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Invasive Species in China - An Overview

XIE Yan*Biodiversity Working Group

China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development, China

INTRODUCTION

China is the third largest country on the earth and the largest of the megadiversitycountries. Its vast territory stretches 5,500 km from north to south, and its easterncoastline is 5,200 km from its western border; it spans 50 degrees of latitude, andcovers five climatic zones: cold-temperate, temperate, warm-temperate, subtropi-cal, and tropical (Wang Sung, et al. 1997). These natural features make China es-pecially vulnerable to invasive species. Potential exotic species from most areasof the world may find suitable habitat somewhere in China. In addition, China’srapid economic development, including explosive growth in trade and transporta-tion systems, certainly contributes to the potential for new species to be introducedinto the country. Finally, China has a long history of introduction of non-nativespecies, especially when these have been proven to be productive and putativelybeneficial to the economy. Thus many factors interact to facilitate the spread ofspecies among regions within China and exotic species to China from other coun-tries. Since many invasive species have long lag times from initial establishmentuntil the appearance of a full-blown invasion, the full effects of the invaders arriv-ing in China may not be felt until well into the21st century. In view of theecogeographic similarities between the US and China, the US situation may be abellwether of future trends in China. In the US there has been an upward trend inthe establishment of non-indigenous species, and large numbers of alien specieshave been documented ( Nico and Fuller, 1999; Vitousek et al. 1997; Randall andMarinelli, 1996 ). As China’s world trade and domestic development increase wecan predict a similar situation in China.

Although customs, departments of agriculture, forestry, and husbandry have paidgreat attention to the potential harm of alien species, leading to the quarantine ofalien disease and pests, it was only a few years ago that the concept of invasivespecies was introduced into China. Western countries are quite ahead of China atthe issue. There are already many studies and publications on alien mammals,plants, weeds, fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, herpetofauna and wildlife diseases,including general discussions of pathways, vectors, the role of natural and human-

* Presented by Ken Creighton

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caused disturbances (physical, chemical, climatic, etc.), and impact of invasions(Sandlund, et al. 1999; Westbrooks, 1998). However in China, except to the atten-tion given those species that have created great economic loss or have been listedas quarantine species by the Bureau of Animal and Plant Quarantine, very littleresearch has been conducted on other alien species and their impact to natural eco-systems. There are no complete statistics or materials describing the status of alienspecies in China and their potential to create harm, and control measures directedat alien species are not well documented. Materials included in this report, there-fore, cannot cover all alien or invasive species in the country. Some cases wheregreat damage has been caused are listed in Appendix I. This report also does notprovide statistics due to the lack of material. However the cases listed in AppendixI indicate the problems existing in China. Descriptions are available for most in-vasive species mentioned in the report.

MAIN FEATURES OF ALIEN SPECIES IN CHINA

The range of alien species in China in this report covers native species introducedto non-natural distribution areas within China and non-native species from othercountries. Alien species are found throughout China. The main features of alienspecies in China are that they:

1. Cover a large area: alien species can be found in each of the 34 provinces,municipalities and autonomous regions.

2. Cover many ecosystems: alien species can be found in almost every ecosys-tem in China, including forests, agriculture areas, watersheds, wetlands,grasslands, rural areas and cities; the worst situation is in watersheds.

3. Cover many taxa: examples can be found in vertebrates, including mam-mals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes; invertebrates such as arthropodand crustacean; high and low plants; to small creatures of bacteria, micro-organism and virus.

4. Are generally introduced unintentionally: with the development of trans-portation, more and more species were/are brought in by travellers and trans-ported goods, such as the banana moth, brown rat, Ambrosia artemisiifolia,A. trifida, goldenrod, Eupatorium adenophorum, Hemiberlesia pitysophila,and fall webworm. The huge quantities of imports further facilitate the im-port of alien species. According to statistics of quarantine departments(Lianping Yin, 1998), during the 8th five-year period, 65 million tons of foodwas imported, and over 10 million tons was imported in 1996 alone. These

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imports were mainly from the USA, Canada, Australia, European Union, andArgentina. With increasing of trans-boundary trade with adjacent countries,the food trade with Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Nepal has been largely ex-panded. Because of the large number of import countries, transportationmeans and varieties, the possibility of bringing in weed seeds is high. From1986 to September, 1990, there were nearly 30 families, 100 genera, and 200species of weed seeds intercepted from 349 ships at Shanghai port. It wasestimates that a 30,000 ton ship could bring 120 tons of weed seeds thatmight cause great harm if they were spread widely.

5. Are often introduced intentionally: there are many projects that rely on in-troducing raised or cultivate species from other places in China or othercountries in institutes related to breeding, raising and cultivating. These insti-tutes include agriculture, forestry, horticulture, aquaculture, husbandry, spe-cial species farming and centers for breeding, whose primary purposes forusing introduced species is to enhance the economy, provide entertainment,or even to protect the environment. For example, Australian Eucalyptus hasbecome a popular economic forest tree in southern China, especially Yunnan,Guangxi and Guangdong. China imported more than 40 breeding materialsof food, food oil, melon, fruit and vegetable from Taiwan during 1990-1991(Qixian Ye and Li Hua, 1997). Except for Zoysia materlla, all other lawngrass seeds are imported, and 2,000 tons was imported in 1997 (XiaogangXu, et al. 1999). There are also many introductions in aquaculture and spe-cial species farming, such as such as freshwater prawn (Macrobrachiumrosenbergii), Cherax quadricianalus, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Tilapia sp.,Anguilla japonica, Micropterus salmoides, Polyodon spathula, Colossomabrachypomum, Morone saxatilis, Morone chrysops (Liming Qiu andGuosheng Deng, 1994; Guozhang Liao, 1998).

6. Also cause losses: cases in Appendix I imply that the issue of invasive spe-cies has become so serious that urgent actions are needed to improve the situ-ation.

● Harmful invasive species may cover many taxa, for example:

Vertebrates: nutria, brown rat, four main farming fishes, small fisheslike Gobiidae, Pseudorasbora parva, mosquito fish, poeciliids;

Invertebrates: termite, fall webworm, Hemiberlesia pitysophila, ba-nana moth, Liriomyza sativae, North American pine wood nematode;

Plants: Eucalyptus, goldenrod, Ambrosia artemisiifolia, A. trifida, wa-ter hyacinth, Eupatorium adenophorum, Alternanthera philoxeroides,

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Spartina spp. and South America climber. Additional incomplete harm-ful plants are listed in appendix II; and,

Micro-organism: Ceratocystis fimbriata. There are many cases in thisgroup, but information is generally lacking.

● Diseases and pests introduced unintentionally have created great eco-nomic loss in many areas, such as agriculture, husbandry, forestry andhorticulture, which has drawn the attention of related departments in-cluding customs and quarantine agencies. In agriculture there are fallwebworm, Liriomyza sativae, Ceratocystis fimbriata, Ambrosiaartemisiifolia, and A. trifida; in husbandry, Eupatorium adenophorum;in forestry, fall webworm, Hemiberlesia pitysophila; and in horticulture,banana moth.

● There are many cases of intentional introduction causing damage to theeconomy. In aquaculture, introduced four-main farming fishes fromother regions within China, and Procambarus clarkii from other coun-tries; in special species farming, nutria and bullfrog from foreign coun-tries; in husbandry forage, water hyacinth and Alternantheraphiloxeroides; in horticulture, water hyacinth from foreign country fordisplay and improving water quality; in environment protection,Spartina spp. From foreign country to protect dams.

● Invasive species have ecologically changed local natural ecosystems,including species composition, population structure, and food chains.Watersheds in Yunnan province are a good example (Yingrui Chen,et al., 1998). Yunnan is one of the richest provinces in China in terms ofbiodiversity, and the same can be said of its fish resources. Yunnan con-tains 42.2% of the fresh water fish species in China. In Yunnan, thereare 6 river systems, each with its special fish species and quantities.There are only 3 - 10 common species among different river systems.Isolated river systems also have created species populations in lakes.There are more than 10 lakes belonging to 4 river systems. Fish speciescomposition are quite different not only between lakes in different riversystems, but also different lakes in one river system. For example thereare only 11 common species in Xingyun Lake and Fuxian Lake whichare only separated by one river. One third of 432 fish species in Yunnanare threatened or even extinct. Except for reasons of overfishing, damconstruction, water pollution, vegetation destruction, and land reclama-tion from lakes, blind introduction is one of the most important factorsreducing the number of species (extinctions) and populations of those

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remaining extant. For example, in Dianchi Lake at the beginning of the1970s, more than 30 alien species of fish were found. Correspondingly,the number of indigenous species was reduced to 15 in 1978 and 8 in1982 from 25 in the 1940s. According to an investigation in 1997, ex-cept for widely distributed species as weatherfish (Misgurnusanguillicaudatus), Asian swamp eel (Monopterus albus), and cruciancarp (Carassius auratus), there are only two local species, Yunnaniluspleurotaenia and Sionocyclocheilus grahami, left, and they are charac-terised by very small numbers and area of occupancy.

7. Sometimes may be beneficial: many introduced productive varieties havemade a good contribution to China’s national economic development. It isworthy to praise the introduction of natural enemies to control diseases andpests. As substitutes for chemical insecticides and pesticides, Rodoliacardinalis, Aphelinus mali, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, Metaseiulusoccidentalis, Phytoseiulus persimilis, Xylocoris flavipes have acted and areperforming important roles to control diseases, pest insects and weeds. Somecases of the successful introduction of insects used in biological control arelisted in appendix III. However there are already some cases found in othercountries, in which introduced insects for biological control have become in-vasive species. For example, weevils introduced to control pest Eurasianthistles are now threatening indigenous North American thistles (Simberloff1997). These cases remind us that assessment of potential harmfulness ofnatural enemies and monitoring their impacts to the local ecosystem are es-sential.

8. Attract low awareness: Chinese, from high level managers and researchersto workers, farmers and the general public, are not aware of the harm causedby neither alien species nor their potential dangers to the local ecosystems.This conclusion is reached from the following aspects:

● People are aware that diseases and pests cause economic loss, but havenot realised that alien species are also changing and destroying localecosystems. Little attention has been paid to alien species that are re-placing indigenous species and changing local ecosystem without caus-ing large economic losses.

● May people cherish alien species over native ones.

● The primary purpose of introductions is to increase economic returns,and there have been very few or no assessments as to the potential dan-gers of aliens (especial to local ecosystems) conducted before introduc-

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tion. Even some nature reserves are planning to reforest by using alienspecies. For example, Dongzaigang Nature Reserve is using the Bang-ladesh species (Rhizophora spp.) to reforest mangroves (JohnMacKinnon, personal communication).

● There is a serious lack of research and long-term monitoring being con-ducted on impact of introduced species to local natural ecosystems.

● There is a general lack of understanding as to the ecological function ofmany invasive species. For example, in the survey of the banana moth,a pest of Dracaena fragran, it was found that infected D. fragran werepiled up in the corner of flower nursery, in which a high density of ba-nana moth (100 per meter) was found. Host plants of the banana mothcover 24 families and over 50 species, and it not only infect D. fragranbut also many crops, such as banana, sugarcane, corn, sweet potato, andornamental plants. Thus the damage would be serious if it is spread tonatural ecosystems (Guifang Chen et al., 1998). Raised nutrias and con-fiscated live wildlife in the cross-boundary trade are wantonly releasedinto local ecosystems. These released alien animals may affect localecosystems.

● No Chinese publications or guidelines on invasive species are availablein China.

CHINA AT RISK

The damage caused by invasive species in China has been demonstrated. Speciesby species, related information of some invasive species, including the originalcountry, the year of introduction, reasons for introduction, means of spread, areaof spread and damage caused, is described in Appendix I. The following para-graphs analyse the gravity of alien species in China from some other angles.

ALIEN SPECIES INTRODUCTION IN FRESHWATER FISHERIES

Significant economic damage has been caused by the introduction of alien spe-cies. However, these damages and changes to local ecosystems have not drawnthe attention of the public. Although there have been many comprehensive scien-tific surveys on fish conducted in large nature watersheds, such as lakes, freshwa-ter rivers, and estuaries, fishery resource research has been focussed only on therecording and biological features of economically important fish. Very few re-

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search efforts have been conducted on the impact of alien species (including intro-duced aquaculture species) to population structure, biodiversity level, food chainstructure of aquatic animals, especially fish, in freshwater ecosystems (GuozhangLiao, 1998). It must be remembered that the impact of freshwater fisheries toaquatic ecosystems is not small.

Based on the effects to lake ecosystems over the last few decades, lake fisherymanagement can be divided into three types. The first is a natural fishery that wasthe primary management before the 1950s, and is still mainly used in some mid-dle-to-large-sized lakes, such as Dongting Lake and Poyang Lake. The second de-veloped quickly since the 1950s. This is the cultivation and release of popular spe-cies, such as Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Aristichthys nobilis, andCtenopharyngodon idella in small-to-middle-sized lakes. In these cases, naturalbio-productivity in lakes becomes fully consumed, and aquaculture productiongenerally attains levels higher than that of the natural fishery. Algae replaces wa-ter weeds and becomes the main producer, and the competitive advantage in theseecosystems becomes those species that are grazing herbivores. These lakes are so-called ‘algae type’ lakes. The third was started in the 1980s. At this time moreattention was paid to the increase and protection of natural fishery resources, whileexploring natural resources and developing aquaculture. Raised fishes were keptwithin fish fences to grow water weeds and ‘weed-type’ lakes were developed(Guohua Zhang, et al. 1997).

Take Donghu Lake in Wuhan, Hunan Province as an example. In order to providemore forage for Aristychthys nobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, and maketheir harvest easier, herbivorous fishes are released delicately. Due to a lack ofwater weeds the abundance of plankton animal species was greatly reduced, algaequantities increased dramatically, pH values became higher, the number of acid-favouring species was reduced, the biodiversity index dropped, the number andquantity of large-sized plankton animals was reduced, and small-sized forms de-veloped. According to investigations before 1972, there were 67 fish species inDonghu Lake, of which nearly 20 had economic value, such as common carp(Cyprinus carpio), crucian carp (Carassius auratus), Elopichthys bambusa,Ochetobius elongatus, Aristichthys nobilis, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix,Ctenopharyngodon idella, Mylopharyngodon piceus, Parabramis pekinensis,Culter erythropterus, Xenocypris and so on. After aquaculture the rate of growthof cultivated species has been increasing, and the growth rates for Aristichthysnobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix out of the whole productivity were sta-ble at around 98%. The structure of the fish community in Donghu Lake waschanged completely (Guohua Zhang, et al. 1997).

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This kind of aquaculture not only occurs in eastern lakes but also has been intro-duced into lakes in other parts of China, such as Keluke Lake, Dalian Lake,Genggahai Lake and Alarhai Lake in Qinghai-Tibet area; Daihai Lake in Mongo-lian-Uygur area; Qilu Lake, Dianchi Lake, Erhai Lake, Xingyun Lake, and LuguLake in Yunnan-Guizhou area. The introduced species compete with indigenousspecies for food and spatial resources, leading to greatly reduced quantities oflocal species (such as Cyprinus pellegrini in Qilu Lake and Xingyun Lake), andeven the elimination of some species (Schizothorax in Lugu Lake and Erhai Lake;Guohua Zhang, et al. 1997).

Many so-called productive fish species, such as Anguilla japonica, Micropterussalmoides, Polyodon spathula, Colossoma brachypomum, Morone saxatilis andMorone chrysops, have been introduced to south China and cultivated over a widearea. We do not know yet what impact some introduced carnivorous species, espe-cially those that feed on small-sized fishes, as Micropterus salmoides, Moronesaxatilis and Morone chrysops, is to other fish populations in local natural water-sheds.

INTRODUCTION OF GRASS SEEDS FOR LAWN

Although there is no evidence that some of the introduced lawn grass species havealready expanded into natural ecosystems and caused damage in China, consider-ing grass species are among the most easily spread of species, a warning has to bemade.

The lawn industry has developed dramatically in China. Large areas of lawn builtfor different purposes, such as golf courses, soccer fields and parks, have stimu-lated the development of a lawn industry due to a high demand for lawn grassseeds. However, the lawn grass breeding in China is focussed on introducing goodvarieties from other countries. Except for Zoysia materlla, all other lawn grassseeds are imported. Over 2,000 tons were imported in 1997. By 1990, 114 differ-ent kinds of cold-season grass seeds were introduced from the USA. As a matterof fact, China has abundant weed germplasm resources owing to the large size ofthe country. For nearly 20 years’ research, the Chinese Academy of AgricultureSciences (CAAS) has collected and preserved more than 1,000 lawn grass species.Recent investigations on wild weed germplasm resources has demonstrated posi-tive results. There are over 20 warm-season lawn grasses widely used in the world.Except for a few species of Paspalum notatum, Buchloe dactyloides, etc., many ofthem are growing naturally in the wild of China. Many of the 136 cold-seasonlawn grasses can be found in the northeast, north, northwest, and southwest ofChina (Xiaogang Xu, et al. 1999). Large numbers of grass seeds have been intro-

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duced into cities and currently we do not know what their effects to surroundingnatural ecosystems will be. Nobody appears concerned or worried about the po-tential harm that could stem from the spread into natural ecosystems of some ofthese species.

ACTION NOW

As discussed above, the alien species issue should be raised to the national agendaimmediately. Action must be taken now, as otherwise China will pay for the greatloss to its national economy and the destruction of endemic ecosystems because ofinvasive species.

1. Compiling booklets: Collect and compile materials, including concepts,dangers, important experiences and cases (successful or failures), about inva-sive species. In association with illustrations and photos, make a simplifiedand popular booklet and electronic copies to be disseminated through variousways (mail, bookstores, radio broadcasts, and TV).

2. Development of databases and systems of invasive species: collect avail-able materials of harmful or potentially dangerous invasive species on tax-onomy, original distribution, invaded area, biology, physiology, pathways,control measures and other related information. Enter the information intodatabases develop related data search tools and provide any possible usersthrough the medium of CD-ROMs or Web sites.

3. Strengthen international cooperation: strengthen international communi-cation and cooperation on research on invasive species. Share, link or de-velop together invasive species databases and information systems. Interna-tional cooperation is extremely important due to the following reasons:

● Information on control measures, ecological features and natural en-emies in original countries are vital to invaded countries. The success ofintroducing Coccobius azumai from Japan, the original country ofHemiberlesia pitysophila, to control the spread of Hemiberlesiapitysophila, is a good example of looking for a natural enemy from theinvasive species’ original country (Yongge Chen, Dexiang Gu, 1998).

● Experience and lessons of invasive species in one country will be a greatvaluable reference for other countries which are introducing or control-ling the same species. Taiwan introduced Rodolia cardinalis from Cali-fornia and Hawaii to control Icerya purchasi early this century

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(Qingguan Lu, 1997a, b). Its success was partly due to a successful ex-perience in the USA. Some species are not only harmful to one countryor region, but also many other countries and regions. For example, wa-ter hyacinth has not only invaded China, but also many countries inNorth America, Asia, Australia and Africa. It is essential to learn fromeach other in these cases.

● China has suffered from invaded species originally from other countries.However, many other countries are also plagued by some invaders origi-nally from China. For instance, grass carp, the widely distributed andraised species in China, has been recorded from 45 states in the USA.Negative effects involving grass carp include interspecific competitionfor food with invertebrates (e.g., crayfish) and other fishes, significantchanges in the composition of macrophyte, phytoplankton and inverte-brate communities, interference with the reproduction of other fishes,decreases in refugia for other fishes, and so on (Nico and Fuller, 1999).The Asian clam (Corbicula fluminea) was introduced to the UnitedStates in 1938, and is now found in 38 states and the District of Colum-bia. The most prominent effect of the introduction of the Asian clam hasbeen biofouling, especially of complex power plant and industrial watersystems. It has also been documented to cause problems in irrigationcanals and pipes and drinking water supplies. It also alters benthicsubstrate, and competes with native species for limited resources. (Fos-ter and Fuller, 1999). Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum), first in-troduced into the USA in 1776, has become recognised as an invasiveplant decreasing native plant diversity along the Gulf Coast from Cor-pus Christi to Florida and up the East Coast to North Carolina. (Randalland Marinelli, 1996). Many more similar cases could be listed here.Communication, cooperation in research on the biology, ecology, andcontrol technology of these species between original and invaded coun-tries would be very important to reduce damages caused by them in in-vaded countries.

● Some alien species have been considered as serious invaders by othercountries. In the USA, cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) is particularly in-vasive in native grasslands and prairies, especially in the northwest -habitats that are becoming increasingly rare. Cornflower is a close rela-tive of the knapweed and starthistle, serious pests of agricultural andrange lands as well as natural areas. Once established it produces ampleseed with good viability, and populations increase quickly. Many grass-land preserves are heavily infested with this attractive nuisance species

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(Randall and Marinelli, 1996). In China, although there is no report ofits dangers, the beautiful flowers can be seen in large numbers in flowermarkets and nurseries in many cities in China. Nobody knows if it hasexpanded into the wild, developed independent populations or hascaused damage. The material from other countries urges us to study andmonitor these species.

4. Conduct case studies: set up projects to study the status and impacts of in-vasive species (especially intentionally introduced species) in several re-gions, in order to understand their status in China. Improve the public aware-ness of the impact of alien species to the national economy and ecosystems,and draw attention to the control of accidental introductions by providingmanagers, farmers and the public with concrete examples and scientificanalyses.

● First, take a middle-to-large-sized city and its surrounding areas as acase study. Make an inventory of alien trees, shrubs, weeds, and flowerspecies, and investigate surrounding natural ecosystems. Look for alienspecies that have invaded natural communities and find out if they havemade modifications to species composition, ecology, population struc-ture and so on. Predict their potential dangers and select proper speciesfor long-term monitoring.

● Take a middle-to-large-sized watershed as a case study. Study alien spe-cies’ effects to local species composition, population structure, quanti-ties and food chains of local species in the watershed. Start long-termmonitoring of changes of ecology and species structure in the water-shed. Make recommendations and strategies to related problems.

● Introduce legislation. There are already one law and some regulationsabout quarantine. They are: People’s Republic of China Animal andPlant Quarantine Law take effect in 1992 and Implement Regulationsfor People’s Republic of China Animal and Plant Quarantine Law in1997, People’s Republic of China Domestic Animals Epidemic Preven-tion Regulation, People’s Republic of China Plants Quarantine Regula-tions issued in 1983 and revised in 1992 and their associated regula-tions as List A and List B, Epidemic ad Parasite Diseases for AnimalsImported from Other Countries into People’s Republic of China, List ofAnimals, Animal Products and Other Quarantine Goods Forbidden toCarry or Mail into People’s Republic of China, Species List of Danger-ous Diseases, Insects and Weeds and Name List of Goods Forbidden to

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Import issued by Ministry of Agriculture in 1993. (Dahai Yu and YanlinCui, 1997; Yuanzhi Liu, et al., 1998). However all these laws and regu-lations are for quarantine of diseases, pests and weeds and more laws orregulations to prevent local ecosystems from damage of invasive spe-cies should be promoted. For example, promote laws that there shouldbe no large-scale use of non-indigenous species until small-scale trialsof 5 generations show no sign of threats to local ecosystems. Such lawsshould also prohibit use of any exotics in protected areas. Legislationshould promote and encourage the use of domestic species in reforesta-tion programmes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many experts have made great contributions to the report. Dr. Andrew Smithkindly edited the main report. Dr. John Fellowes provided information in HongKong; Dr. William Gregg, Dr. Pam Fuller, Dr. Jacoby Carter and Dr. Phillip Tho-mas provided information in USA; Dr John MacKinnon provided information onbirds. Dr. Wang Sung, Dr. William Gregg, Dr. John MacKinnon and Dr. PeterSchei made excellent comments on the draft. The best acknowledgements are sentto all of them.

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Yinrui Chen, Junxing Yang and Zaiyun Li. 1998. The Diversity and Present Sta-tus of Fishes in Yunnan Province. Chinese Biodiversity 6(4): 272-277.

Yongge Chen and Dexiang Gu. 1998. Interspecific Interaction BetweenHemiberlesia pitysophila Takagi (Homoptera: Diaspididae ) & Its ParasiteCoccobius azumai Tachikawa (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Natural Enemiesof Insects 20:136-142.

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Yuanzhi Liu, Yong Jiang, Xiangyun Su. 1998. Biology and Control of Termites inChina. Chengdu Publishing House of Chengdu Science and Technology Uni-versity 163-164, 226-228.

Zaifu Xu Ling Zeng. 1998. Current Status in the Study on Parasitoids of Liriomyzasativae Blanchard. Natural Enemies of Insects 20:129-135.

Zhelong Pu. 1984. Principles and Methods of Pest Biological Control. BeijingScience Press.

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APPENDIX I

CASES OF INVASIVE SPECIES IN CHINA

Mammals:

Nutria (Myocastor coypus) (Ruiqiu Xu et. al., 1997)

The herbivorous rodent was from Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. It was first intro-duced from Formal Russia to Northeast China Zoo for display. Since 1986, it wasbred and raised in large numbers in many areas, including southern part of China,because of its heavy and soft fine hair. In the middle of 90s, because price ofyoung animals was extremely high, the meat doesn’t taste well, and quality of theirfur reduced a lot after bred and raised in South China, nobody purchased grownup nutrias any more. Without management and control, nutrias were released orescaped. These nutrias developed into independent wild population, damagedcrops and fruit trees and became a new pest animal in crop fields and fruit planta-tions.

Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) ( Daming Zhang, et al. 1993)

Unlike musk rat (Ondatra xibethicus) from North America and red squirrel(Sciurus vulgaris exalbidus) from Russia, which were artificially released fromRussia about early 50s, brown rat and Sladen’s rat (Rattus tanezumi) were broughtinto Xinjiang Autonomous Region from central China through railways. The firstbrown rat was caught in Xinjiang in 1975, and has developed into natural popula-tion in Turpan prefecture and Urumiqi city. It is now not only spreading to northand south Xinjiang along railways, but also expanding to agriculture and hus-bandry area along roads. Surveys showed that age structures in some populationwere reasonable, breeding ages a little earlier and body size getting larger. In thecrop fields in Miquan county, the rat is wiping out other kinds of rats and becom-ing the single advantage species.

Birds: (from John MacKinnon’s horrible handwriting)

a) Exotic

Padda orizivora a grain-eating sparrow established in areas of South and EastChina, originally from Java.

Caccatua sulpurea a cockatoo in Hong Kong for many year. Feral destroys orna-mental trees. Originally from Indonesia.

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Trihoglossus haematotus a parrot, quite common in Hong Kong. Damages treesand raids fruit groves. Introduced from East Indonesia to Australia.

Anser canadensis a large goose spreading distribution in Hebei of potato field ofcrops. Originally from North America.

b) Range extensions

Sparrow species fuel as Passer domesticus and Passer montanus have becomecommensal of man and extended their range to new parts of the country.

Pigeon (Columba livia), is another commensal of man, now living feral over wideareas of West China. Feral varieties are threatening the purity of the few naturalcolonies.

Fishes:

Aristichthys nobilis (Guohua Zhang, et al. 1997, Yingrui Chen, et al. 1998)

There were around 50% Cyprinus pellegrini out of the total fish production in QiluLake in 1958. It feeds on plankton animals and it’s feeding organs aren’t well de-veloped as that of Aristichthys nobilis who sharing similar food resources. Withsmaller mouth, and short and low density of gill raker, Cyprinus pellegrini is weakat filtering food. On the contrary, Aristichthys nobilis is strong at it with biggermouth, and long and density of gill raker. The big differences of structure andfunction of feeding organs decide the advantage status of Aristichthys nobilis.Food competition caused by introduction is the main reason of reducing popula-tion of Cyprinus pellegrini in Qilu Lake. Cyprinus pellegrini in Xingyun Lake hasmet the same fate and protect measures had to take place in 1988. Cyprinuspellegrini was artificial reproduced and raised in Huanggu Reservoir and 150,000-200,000 fries are released to Xingyun Lake every year.

Small-sized fishes Gobiidae and Pseudorasbora parva (Yingrui Chen, et. al. 1998)

They were brought unintentionally to lakes in Yunnan-Guizhou area, such as ErhaiLake, while introducing the four-main-farming fishes in 50s and 60s. With veryfew carnivorous fishes in the lakes, these small-sized fishes were developed veryquickly and became the advantage species. They not only competed for food andspatial resources with indigenous species, but also ate eggs laid by indigenous spe-cies, which reduced quantities of these species and even eliminate some of them.There were three species of Schizothorax developed from one ancestor in Lugu

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Lake. They were extinct because introduced small-sized fishes, such asPseudorasbora parva ate their eggs and carps disturbed their breeding area.

Mosquito fish (Gabusia affinis) and other poeciliids(Dudgeon, D. & R. T. Corlett, 1994)

Circumstantial evidence shows that these have reduced native fish populations;they prey on small fishes and harass and nip the fins of larger ones. Some min-nows, such as the endemic Aphyocypris lini, may have been eliminated throughcompetition or predation, while the native ricefish Oryzias latipes can be foundonly in the few habitats where poeciliids have yet to colonise. It is also possiblethat the endemic Romer’s frog Philautus romeri has been eliminated from someareas by mosquito fish predation on the small tadpoles.

Crustacean:

Hairy-legged crab (Poyang Lake Management Plan by WWF). (John MacKinnonprovided) Poyang Lake (the first national protected area) crustacean ecology isthreatened by exotic hairy legged crabs.

Insects:

Termite (Termitidae) (Yuanzhi Liu, et. al. 1998)

Termite is a pest fed on wood and fibre. There are 2 out of 6 families in Isopteraeasily introduced, spreading and causing damages in other countries and regions.Mr. Yingjun Zhang did a lot of surveys and library researches in 80s on termiteinvaded into China and spread in the country. Incisitermes, Taiwan subterraneantermite (Coptotermes formosanus), rubber termite (Coptotermes curvignathus),Nasutitermes and etc. were brought in with wood, goods, papers and etc. inNanjing, Jiangsu; Xianyang, Shanxi; Qingdao, Shandong; Wuhan, Hubei; Yantai,Shandong; Penglai, Shandong; Beijing; Xi’an Shanxi; Jiang’an, Sichuan andNinghai, Zhejiang, and caused regional serious damage in some places. For exam-ple, since western drywood termite (Incisitermes minor) was first introduced inNinghai Zhejiang from USA in 1937, it developed into breeding population andcreated regional serious damages. Having started to control since 1975, it hasn’tcontinued to spread. Rubber termite was included in the Species List of DangerousDiseases, Insects and Weeds and Name List of Goods Forbidden to Import issuedby Ministry of Agriculture in 1993.

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Hemiberlesia pitysophila (Gangrou Xiao, 1992; Qingguan Lu, 1997 b)

Belongs to cocoidea, Diaspididae and native to Japan and Taiwan. It was foundand destroyed masson pine forest in Huidong county and Bao’an county inGuangdong Province late 70s. It spread at a very high speed, covered 110,000 hm2in 1983, 310,000 hm2 in 1986, 400,000 hm2 in 1987 and 718,00 hm2 by the endof year 1990, in which over 130,000 hm2 masson pines were dead.

Fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) (Qingguan Lu, 1997 b)

The Lepidoptera, Arctiidae insect was originally from North America. Since it in-vaded to Dangdong and Xinjin, Liaoling Province, has spread and caused seriousdamages. It can infect over 100 plant species in fruit plantations, forests and cropfields. Within its control coverage, every leaf was eaten by it in areas with densityfruit trees, tourism places and along green boulevards. It seriously threatened thesericulture, forestry, fruit plantation and green cities and caused huge loss. It isstill under gradually spreading, and reaching provinces as Shandong and Shaanxi.

Banana moth (Opogona sacchari) (Guifang Chen, Jikun Yang, 1997; Guifang Chenet. al., 1998)

Dracaena fragran was introduced to Guangzhou early 80s and expanded to northpart of China, even to Beijing in 90s. In the middle of 90s, it was first reported thatbanana moth seriously destroyed Dracaena fragran in Beijing. The moth wasfound in Mascarene Islands, Indian Ocean in 1856, then in many regions in Africaand Europe, then South America and West India Islands??, and invaded intoFlorida in 80s. It eats various of food, and host plants cover 24 families, over 50species, including crops as banana, sugarcane, corn and sweet potato and manyhorticulture plants especially Dracaena fragran. Bejing’s report is the first one inAsia. Investigation in South China of Guangzhou, Fujian and Hainan implied thatit is more dangerous in these regions. Banana moth can be found any places withDracaena fragran. Until 1997, it was only found in flower cultivate bases. How-ever, it is quite possible to invade into natural ecosystems.

Liriomyza sativae (Zaifu Xu, Ling Zeng, 1998)

The pest seriously destroy cotyledon of Cucurbitaceae, Physalis, Lepidium andAmbrosia, and is widely distributed in nearly 40 countries and regions in America,Australia, Africa and Asia. The first harmfulness record in China was in Hainan,December, 1993 and now it has spread to 21 provinces, municipals and autono-mous regions covering more than 80,000 km2 (20,000,000 mu) and causing great

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loss of vegetable production. Parasite bees, covers 4 families, 13 genus, and 34species were found and it is expected successful biological control.

Nematode:

North American pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Dudgeon, D. & R.T. Corlett, 1994)

Spread by longicorn beetles, whose larvae bore into pine wood. The nematodescan kill a pine tree within six months, and almost wiped out the extensive HongKong native Pinus massoniana plantations during the 1980s.

Micro-organism:

Ceratocystis fimbriata (Qingguan Lu, 1997 b)

Black spot is a major disease to sweet potato and caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata.It was introduced to Liaoning Province from Japan in 1937, expanded its infectedarea cross 26 provinces, municipals and autonomous regions by 1980. It largelyreduces production by decomposing sweet potato seeds and killing young plants.The bacteria also stimulates the sweet potato to produce poisonous bio-chemicalsof ipomeamarone and ipomeanine, which can cause headache in people andasthma and even death in cattle.

Wildlife disease: (John MacKinnon provided)

Poyang Lake as the most important wetlands for winter waterfowls is threatenedby large-scale domestic duck farming on the lake which could transmit diseases torare wild duck species.

Plants:

Eucalyptus (David M. Richardson, 1997)

The aliens have been widely planted in tropics, subtropics and temperate zone inChina as important commercial plantations. These commercial forests contributegreatly to the economies in our country. Compared to indigenous species, theyusually grow faster, are easier to manage and grow more readily in marginal lands.But they also have their costs: one of the greatest is associated with the spread ofthe aliens into natural and semi-natural habitats, where they can affect ecosystemproperties and functions and cause conflicts between foresters, conservationist,catchment managers and other interested parties.

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Goldenrod (Solidago altissima) (Jindian Che, Xihong Guo, 1999)

Originally from North America. It was first recorded in Shanghai in 1997 and nowis found in suburbs along Kunshan-Shanghai railway, and in Pudong and Qingpu.Its exuberant reproduction, through seeds and root as well, makes it successfulduring competition, wipes other plants, and becomes single advantage species.Concerns should be made to suburb wasteland, roads, banks, factories and livingareas where it can grow vigorously. It starts to invade into surrounding area ofcrop and vegetable fields, and fruit plantation in Shanghai with the trend of enter-ing into field and plantation.

Ambrosia (Xiumei Li, 1997)

Ambrosia, including Ambrosia artemisiifolia and A. trifida, is from Sonoran, NorthAmerica and was introduced into China late 30s. According to survey in 1989, itexpanded to 15 provinces from 4 centres of Shenyang, Nanjing, Nanchang andWuhan. It’s high abilities of absorbing fertiliser and regenerating, dry and infertilesoil, and block sunshine leading to low production of crops. Furthermore, its pol-len is the main reason of ‘hay fever’ with symptoms as allergic rhinitis and bron-chial asthma. Research on biological control with Zygogramma isuturalis intro-duced from Canada and Russia was conducted in 1987.

Spartina spp. (NEPA, 1998)

Originally from Europe, and was introduced to protect beaches and had playedgood roles of preserve sands and protect beaches in many areas. Unfortunately, ithas spread out of the original introduced area, become advantage species, wipeout other plants and has threatened the local biodiversity.

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) (Jianqing Ding, et. al. 1995)

Water Hyacinth is a malignant aquatic weed originated from South America. Itwas encouraged to grow in many places as good forage for domestic animals, or-namental and purify water waste species. Since first introduced in 1930, it haswidely distributed in South, Central, North and Northwest China, in which SouthChina is in the worst situation. In 1994, about 10 km2 of Dianchi Lake was inYunnan Province, the famous beautiful lake in China before, were covered by it.The rapid spread and overgrowth of this weed resulted in great economic loss infishery and tourism. A large number of local aquatic plants were exposed to itscompetition and local biodiversity was seriously threatened.

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Eupatorium adenophorum (NEPA, 1998)

Originally from Central America and was introduced into south of Yunnan fromMyanmar and Vietnam early 50s. It is widely spread in Southwest China, and itsoccurrence area is 247,000 km2 in Yunnan. It is poisonous, inhibit growing of oreven kill local plants and domestic animals.

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Ren Wang and Yuan Wang, 1988)

Originally from Brazil, and was introduced to Shanghai and East China in 40s. Itwas encouraged to introduce and grow in many area in South China since 50s andthen escaped into wild. Survey in 1986 showed that the natural occurrence area is13,344,000 hm2 and it has become the major weed in vegetable, sweet potato fieldsand mandarin orange plantations.

South American climber (Mikania micrantha) (John Fellows provided)

Mikania micrantha dominates considerable areas in Hong Kong. It has smotheredtrees including those serving as egretries, and WWF Hong Kong and KadoorieFarm & Botanic Garden recently teamed up to remove the climber from an egretrywhose birds were beginning to abandon it. However, such management may needto be repeated annually to be effective.

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APPENDIX II

INCOMPLETE LIST OF INVASIVE PLANTS IN CHINA(NEPA, 1998)

Family Common Names Scientific Names Original Regions

Amaranthaceae Alligator Alternanthera Alternanthera philoxeroides South AmericaSpinyflower Alternanthera A. Pungens South AmericaWhite Amaranth Amaranthus albus North AmericaRedroot Amaranth A. Retroflexus South AmericaWrinkledfruit Amaranth A. viridis Tropical Africa

Vaccaria Cow/cowherb soapwort Vaccaria segetalis Europe

Papaver Nudicaulous Poppy Papaver nudicaule Europe

Lepidium Glabrous Field Pepperweed Lepidium campestre EuropeClasping Pepperweed L. perfoliatum EuropeVirginia Pepperweed L. virginicum North AmericaWatercress Nasturtium oficinale Europe

Melilotus White Sweetclover Melilotus albus EuropeSensitive plant, Touch-me-not Mimosa pudica Tropical America

Euphorbia Sun Euphorbia Euphorbia helioscopia Tropical AmericaGarden Euphorbia E. hirta Tropical America

Onagraceae Oenothera orseus North America

Pharbitis Common Morning Glory Pharbitis purpurea North America

Heliotropium Heliotropium europaeum Europe

Lantana Common Lantana Lantana camara Tropical America

Physalis Cutleaf Groundcherry Physalis pubescens South America

Scoparia Sweet Broomwort Scoparia dulcis South AmericaIran Speedwell Veronica persica West Asia, Europe

Orobanchaceae Brassica Broomrape Orobanche brassicae Europe

Plantaginaceae Plantago virginica North America

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Family Common Names Scientific Names Original Regions

Ambrosia Common Ragweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia North AmericaGiant Ragweed A. trifida North AmericaAnnual Sactmarsh Aster Aster subulatus AmericaLarge Beggaricks Bidens frondosa North AmericaRallway Beggarticks B. pilosa Tropical AmericaBona Conyza Conyza bonarinisis EuropeHorseweed Fleabane Erigeron canadensis North AmericaPlains Coreopsis Coreopsis tinctoria North AmericaAnnual Fleabane Erigeron annuus North AmericaSmauflower Galinsoga Galinsoga parviflora South America

Eupatorium adenophorum Central AmericaFragrant Eupatorium E. odoratun Central AmericaSneezeweed Helenium autumnale North AmericaNorthern Groundsel Senecio dubilobilis EuropeCommon Groundsel S. vulgaris EuropeCamomileleaf Soliva Soliva anthemifolia Suoth AmericaCommon Parthenium Parthenium hysterophorus North America

Polymnia uvedalia AmericaSpiny Cocklebur Xanthium spinosum South America

Lolium Goosegrass, Wiregrass Eleusine indica IndiaItalian Ryegrass Lolium multiflorum EuropeDarnel, Darnel Ryegrass L. temulentum EuropeTorpedograss Panicum repens Tropical AfricaDallisgrass Paspalum dilatatum South AmericaTimothy Phleum pratense EuropeCommon Cordgrass Spartina anglica EuropePalmgrass Setaria palmifolia AfricaJohnsongrass Sorghum halapense Europe

Cyperus Nutgrass Cyperus rotundus IndiaGatingale Rhynchospora submarginata South America

Lemnaceae Lemna trinervis America

Eriocaulaceae Longbract Pipewort Eriocaulon melunocephalum South America

Eichornia Common Water-hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes South America

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APPENDIX III

INTRODUCTION OF NATURAL ENEMY INSECTS(Qingguan Lu, 1997 a,b)

In the beginning of this century, Taiwan introduced Rodolia cardinalis from Cali-fornia and Hawaii to control Icerya purchasi. This is the first record of successfulintroduction of natural enemy in China.

Since 50s, there are many successful cases, such as Aphelinus mali to controlEriosoma lanigerum, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri to Peudococcus spp., Encarsiaformosa to Trialeurodes vaporiorum,

There were 182 introduction (those in Ministry of Forestry and Taiwan were notcounted) during 1979-1985. In which, Encarsia formosa, Metaseiulusoccidentalis, Phytoseiulus persimilis and Xylocoris flavipes are very successful.

There were 101 introduction (those in Taiwan were not counted) during 1986-1995.

Guangdong successfully introduced Coccobius azumai from Japan to controlHemiberlesia pitysophila. According to statistics of Guangdong Forest Bureau, theuse of the biological control technology saved US$ 6,000,000 each year in con-trolling Hemiberlesia pitysophila. (Yongge Chen, Dexian Gu, 1998)

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SOME NATURAL ENEMIES INTRODUCED INTO CHINA RECENTYEARS (NEPA, 1998)

Scientific Name Export country Receive Institute

Encarsia formosa British, Germany Institute of Biological Control, CAAS

Xylocoris flavipes USA Central China Agriculture College

Apanteles rubeculs Canada Zhejiang Agriculture University

Trichogramma evanesens Germany Guangdong Institute of Entomology

T. australicum USA Guangdong Institute of Entomology

T. minutum Mexico Jilin Institute of Forestry

Podisus maiuliventris USA Institute of Biological Control, CAAS

Agasicles hygrophila USA

Zygogramma isuturalis Russer

Neochetina bruchi USA, Argentina

Coccobius azumai Japan Guangzhou Forest Protection Station

Typhlodromus occidentalis USA, Australia Institute of Biological Control, CAAS

Phtosieulus persimilis Sweden, UK, Guangdong Institute of EntomologyAustralia Institute of Biological Control, CAAS

Neoseiulus fallacis USA Institute of Biological Control, CAAS

Bacillus thuringiensis USA Hubei Institute of Agriculture Sciences

B. popilliae USA Institute of Biological Control, CAAS

Beauveria bassiana Australia Jilin Institute of Agriculture Sciences

Nosema helinus UK Institute of Biological Control, CAAS

Steinernematid feltiae Australia Institute of Biological Control, CAASGuangdong Institute of Entomology