range 43kmRange, Mobile

Inaccurate,

Not armored

M-1978170mm, range 40-50km,

self-propelled howitzerRange Slow, Poor armor

Raad-2155mm, Self-propelled

artillery, 25kmAccuracy

Limited armor

protection

M-46

130mm towed Howitzer,

Frag HE, range 22.5kmrat 38km

Accuracy

Towed, 6 min

emplacement, 7 mindisplacement

D30

122mm towed Howitzer,

Frag HE, range15km w/

rat 22km

1.5 min emplacement,

3.5 min displacementTowed

M-110203mm, range 16-18km

self-propelled howitzer

Counter-battery

capabilityNo armor

M-65 (MTR) 120mm, range 10.5km

Mobile, fast

employment Towed

IL 219

Zoorpark

Air Traffic Control

Track friendly fires

Track 12 threats/ Min

Amphibious

Detection rangeTracked, tall

M-548

Tracked 6 ton weapons

platform, or munitions /troop carrier

Amphibious, good

speedNo armor

Probable ammo

carrier for arty

KEY SYSTEMS BY WFF

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Protection

Crotale

Wheeled SAM AA missile,

Range 10km, Fixed

14,000 Rotary; 4 missiles

Altitude 5,000

10 KM missle

dispersion ACU

3 KM Dispersion

Launchers; IFF

8 M lethal radius; 16

Minute reload

Deploys in 3-4

Veh Platoons

2S6M

30mm AA Gun, 4,800

RD/Min; Missile: Max 8 K Fix

10 K Rotary; Altitude 3,500

IFF, Thermal 5 M lethal radius

SA16

Shoulder fired SAM, Range:

5.2km at tail; 4.5km at nose;

Altitude 3,500

Deployment 5-13seconds; easily hidden

Vulnerable to EO/IRDecoy

Very

maneuverable

missile

Misagh-2

Shoulder fired SAM Manpad,

range 5km, ceiling 3.5km

IR-guided, fire and

forget Ceiling

RBS-70Shoulder fired SAM Manpad,

laser guided, range 8km

Oerlikon20mm; 500 RDS/Min; range

2KMCeiling, RPM Truck mounted

I Hawk 119 lb frag; Ceiling

13,700;range 25km 1 Missile every threeseconds; Mach 2.4 Old; Reload time

GMZ-3

Tracked mine laying vehicle,

Bury mines 6 km/h, Surface

mines 16 km/h, 7 types of

mines

Straight or staggered

minefield7.62 mm

BAT-2

Combat engineer earth

mover, can dig tank ditches,

clear trees up 30cmdiameter

Doze, crane, wench,

Depth .5 meters

Large signature

KEY SYSTEMS BY WFF

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Sustainment

GAZ-664x4 Cargo truck, payload

2000 kg

95 km/h speed, can

ford up to .8m

No armor, No weapon

system

M35/M135/M

35A2

Payload 5000 lbs up to

10000 lbs

Payload capacity

Carries 12 personnelNo armor

M726Telephone maintenance

truck4x4 No armor

M113 Crew 2 + 11Some ATGM equipped

Under 2 M tall Weapons system

Intelligence

HJ-62C

Surveillance radar,

12.7mm MG, acquisition

& tracking radar

capability

Detection range 8-

12km (man) 17-25 km

(LAV), 25-30

tank/helicopter

Poor armor

EE-9

Armored recon vehicle,

90 mm cannon, 3 man

crew, range 2.2km

Speed 100km/hr Brazilian; Poor Armor

Mohajer UAVRange 30km, overhead

imint surveillanceUnmanned Range

C2 BMP-1KSH

C&S vehicle, Telescopic

antennae, 4 to 5 tactical

radios, laser designator,

rangefinder, radio range

20-250km

Amphibious,

Command & support

vehicle, enhanced

night vision &

observation gear

Stowed 7.62 mm


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High Value TargetsAssets that the enemy commanderrequires for

the successful completion ofh ismission.

Dont confuse with High Payoff Targets:

Assets whose loss to the threat will contribute to

friendly forces success

IPB 68CLASSIFIED

Analyze Relative Combat Power

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yElements of Combat

Power

Enemy Strengths

And Weaknesses

Friendly Strengths

And Weaknesses

Advantage

Friend or Enemy

Maneuver Strength: BTR -60 with a 12.7

mm MG (1.5 km)Weaknesses: Top Hatch exit

for dismounts and poor armor

Strength: M1A2 tanks 120

mm M68 rifled cannon (465.3KM)

Weaknesses: Heavy fuel

consumption and heavy

equipment restricts movement

FRIENDLY

Firepower Strength: Fadjr-3 with240mm MRL, Frag HE, range

43km

Weaknesses: Inaccurate,

Not armored

Strength: M119A1 105mm

Howitzer with 19.5 km max

range

Weaknesses: Rely on air

support for long range fires

FRIENDLY

Protection Strength: Crotale, WheeledSAM AA missile, Range 10km,

Fixed14,000 Rotary; 4 missiles

Altitude 5,000, Dug in BPs

Weaknesses: Can be easily

detected by aviation , radar

and recon assets

Strength: Air superiority

Weaknesses: Moving in an

open terrain, ENEMY

Leadership Strength: Established chain ofCommand

Weaknesses: Reorganization

of their units

Strength: Highly trained andeducated

Weaknesses: Fighting in

foreign occupied territory

FRIENDLY

Intelligence Strength: Civil support andBMP-1KSH

Weaknesses: It can be

jammed

Strength: Shadow, Prophet

and Humint

Weaknesses: Enemy air

defense and signal capabilities

FRIENDLY

OVERALL ADVANTAGE: FRIENDLY


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ENEMY!KNOW THE

Desired End State

IPB 70CLASSIFIED

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STUDENT CHECK

Q: What is the definition of a doctrinal

template?

Q: What is the definition of an HVT?

A: A doctrinal template is simply how theenemy commander would like to fight

without weather and terrain restrictions.

A: An asset the ENEMY commander needs

to accomplish his mission.IPB 71CLASSIFIED

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Step 4 IPOE Determine Threat

COAs

Situation TemplatesEvent Template

Event Matrix

IPB 72CLASSIFIED

STEP 4Determine Threat COAs

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Show how the enemy m ight deploy

and operate w ith in the cons traintsimposed by the weather and terrain

Putting it all together

Situation Templates

IPB 73CLASSIFIED


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MCOO + DoctrinalTemplate

Situation Templates

Situation Templates

*Depiction of all possible

threat COAsIPB 74CLASSIFIED

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Event Template

Depicts locations where critical events and

activities are expected to occur and where

critical targets will appear

Consists of Named Areas of Interest (NAIs) and

Time Phase Lines (TPLs)

One Event Template covers all Enemy COAs

IPB 76CLASSIFIED


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Named Area of Interest

Geographical area where information collected will

satisfy a specific information requirement (IR)

Point or area, generally along an AA or MC, where activity(or lack of) will confirm or deny an enemy COA

Should be linked to a PIR


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Time Phase Lines (TPL)

Lines that provide comparison of enemys mobility along

Avenues of Approach

Adjusted for terrain and actual combat movement

Assist in tracking the enemy and directing collection

assets

Based on doctrinal rates of movement.

EVENT TEMPLATE

H+4

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NAI1

NAI 2

67

NAI 3

NAI 4 H-Hr

H-Hr

H+1

H+1

H+2

H+2

H+3

H+3H+4

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Event Matrix

A l is t of signi f icant enemy act iv i t ies expected

w ithin a geog raph ical locat ion and what time

the event is expected to take place

Bu i ld ing block for the col lect ion p lan

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NAI Event NET Time NLT Time IndicatesECOA

1 Recon H-4 H-2 ECOA 2

Platoon

2 Engineers H-2 H-1 ECOA 1

2 Tank Co H-2 H-1 ECOA 3

3 122 How. H hour H+2 ECOA 1

Btry.4 Tank Bn H+2 H+3.5 ECOA2

Event Matrix

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Desired End State

Iden t i fy COAs avai lable to the

enemy

Iden t i fy NAIs that w i l l ind icate

wh ich COA the th reat CDR has

chosen

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RECAP

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IPOE Process Key IPOE Produc ts

Step 1Define the Battlefield

Environment

Area of Operations (AO) Area of Interest (AI)

Step 2

Describe the Battlefield

Effects

Modified Combined Obstacle

Overlay (MCOO)

Terrain and Weather Effects

Step 3

Evaluate the Threat

Order of Battle

Doctrinal Template

Identification of HVTs

Step 4

Determine Threat COAsSituation Templates Event Template

Event Matrix

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QUESTIONS?

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Documents

IPOE