Computers and Pedagogy

Invisible Writing With a Computer: New Sources

and Resources Stephen Marcus

Introduction

I . n Its simplest form, invisible writing with a computer is done by turning the brightness knob on the computer Screen down so that the writer cannot see the text as it evolves. Students do invisible writing for a short period of time, anywhere from one to five minutes, and then brighten their screens in order to see what wason their minds. Invisible writing with a computer is most often combined with freewriting, a techniquethathelpsbuildfluencybygivingstudentspermission to put on temporary hold their concerns such as spelling, grammar, punctua- tion, and complete sentences.

Teachers and students who have -tried invisible writing with a computer report that it frees them from the compulsion to tinker with their text-a common problem when trying to prewrite with a word- processing package. It helps writers focus their thoughts on a topic; generates interest in “seeing what they have to say”; evokes writing that comes more from the subconscious; and, as described by educator Anne Beversdorf (personal communication), encourages the move- ment from facts to feelings. This technique has been used with students in elementary grades through university classes; these students have different levels of writing ability and of computer experience. It has also been used by teachers from a variety of content areas.

A good introduction to this technique can be accomplished in 20 minutes. Some of the other activities described in the following pages can obviously take longer. It is important, however, to take time to

42 Computers and Composition Vol. 8, No. I

reinforce the habit of trying invisible writing-for example, when a student experiences writers’ block while typing at the computer.

Background I first described invisible writing with a computer in 1983 (Marcus

& Blau, 1983; see also, Marcus, 19841, and I had demonstrated it in workshopsand conference presentations for a year or so before that. Its wide appeal and general value are suggested by the frequency with which it has been practiced by others and referenced in texts dealing with computer-assisted writing (see References for a sample listing). The technique has also been incorporated by others into several com- puter-assisted composition aids, including THE BANK smm PREWRITEX,

THE H~J ~FUIXR, SUCCFL% WITH IRKING, AND WORDBENCH. A handbook on classroom-based research on computers and writing, which focuses on invisible writing, has recently been prepared for the California Writing Project/California Technology Project Alliance (Marcus, 1990).

A non-computer form of invisible writing was initially used by James Britton (Britton, et al., 19751 to suggest that writers couldn’t compose without being able to review or scan their evolving text. Sheridan Blau (1983) (whose work inspired the computer-based ver- sion), utilized empty ball point pens and carbon paper to provide strong counter-evidence that

[the] absence of visual feedback from the text [that teachers and students] were producing actually sharp- ened their concentration on each of the writing tasks, enhanced their fluency, and yielded texts that were more, rather than less, cohesive (p. 298). In a computer context, invisible writing has the advantages of

emphasizing the special features of the technology. Invisible writing develops in students more of a sense that they can control text produc- tion, and invisible writing provides a general purpose technique that can be used with any computer and word-processing system. As an aid in the teaching of writing, invisible writing builds fluency by freeing students from the common desire to tinker unnecessarily with their words; invisible writing helps them focus on the content of their writing instead of its surface features; and invisible writing provides a general technique that can be used in revising efforts.

Invisible writing with a computer is a good example of how technology can change the quality (and often quantity) of time spent at any given point during a writers composing processes. The technique assumes that there is value in concentrating on different dimensions of

In visible Writing 43

composing at different times, and that not only focus but also fluency can be improved by eliminating distracting factors.

Additional Applications Here are several variations on invisible writing with a computer.

They are presented below both as instructions being given to students and as instructions to the teacher.

An Introduction to the Method Start typing (visibly) with the words, “I’m typing on this com-

puter and. . . .“ Keep typing for one minute. Then tap the RETURN or ENTER key a few times to move the cursor down. Next, darken the screenand starttypingwith the words,“lcan’t seewhatl’mtypingand. . . . ” After a minute, stop typing, turn the brightness knob up, and examine your text. Move down a few blank lines, and do a minute of visible writing, starting witha topiclike,‘Whydopeoplereadpoetry?’ Then do a minute’s invisible writing on a comparable topic like, ‘Why do people write poetry?” Finally, do a minute’s worth of visible or invisible writing (your choice) comparing your experiences writing in the two modes.

Encourage class discussion at the end of this sequence. Make sure that people who didn’t particularly like invisible writing get their say. Seeifpeoplechangedtheirmindsoverthecourseoftheactivities. Point outthatit’snotforeveryone,thatitdoesn’thavetobedoneallthetime or for long periods of time, and that invisible writing takes somegetting used to. People sometimes change their minds after they’ve practiced it.

IYs important to give people the first two easy assignments in order to get them accustomed to the technique. The next two assign- ments require more challenging thinking, and they have the same degree of difficulty in order to allow the students a fair basis of comparison for their experiences writing visibly or invisibly. Other topics are: Why do people like to work or play? Why do people.like to sleep or wake up? Why do people like to read history or write history?

Invisible Writing With A Partner If the monitors can be moved while still connected to their

respective computers, put Student A’s monitor on top of Student B’s computer, and vice verse. As Student A begins typing the text will appear in front of Student B. If Student A loses the train of thought, he

44 Computers and Composition Vol. 8, No. I

or she can type “T??” -whereupon Student B types something like ‘You were writing abmt.. .” and paraphrases what ison the screen. If Student A runs out of ideas, he or she can type “XXX.” Seeing this, Student B can suggest a new angle or topic by typing, “What about. . . ?” When thestudentspxint &irrespective files,Student Acanuse this record of their collaboration for ,further study and discussion and for use in his or her next draft.

This general technique has been used to introduce students to telecommunication, simulating the kinds of conversations that can develop between writers at a distance. Barbara Rother, Co-Director of the Redwood Writing Project at Humboldt State University, has also used this technique to very good effect in teacher-educa tion workshops that combine writing with math/science instruction. In one activity, a person has to type a desaiption of a collection of geometric figures, with enough specificity to allow a partner to recreate the figures. The words appear only on the partner’s screen. Participants reported that doing this kind of invisible problem-.solving encouraged the recall of knowledge they had forgotten they had. The experience was quite remarkable for a number of the participants.

A Revision Strategy

This revision strategy combines invisible writing with nu tshelling. After they have spent some time typing something that is visible, ask the students to type a dotted line on the screen. Then have them darken the screen and “test” themselves by typing an answer to this question: “In a nutshell, what is it you’ve said so far?” After a minute’s invisible writing, students can brighten the screen and continue composing. Additional questions for invisible writing are (only one is tackled each time): What do I want my reader to care about at this point? What am I worried about in my writing right now? What do I want my teacher to think about me at this point?

Answering questions like these several times in the course of a typing session can help students refocus their thoughts and gain some perspective on what theyve been saying. Initially, you may have to interrupt their writing at inopportunemoments as you are introducing this technique. With practice, students can refocus on their own at appropriate pausing places in their writing.

A Prewiting Strategy Pick a theme to concentrate on, e.g., the modem world, getting

older, or the individual vs. society. Visibly type a list of ten words that

In visible Writing 45

you associate with that topic. (Press RETURN or ENTER twice after each word.) Now move the cursor just below the first word and spend oneminuteelaboratingon that word withvisibietyping,thenmove the cursor below the second word and spend one minute invisibly expand- ing on the second, then one minute visibly on the third, and so on. When you’re done with this, spend a few minutes writing (visibly or invisibly) on any ways your experiences writing in the two modes differed.

Another Prewriting Strategy This prewriting strategy activity assumes that you have previ-

ously been asked to write both personal and academic papers in the course. Visibly type a list of five words that describe you as a student, that is, as an academic person. (Press RETURN or ENTER twice after each word.) Then, type five more words that describe the personal you, words that apply to you when you are with your friends, family, or just when you are on your own somewhere. Now, spend one minute expanding visibly on the first word, one minute invisibly on the second, one minute visibly on the third, and so on. When you are done with this, spend a few minutes writing (visibly or invisibly) on any ways your experiences writing in the two modes differed. (For example, is it easier to be personal when you are invisible?)

Another Prewriting Strategy This prewriting strategy activity assumes you have been given an

assignment to write about for class. Get your computer ready for invisible writing (i.e., darken the screen). Now, pretend the computer can bar your thoughts as you type them invisibly. Spend two minutes talking (i.e., typing) to your computer, explaining what you really feel about the assignment you are supposed to writeabout. Now, turn your brightness knob back up and read what you’ve written. Next, spend two minutes typing visibly and comment on what you said invisibly. Now, go back to typing invisib . I. Spend two minutes commenting on what you said visibly. Again, pretend that your computer can hear you. At the end of two minutes, go back to writing visibly, and spend two minutes commenting on your previous invisible writing. Finally, spend two minutes writing, visibly or invisibly, about what it was like to do this kind of switching back and forth.

Semi-invisible Writing Some students prefer to darken their screens halfway. They report

that doing so gives them the reassurance that comes frombeingable to

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monitor their typing in a general way while discouraging them from examining their texts too closely and getting distracted by typos.

Evaluations and Conclusions In the case of invisible writing with computers, not every student

has pleasant experiences, particularly those individuals with formal and strict typing instruction. These students sometimes feel anxious when their eyes, for lack of a text to follow, stray to the keyboard. For others, not being able to review their work-in-progress becomes so distracting that it interrupts fluency. As one student put it,

I can’t see what I’m writing, and it is really difficult to keep up with what I am saying. If I can’t see what I am writing I feel.. . lost, and it throws me off track. Many students report, however, that invisible writing frees them

to concentrate more on the content, rather than the form, of their emerging thoughts. They are freed from the compulsion to spend their time doing local editing, fixing trivial typing errors, or making relatively minor changes in the text at the expense of the broader ideas they are trying to articulate. Studentsalso sometimes report that, with invisible writing, what they wind up saying comes more from their subcon- scious.

It’s important to note that students will often change their minds about invisible writing as they become more accustomed to it. One student began by finding it “hard because you don’t know if you’re raking any mistakes.. . . Furthermore, it’s hard to know what you’ve already said.” This same student, with just a bit more practice, declared,

I like the invisible writing because I’m not always cor- recting my errors.. . which slows me down. It’s fun to do because. . . my mind isn’t breaking [all my thoughts] down. If I freewrite visibly, I have to look away from the machine in order to truly say what I want to [say]. Invisible writing helps many students so how premature editing

interferes with the composing process, and it brings into sharp focus their own tendencies in this regard. In the words of one student, “Invisible writing helped me understand that writing really begins with prewriting.”

Some students also appreciate the priz~cy that this method pro- vides, because text on a monitor is too public for some people, some times.

Invisible Writing 47

Invisible writing with a computer is just one example of how teachers can help students take greater advantage of the special fea- turesof the technology. It is a generic strategy, working with any word processing package that runs on any computer. The success of even a simple approach like thisone should provide encouragement for those who see word processing as a major resource for the teaching of writing.

Stephen Marcus teaches at the University of California, Santa Barbara

Note

Invisible writing has been described in several discussions of com- puter-based writing tools, within the more general context of the value of word processing, in helping students do prewriting and, especially, free writing activities. The following references include not only the works cited earlier but additional discussions of the invisible writing technique and extended descriptions of other valuable applications both of word processing and of a wide range of computer-assisted ped%%Y.

References

BANK m PFE~ (1990). New York: Scholastic, Inc. Blau, S. (1983). Invisible writing: Investigating cognitive processes in

composition. College Corn, vsition und Commun&ion, 34, 297-312. Britton, J., et al. (1975). The deDelopmerrnt of writing abilities. London:

Macmillan. Costanzo, W.V. (1989). The electronic text: Learning to write, read, und

reason with computers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Edwards, B. L., Jr. (1987). Processing words: writing and revising on a

microcomputer. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Feldman, P. R. & Norman, B. (1987). The wordworthy computer: classroom

and research uppkutions in language und literature. New York: Ran- dom House.

MHBJ m (1986). San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovitch.

48 Computers and Composition Vol. 8, No. I

Marcus, S. & Blau, S. (1983, April). Not seeing is relieving: Invisible writing with a computer, (12-15).

Marcus, S. (1984). Realtime gadgets with feedback: Special effects in computer-assisted writing. In Wm. Wresch (Ed.) The computer in composition instruction (pp. 12&130). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Marcus, S. (1990). Teacher researcher. Santa Barbara, CA: The South Coast Writing Project, Graduate School of Education, University of California.

Mitchell, J. (1989). Writing with II computer. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Schwartz, H. J. (1987). Interactive writing: Composing with u word proces- sor. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Schwartz, E. &Vockell, E. (1988). The computer in the english curriculum. New York: Mitchell/Random House.

SUCCESS WITH WRITING (1989). New York: Scholastic, Inc. WORDBENCH (1988). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Wresch. W. (1987). A practical guide to computer uses in the English/

language nrts classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.