Introduction: What is Research? - VIVA University · PDF file · 2014-05-02exercise of asking questions a research. This chapter seeks to introduce readers to the ... Elements of

Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

1Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

1

Introduction:

What is Research?


22

Class Website

• www.vivaafrica.info


33

Recommended Text

Boateng, R. (2014)

Research Made Easy,

Accra: PearlRichards

Foundation.• Students can buy book from

the University of Ghana

Bookshop from 8th April 2014


44

Objectives

Research plays a critical role in business and

society. However, what makes a piece of

exercise of asking questions a research. This

chapter seeks to introduce readers to the

purpose of research and explain the research

process. The learning outcome is to understand

what is and what is not research, understand the

classifications or different types of research and

explain research design.



5

Understanding research

Steps in Research | Purpose of Research

Elements of a Research Proposal

Why Do Research


66

What is Research?

• Research is an investigation into a particular

topic or social/business phenomena.


77

What is Research?

• This said, one will argue that every

investigation on a topic of interest is research.

• NO! That is not true.


88

What is Research?

Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.

1. SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of scientific procedures

and principles which the researcher will NEED to follow in order to

get reliable and accurate results.

2. ORGANIZED because there is a structure or method for doing

research. The research process has a number of steps to guide the

researcher.

Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997)


99

What is Research?

Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.

3. FINDING ANSWERS because every research seeks to answer a

question or a number of questions. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is

still an answer.

4. QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then

how do we begin the research. Research is focused on relevant, useful,

and important questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or

purpose.

Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997)


1010

So Why Do We Do Research?

Create/develop something new

Cause something particular to

happen

Make-sense-of what is happening

Explain what is happening/verify

Predict what will happen`


1111

Discover/Explore

Describe/Understand

Explain/Predict or Create

Social Phenomena

Research is partly a process of discovery

and partly a process of knowledge

creation.

So Why Do We Do Research?


1212

Absence of Research

• Authority

• Tradition

• Common Sense

• Media Distortion

• Personal Experience

common sources of knowledge, perception and conclusion



Absence of Research

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –

ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379


1414

Who Needs Research?

• Research feeds into

– Future research

– Practice

– Policy

Research is needed by researchers, practitioners

and policy makers. In these broad categories, there

are a number of stakeholders including

organizations, communities, government and non-

governmental institutions and society in general.

“And so what?” meaning what can we do

with your findings and what are its

implications?


1515

The Research Process


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Research process is

the step by step

process of creating

and carrying out a

research project


1616


1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic

2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem

3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps

4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses

5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives

6. Determining the Question – Research Question

7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review

8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses)

9. Designing the Research – Research Design

10.Collecting Data – Research Data Collection

11.Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion

12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing


1717

Phases of The Research Process

• Phase 1: Identify a social or business phenomenon to be

studied;

• Phase 2: Determine the right question to ask;

• Phase 3: Design a research to find answers;

• Phase 4: Inform others about the answers to the

question or new knowledge.


1818

Research Process vs Research Design

• Not the Same

• The researcher’s plan on how to implement the research in

practice is known as the research design.

• The research design describes how, when and where data

are to be collected and how the data will be analyzed.

• Research Design is the subset of the Research Process


1919

Research Activities are Often Iterative

• Flexibility of revisiting

previous activities to revise

their focus

• Rarely linear; it is more

realistically cyclical

• Researcher needs to have

a bird’s eyeview of the

research process



TYPES OF RESEARCH

Application of the Research [Whom - Recipient]

Purpose or Objectives of the Research [Why]

Inquiry Procedure of the Research [Who – Researcher]


2121

Application/Use of Research

Basic/Pure research

• The scientific community

• Focus is on the rigour of the process

Applied research

• Policy or Practice

• Focus is on the outcome/implications of results

• Evaluation research

– Assess the effectiveness

• Social Impact Assessment


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2222

Basic and Applied Social Research Compared


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2323

Purpose of the Research

– To explore (Exploratory research)

– To describe (Descriptive research)

– To explain (Explanatory research)


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2424


– To explore (Exploratory research)

Exploratory research seeks to explore an area

where little is known or little research has been

done either in the context (research site) or on

the research topic in that particular context

(topic and context)


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2525


– To describe (descriptive research)

Descriptive research seeks to systematically describe a

phenomenon or situation or problem.

Usually asks the ‘what’ and ‘how’ question.

For example, what are the attitudes of the community towards the

community library or what are the living conditions in the

farming communities in Ghana.


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2626

Purpose of the Research– To explain (explanatory research)

Explanatory research seeks to understand and explain a

phenomenon or situation or problem.Usually asks the questions ‘why’ and ‘how’ a particular phenomenon occurs or

there exist a relationship between two or more factors of a phenomenon. The researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze

and explain why or how something is happening.

For example, why and how do firms achieve value amidst the reported fierce

competition in the micro-finance industry?


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research

Writing the Proposal - Data Collection Instrumentation http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/steps.html


2727

Research Methods, Some Notes to Orient You. Source:http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic851950.files/Research%20Methods_Some%20Notes.pdf


2929

Inquiry Procedure of the Research

1. Approach of the Research

2. Time Dimension of the Research

Types of Research


3030

Approach of the Research

Quantitative:to determine the extent of a problem or the existence of a relationship

between aspects of a phenomenon by quantifying the variation. Methods

include survey.

Qualitative:to explore the meanings, attitudes, values, beliefs people associate with a

phenomenon in order to establish a better understanding, rather than to

test to support or disprove a relationship. Useful for describing social

phenomena or the nature of the variation... Methods include case study

Mixed-Methods:Combines the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research

Types of Research


3131

Approach of the Research

Quantitative:For example, a researcher may ask, ‘to what extent have students

adopted mobile phones?

HYPOTHESIS: Students who obtain Grade A never miss a class!

Qualitative:For examples, a researcher may ask, ‘what is the working condition in the

banking industry?

What are the perceptions of traditional medicines among nurses?

Mixed-Methods:What are the type of primary schools in the city of Accra and the extent of

their popularity in the city?

Types of Research


3232

Time Dimension of Research

Time influences research in manner in which data is

collected with respect to time. As a result, the

number of different types of research, namely:

Cross-Sectional Study

Longitudinal Study

Panel

Cohort

Time-series

Types of Research


3333

Cross-sectional StudyA researcher collects information from a sample drawn from a

population. The data you obtain is derived from a cross-section of the

population at one point of time.

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University

of Malaysia, Ghana

Types of Research

Longitudinal Study - Panel

A researcher can identify a sample from the beginning and follow the specific

respondents over a specified period of time to observe changes in specific

respondents and highlight the reasons why these respondents have changed.

Longitudinal Study - Cohort Although the population remains the same, different respondents are sampled

each time. The researcher’s aim here is to see if there are changes in perceptions or

trends that occur in the study

A study in which selected aspects (variables) of a phenomenon is studied at different

points in time, often with a view to studying social trends. Eg: Trends in the levels of crime

Longitudinal Study – Time Series


3434

Structure of Long Essay

• Abstract

• Chapt. 1 – Introduction

• Chapt. 2 – Literature Review

• Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study

• Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology

• Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion

• Chapt. 6 – Conclusion


3535

Assignment 1

On Monday, a journalist from Radio Universe interviewed

10 people randomly chosen on the streets on the

university campus concerning the state of the

Ghanaian economy. Six of the interviews were played

on radio as part of their evening news bulletin.

From your understanding of research, do you

think Radio Universe conducted a research?


3636

Assignment 2

The journalist ‘Anas’ is usually engaged in a number of

investigative assignments which generate reports on

ills in society. By exposing these ills, Anas seeks to

make society better.

From your understanding of research, do you

think Anas is conducting research?


3737

Assignment 3

A student was asked by a lecturer to explain two

differences between the simple definition of

research and the detailed definition of research.

From your understanding of research, what do

you think should be the student’s response?


3838

References

1. Boateng, R. (2014) Research Made Easy, Accra:

PearlRichards Foundation.

• Students can buy book from the University of Ghana

Bookshop from 8th April 2014

Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com


3939



40

Chapter Two

Selecting A Topic &

Literature Review - Part One


4141

Objectives

• Before starting any research, the researcher needs

determine the topic or issue to study.

• However, the question is how does the researcher

select a research topic or issue? Can every topic be

researched? What is researchable and what is not

researchable?

• This session seeks discuss how to select a research

topic and start a review on the topic.


4242


1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic

2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem

3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps

4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses

5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives

6. Determining the Question – Research Question

7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review

8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses)

9. Designing the Research – Research Design

10.Collecting Data – Research Data Collection

11.Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion

12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing


4343

What Can Be Researched

The right topic to be researched often depends on a

number of factors. First, let’s consider topics to

avoid:

1. Common/over-used topics

2. Topics related to religion/controversy

3. General/ broad topics

4. Topics that are Too Narrow

5. Controversial Politics related topics


4444

Common/over-used topics

• A number of research areas are very common and have been

reused several times by numerous other students. Most

importantly, try to be original. You can pick an over-used topic

but you can place it in another context or sector.

• For example, if internet banking in Ghana has been well-

researched, you may consider a topic on internet banking

among rural banks in Ghana.

Selecting A Topic


4545

Topics related to religion,politics/controversy

• Controversies have the propensity to arouse

emotions in people, usually because the surrounding

issues are highly subjective.

• Select this topic – if required by programme of study.

• Most importantly – you want to make sure you can

complete the research on time and with relevant and

appropriate data!

Selecting A Topic


4646

General/Too broad topics

• Some topics are too broad and general in scope, and

thus should be avoided.

• A research on service marketing is too broad,

however, service marketing in the insurance industry

may be more appropriate.

Selecting A Topic


4747

Too narrow topics

• Picking a topic that is too narrow should be avoided, because

it will be near impossible to find enough information to

conduct the research.

• For example, consider the research topic ‘Why John broke up

with Sarah’. This topic are too narrow and focused on a single

event.

• if this topic is changed to: ‘Determinants of break-ups in

relationships among undergraduate students’ – the topic

will become more researchable.

Selecting A Topic


4848

What can influence choice of topic

Selecting A Topic


4949


Selecting A Topic

YOUthe researcher values, belief, interests,

relevance, and personal experiences can

influence the choice of a research topic


5050


Selecting A Topic

SUPERVISOR Find out the research interests of the potential

supervisors; have a discussion with them;

read their publications


5151


Selecting A Topic

Data Source researchers are sometimes restricted to particular

topics because of access to or lack of access to data in

the specific field of study or time availability


5252


Selecting A Topic

Current Trends researchers can select a topic based on how important

a particular issue is perceived to be to society at that

point in time


5353


Selecting A Topic

Sponsor researchers can also restricted by the sponsor or

funding agency. Most funding agencies have specific

topics of interests which are based on their goals and

objectives.


5454


Selecting A Topic

Research

Gaps

Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to be

addressed or areas of study where there are reasonable gaps

in the existing literature. The potential contribution to literature

lies in the research gap.


5555

Corporate governance has been identified in previous studies to influence firms'

financing or capital structure decisions which also affect performance

(see Berger et al., 1997; Friend and Lang, 1988). These empirical studies tended

to focus mainly on developed economies with inconclusive results. Very little,

however, has been done on corporate governance in Sub-Saharan Africa,

especially with respect to firms' financing decisions. In Ghana for instance,

economic development and restructuring have introduced modern forms of

business activity and diverse financing structures like the Ghana Stock Exchange

(GSE) in the past two decades (Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993).

Thus firms are being exposed to more financing options than previously. It is crucial

to determine how current issues in corporate governance affect the financing

decisions of Ghanaian firms. This paper specifically examines the relationship

between various variables of corporate governance and the capital structure

decisions of firms listed on the GSE during the six-year period (1998-2003).

Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms

Abor, J. (2007) "Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms", Corporate Governance, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.83 - 92

Research Problem – illustrating a research gap

Ghana Stock Exchange. Ghana Stock Exchange Handbook 1993. Accra, Ghana: Marketing Department, Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993.


5656

The good research topic must:

1. Be original;

2. Be of interest to both the researcher and the supervisor;

3. Be timely and relevant;

4. It must make a contribution to existing knowledge or respond

to a research gap;

5. Be specific and distinct, not too broad;

6. Incorporate the main purpose of the research;

7. Be clever, captivating and unforgettable; and

8. The research questions that flow from it must be possible to

address through a research design.



RESEARCH GAPS

and Topic Selection


5858

Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - Explained

1. Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to

be addressed

2. Areas of study where there are reasonable gaps in the

existing literature.

Critical Component of the research problem – and through which

research objectives and questions emerge. Hence, the potential

contribution to literature lies in the research gap


5959

Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - Explained

• Answers the questions:

– Why should I read your work?

– Are you just duplicating previous research?

– What is the potential contribution of this research?

– Is there any value or something new to be learnt or

discovered, described or explained?

Critical Component of the research problem – and through

which research objectives and questions emerge


6060

Types of Research GapsA. Issue Gap

An issue which is less discussed, or less represented in literature. Very little is known

about this issue.

B. Theory Gap

A theory or theoretical framework which is less discussed, or less represented in

literature. Theory gap can also exist when current theories or conceptual models are

inadequate in addressing a particular research issue.

C. Method Gap

A research method which is less discussed or less represented in literature in respect to

a particular research topic/issue. Sometimes researchers make a case for new research

methods or approaches to be used for a particular research issue.

Inconclusive/conflicting empirical results can also create method gaps.

D. Context Gap

A research context – geographic region – which is less discussed or less represented in

literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue.

E. Level of Analysis Gap

A level of analysis (meta, macro, meso and micro) – which is less discussed or less

represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue.


6161

Types of Research Gaps

1. Issue + Context

2. Issue + Theory

3. Issue + Method

4. Issue + Level of Analysis

5. Theory + Context

6. Theory + Method

Research gaps are sometimes complex in their presentation,

thus two or more types of research gaps are combined to

create a Complex Research Gap.


6262

Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - How

By Reviewing Existing Literature:

1. Identify the broad problem and state its

importance

2. State what is significant in what has already

been written.

3. Describe the gaps and select the gap you

propose to fill in the existing research literature.

This then creates an opportunity for you to

make a contribution to the research in the area.

4. Establish your research purpose, objectives and

questions.

Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from:

http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012

Establish the field

Summarize previous

research and complement

Create a research space

Establish Research

http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary Sources/researchgaps.htm


6363

While there has been some research on the general

impact of female unemployment (Coyle,1984;

Popay,1985), little has been written about the effects of

pit closure on women's lives.

Research Gap identified: The effects of pit closure [in coal

mining] on women's lives.



complement

Gap

Research Problem – illustrating a research issue gap



6464

Research Problem – illustrating a research issue gap

The adoption of social media by the government confronts a series of barriers. Some of these

barriers relate to records management, privacy and security issues, accuracy, and

administration-specific requirements (Bertot et al., 2012; Bryer and Zavattaro,

2011;Landsbergen, 2010 and Sherman, 2011). As social media includes two-way

communications, the risk of inserting malware into governments' websites exists (Bertot et al.,

2012), so the IT people should be prepared to protect government's information technology

infrastructure. Governments that would like to implement social media need to verify if people

in charge of updating the media will have the time to update the new communication channel;

they also need to answer other questions such as what to post, how and when often they will

update (Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011 and Landsbergen, 2010). The lack of resources and

procedures could undermine the accuracy of the information posted on social media.

Although the use of social media in Mexican state government portals is recent, the

development of relationships between government and citizens is growing fast (Sandoval-

Almazán et al., 2011). However, in contrast with other countries, to our knowledge, there is

still no guideline for the use of social media in Mexico. The study of perceived risks,

benefits, and strategies will be very helpful in the development of those guidelines.

Social networking in Public Sector in Mexico

Sergio Picazo-Vela, Isis Gutiérrez-Martínez, Luis Felipe Luna-Reyes, Understanding risks, benefits, and strategic alternatives of social media applications in the public sector, Government Information Quarterly, Volume 29, Issue 4, October 2012, Pages 504-511, ISSN 0740-624X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2012.07.002.


6565

In education in general, evaluation has played a vital role for more than one

hundred years (Madaus et al, 1983). In English Language Teaching also,

evaluation has been a major concern for over twenty years (Strevens, 1976;

Stern, 1983; Lynch, 1996). In contrast, it is only recently (Star, 1994;

Gardner & Miller, 1999) that attention has been paid to the evaluation of

learning outcomes in self-access centres. However, if we are to argue that

such centres provide an effective and efficient alternative to other existing

modes of language learning, it remains a matter of serious concern that

there is no research-based model designed for their evaluation.

This paper will suggest four key issues which need to be addressed when

considering the development of such an evaluation model…



Research Gap identified: A research-based model for the evaluation of

self-access language learning centres.

Research Problem – illustrating a theory/model gap



6666

There have been a number of valuable studies of self-

employment using cross-section data (Rees and Shah, 1986;

Blanchflower and Oswald, 1993; Taylor, 1996), all of which

present evidence on a number of employment and personal

characteristics on the sector. However, none of these studies

provides a picture of the changes over the last decade or

forecasts the trends in self-employment as the recession of

1990 took hold.

Research Gap identified: The need for a study of the changes in

self-employment over the last decade.Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from:


complement

Gap

Research Problem – illustrating a method gap



6767









(GSE) in the past two decades (Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993).








Research Problem – illustrating an issue-context gap

Ghana Stock Exchange. Ghana Stock Exchange Handbook 1993. Accra, Ghana: Marketing Department, Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993.


6868



Extant literature has fairly covered studies on the mobile phone’s usage and

mobiles for development in sub-Saharan Africa. The studies include mobile

phones and fisherman and farmers in Ghana (Boadi et al., 2007); mobile phone

sharing practices in Ghana (Sey, 2009); mobile phones and development in

Nigeria (Heeks and Jagun, 2007; Jagun et al., 2008); mobile payments in

Uganda (Duncombe, 2009) and mobile phone ownership and social capital in

Tanzania and South Africa (Goodman, 2005).

Despite these studies, there is a call for more studies to test earlier findings in

different contexts and in different micro-economic activities in order to

contribute to better understanding of the impact of mobile phones in developing

economies.

complement

Gap

Research Problem – illustrating a context-issue gap



6969

Gaps may be communicated as:

1. Missing issues in literature

2. Limited discussion in literature

3. Conflicts in theoretical approach

4. Missing theoretical model

5. Conflicts/ in empirical methods (data collection and

context)

6. Mixed previous empirical results

7. Less contextual evaluation or geographic

representation

8. Complex (limited previous results, conflicts, absence,

mixed views)





7070

Research Gap - Identify

• Academic Journal Articles

– Gaps are usually presented in the introduction of the journal articles

These gaps focus on why it is important to read that journal article. It

establishes the gaps in the previous research and points out the focus of

the journal article.

– Future Research Directions or Gaps for Future Research

Usually the conclusion of an academic journal article focuses on

discussing the implications of the findings of the research and also point

out gaps for future research. This is important for researchers to find out

the gaps pointed out by previous researchers.





7171

6 Steps to Creating a Title for Research

1. Identify broad topic and academic discipline

2. Determine the scope

3. Conduct Preliminary Literature Review

4. Write Research Problem

5. Determine Research Purpose, Objectives and

Questions

6. Revisit your Topic to create a Title which fits your

purpose and questions


7272

Identify broad topic and academic discipline

Decline in employee

productivity

How can our company

improve the productivity of its

employees?

Business

Problem

Research

Problem

Employee productivity in

organizations

What factors influence

employee productivity?

What are the characteristics of

productive employees?


7373

Determine the Scope

1. Studying one part of an organization

2. Comparing several parts or functions of an

organization

3. Studying one organization

4. Comparing two or more organization

5. Studying a sector/industry


7474

Creating a Title for Research

1. Identify broad topic and academic discipline

2. Determine the scope

3. Conduct Preliminary Literature Review

4. Write Research Problem

5. Determine Research Purpose, Objectives and

Questions

6. Revisit your Topic to create a Title which fits your

purpose and questions



75

Chapter Three

Literature Review - Part Three



LITERATURE REVIEW – PART ONE

How to identify and locate literature

Learn about scholary journals


7777

What is the Literature Review?

A literature review IS:

1. A synthesis of available resources and materials

with a strong relation to the topic in question,

accompanied by a description AND a critical

evaluation and comparative analysis of each work

2. Focused on a particular question or area of research

Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the

University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available:

http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]


7878

Why do a literature review?

The literature review is not a chore to be finished quickly so that you can get on to the meat of your project, or a university department-imposed hoop to jump through before you can get on with the writing of your thesis or dissertation.

It is the very basis of your argument. It places your research in context within your discipline and demonstrates how your research improves your discipline. In other words, the literature review is the meat of your project.

1. So that your research will have a strong theoretical base on which to stand.





7979

a) To prove that there are gaps in knowledge in your field that merit a closer investigation

b) To demonstrate that your work will improve your field in some way, filling in gaps and adding to knowledge in and understanding of your field

c) To prove that your work hasn’t been previously contributed and it is indeed original

d) For purely practical considerations: a good literature review demonstrates that you’ve read extensively in your field, that you have a thorough comprehension of your field and that you are capable of intelligently ad knowledgeably critiquing others’ work

Why do a literature review?

2. To justify your research





8080

A good literature review will help you do the

following :

– Narrow your research focus;

– Pose questions that might not have previously

occurred to you; and

– Build a knowledge base for future





8181

The LR stages are :

1. Select and refine a topic

2. Identify and Locate literature

3. Ensure Relevance

4. Record and Retrieve

5. Review and Summarize

6. Write


8282

Identify Literature

• Where to Find Research Literature

– Periodicals

– Scholarly journals

– Books

– Dissertations

– Government documents

– Policy reports and presented papers

– Existing Statistics and Industry reports


8383

Scholarly Journals @ UG

• http://library.ug.edu.gh/screens/balme/onc

ampus.html

Or

• http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals


8484

• EBSCOhost

• Emerald

• JSTOR

• Palgrave Macmillan Journals

• Sage Journals Online

• ScienceDirect

• Wiley – Blackwell


http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals

Password may be needed when

accessed outside the university

network


8585

• African Journals Online (AJOL)

• Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)

• Google Scholar (Multidisciplinary)

• Topics in Development

• World Bank Databases


http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals

FREE

(almost)


8686

Scholarly Journal

1. Emerald

- www.emeraldinsight.com

username: uofghana

password: emerald

2. EBSCOhost

- http://search.epnet.com/

4

Password may be needed when

accessed outside the university

network

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/

http://search.epnet.com/


8787

Identify and Locate

1. Go to the journal database

2. Use the search box

– Basic Search

– Advanced Search

3. Type in your research topic

4. Review results

– Check Relevance

– Refine search parameters




88886

Record and Retrieve

• Save the document onto your PC

• Categorize the documents


8989

Spider Diagrams

For more on this and other aspects of academic study, see our website at

www.reading.ac.uk/studyadvice

summarize a lot of information on one page in a visual and memorable way.


9090

Spider Diagrams



Put the main topic in the middle and add key words on the “arms” of the diagram – the

key thing is to keep it brief.


91916

Read, Review and Summarize

Article Summary (one page)

1. Article Reference:

Author lastname, Other initials (year of publication) Title of the journal article,

Name of the Journal, Volume/Number, page range.

2. Research Problem/Research Question

3. Research Frameworks Used

4. Research Methods

5. Results/Findings and Discussions

6. Conclusions

7. Gaps for Future Research


9292

Practice Assignment

• Go to www.emeraldinsight.com

• Enter the username and password

• Search for this paper and download

“Mobile phones and micro-trading activities”

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/


9393

The LR stages are :

1. Select and refine a topic

2. Identify and Locate literature

3. Ensure Relevance



6. Write


9494

Ensure Relevance

• From reading the titles and abstracts, priorities the literature that we have identified and make a note of why it has a high, medium or low priority (at this stage).

• Develop the habit of screening the literature for relevance before we download it or print it out. This way we will not become overwhelmed with all of the reading that we have to do.

After researching




Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available:

http://www.janiesantoy.com/UsingResearch/3select.html [February 2012]


9595

Review

• When taking notes be sure be clear about when we are quoting and when

we are paraphrasing. We cannot risk unintentionally plagiarizing ideas

and information, the penalties are harsh and the damage to our

reputation could be irreparable.

• Always keep the page numbers with anything taken from the literature

so that we can easily check back to the quote or idea paraphrased

when editing.







9696

Questions

When reading relevant texts and writing the literature review you should ask yourself the following questions

1. How will I organize my discussion of the literature?

2. What headings will I use?

3. What are the grounds for including and excluding literature?







9797

Literature Review

as a process


9898

Structure of Long Essay & LR

• Abstract








9999



Descriptive and Analytical Writing


100100

Analyzing and Writing

• Two main stages are involved in analyzing the literature:

evaluating the source and analyzing the source.

Evaluating A Source

– Ask: "Is this item relevant: does it tell me something I

need for my research paper/long essay?" If not, then

reject it. If so, then continue.

– Never simply accept what is written or said.


101101

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source

Questions to Ask

• Who wrote this?

• Why did they write this – do they have some particular

interest or 'angle' that would make them likely to present data

in a particular light (e.g. a company with a financial

involvement)?

• How did they get their data and come to their conclusions –

are there any possible problems with what they have done?

• When did they do the work – is it up-to-date, or likely to have

been superseded?

• What else do you know – does this support or contradict other

sources of evidence?


102102

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source

Triangulation

• viewing an issue from various different sources,

• evidence types, and

• perspectives in order to get a balanced view.

• Your overall evaluation will give you a sense of how valuable,

or not, the particular source is.


103103

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A SourceSocial networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in

the social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the

2011 Forbes report on Social networking and business stated that, 85

per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of

working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011).

These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study

in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers

interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011).

Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social

networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns

about the implications it has on both employers and employees

(Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be

requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California

Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage

social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example


104104

Analyzing and Writing: Analyzing A Source

What I am Looking For…??

• If you're looking for some specific item of data, e.g. how

many commercial banks are in Ghana?

• If you're looking for conceptual models that can inform your

research paper, e.g. which model will explain the social

determinants of internet banking adoption?

• If you’re looking for examples of the use of particular

research methods to study the topic in question in a

particular context, e.g. are there any quantitative studies on

internet banking adoption in an African country or

developing country?

Example


105105

Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon

in the social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from

the 2011 Forbes report on Social networking and business stated that,

85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of

working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011).

These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study

in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers

interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011).






Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage

social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example

Analyzing and Writing: Analyzing A Source


106106

Analyzing and Writing: Synthesizing A Source

1. Select one common sub-theme/argument and divide it

into sub-topics that represent paragraph size “chunks.”

Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking

platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the

implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012).

While some employers have been reported to be requesting access

passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are

exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing

and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example

Employee

Social Media Privacy

Sales and Marketing and

Social Media


107107


2. For each “chunk” create a topic sentence that (1)

synthesizes the literature to be discussed, and (2)

describes the literature to be discussed.


networking platforms in the workplace, there have been

concerns about the implications it has on both employers

and employees (Jackson, 2012).

While some employers have been reported to be requesting access

passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others

are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in

marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example


108108


3. Support the topic sentences you created in #2 with

quotes, paraphrases and references from/on the

source material.






Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to

leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009;

BBC, 2011).

Example



A literature review IS NOT:

• A summary of available materials without any critical

description or component: or

• An annotated bibliography

Argument/View and

Evidence


110110

Write – LR as a process

The literature review has its own internal structure.

It starts with an

• Introduction: Opening sentence or

paragraph;

• Body: discusses the literature in a logical and

coherent way. this is where you discuss your sources;

and

• Conclusion: concludes with a paragraph that

relate the literature to the research project.







111111

Structure the Review

1. Chronology

2. Themes

Purpose, Objective

Conclusions/Gaps

3. Methodology


112112

Structuring the literature review

Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time.

It should show a clear trend or changes in trends.

Literature demonstrates that the key factors which contribute to unemployment in

Africa have tended to change over time. In the late 1990’s researchers argued that inflation and

low wages contributed to unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003). For example a study by

Uche (2000) on unemployment in the banking industry in Nigeria highlighted that inflation

affected the turnover of banks which had also had an effect in salary payments. Over 2000 bank

employees lost their jobs by the end of 1999.

On the other hand, by 2004, researchers discussed that lack of capital for start-up

initiatives and high interest rates on loans stalled entrepreneurial ventures and contributed to

unemployment or the lack of job opportunities (Thakur, 2005). A comparative study (Kinson

2006) on the SME industry in Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effects of start-

up capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and unemployment. In a recent study on

unemployment in Egypt, Salia (2011) found political instability, poor governance and lack of

foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing unemployment. Other studies in

Cote d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone attests to these findings (Johnson, 2009; Pern, 2010).

In effect, unemployment in Africa may be viewed from a multi-facet perspective. It

cannot be reduced to one single factor.


113113

Structuring the literature reviewThematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the

literature review of poverty and unemployment. Thematic reviews of

literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the

progression of time.

– Structure of Unemployment

• What is unemployment

• Causes of unemployment

– Structure of poverty

• Education, employment, income and poverty

– The Link between poverty and unemployment

– Mitigating poverty in the unemployed

• Policies for unemployed

• Social/relational support

• Capacity development


114114

Structuring the literature reviewBody: this is where you discuss your sources.

thematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the

literature review of mobiles and micro-trading

– Impact of mobiles on micro-trading

• What is trading: Trading is about Information– Transaction Costs Theory

• Stages of trading

• Benefits of mobiles/technology in commerce/trade– Strategic

– Relational

– Operational

• Impact of mobiles– Incremental Effects

– Transformational Effects

– Production Effects


115115

Structuring the literature reviewBody: this is where you discuss your sources.

methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for

example, qualitative versus quantitative approaches.

Region/Geo. Location

• Developing vs Developed

• Country

• Rural vs Urban

Method of data collection

– Quantitative vs Qualitative vs Mixed-Methods

– Survey vs Case Study

Unit of Analysis

– Micro: Individuals

– Meso: Organizational

– Macro: National

– Meta: Global/Cross-country


116116

Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in the social and

business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes report on Social

networking and business stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a

minimum of 30 minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites

(Forbes, 2011). These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent

study in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers

interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011). Then again,

beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the

workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both

employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been

reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California

Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social

media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Somehow businesses have to respond to this growing phenomenon. However,

the questions are should employers be concerned - what are the potential risks

and benefits of social networking in the workplace and how can businesses

address the risk?

Social networking in workplaceexample


117117

Good and Bad Literature Review


118118

Bad Literature Review

Sexual harassment has many consequences. Adams, Kottke,

and Padgitt (1983) found that some women students said they

avoided taking a class or working with certain professors

because of the risk of harassment. They also found that men

and women students reacted differently. Benson and

Thomson's study in Social Problems (1982) lists many

problems created by sexual harassment. In their excellent

book, The Professor, Dziech and Weiner (1990) give a long

list of difficulties that victims have suffered.

Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2003). Social research methods:

qualitative and quantitative approaches, 5th ed, Allyn and

Bacon, Boston.

http://www.rmit.edu.au/redirect?URL=http://cat.lib.rmit.edu.au/vwebv/search?searchArg=Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches&searchCode=TALL&limitTo=none&recCount=25&searchType=1&page.search.search.button=Search?sk=en_US


119119

Good Literature Review

The victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of

consequences, from lowered self-esteem and loss of self-

confidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed

career goals, and depression (Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt,

1983; Benson and Thomson, 1982; Dziech and Weiner,

1990). For example, Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt (1983) noted

that 13 percent of women students said they avoided taking a

class or working with certain professors because of the risk of

harassment.

Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2003). Social research methods:

qualitative and quantitative approaches, 5th ed, Allyn and

Bacon, Boston.

http://www.rmit.edu.au/redirect?URL=http://cat.lib.rmit.edu.au/vwebv/search?searchArg=Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches&searchCode=TALL&limitTo=none&recCount=25&searchType=1&page.search.search.button=Search?sk=en_US



A literature review IS NOT:

• A summary of available materials without any critical

description or component: or

• An annotated bibliography

Argument/View and

Evidence



121

Chapter Four

Literature Referencing


122122

Literature Referencing

The act of providing evidence for arguments and

perspectives presented in literature write up – article,

long essay, report and et cetera.

1. References provided within the text or the body of the text

2. Compiled references at the end of the text


123123

References Within Text

• In the late 1990’s researchers argued that inflation and low

wages contributed to unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson,

2003; Mensah et al., 2004).

• A comparative study (Kinson 2006) on the SME industry in

Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effects of

start-up capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and

unemployment. In a recent study on unemployment in Egypt,

Salia (2011) found political instability, poor governance and

lack of foreign direct investment to be the critical factors

influencing unemployment.


124124

Referencing List

• Boateng, R. (2011). Mobile Phones and Micro-Trading Activities – Conceptualizing

The Link, Info: The Journal for Policy, Regulation and Strategy, Volume 13

Number 5, pp. 48-62.

• Deakin University Library (2001, April 26). The Literature review [Homepage of

Deakin University Library], [Online]. Available:

http://www.deakin.edu.au/library/litrev.htm [2001, June 11].

• De Vaus, D. (2001). Research Design in Social Research, Sage Publications,

London.


125125

Types of Referencing

Popular

1. Harvard Style

2. APA Style American Psychological Association

Other types• Chicago Manual of Style

• AMA (American Medical Association)

• CSE (Council of Science Editors)

For a list of all referencing styles

• http://tinyurl.com/listofrefstyle


126126

Popular Styles for Students

• For Harvard style. Please refer to:

– http://tinyurl.com/harvardrefstyle

• For APA style. Please refer to:

– http://tinyurl.com/aparefstyle


127127

APA Style Referencing – Quotes

A short quotation of fewer than 40 words should be integrated into

the text and placed within quotation marks. The name of the

author, the year and the number of the page where the quote can

be located should also be put in brackets directly after the quote.

“Knowledge – intensity and dispersion – may be viewed as a

transaction characteristic which can influence the

achievement of transaction benefits” (Boateng, 2011, p. 59).

It has been argued that, “political instability, poor governance

and lack of foreign direct investment to be the critical factors

influencing unemployment in Egypt” (Salia, 2011, p.5).


128128

APA Style Referencing – Quotes

A quotation of 40 or more words should be set as a separate

paragraph by the use of a block quotation, without quotation

marks.

Concerning ICT ownership, the dominant ICT owned by

men and women respondents is a mobile phone. However,

ownership can sometimes be uneven in both genders –

where some have and others don’t have. Uneven

ownership tends to be characteristic of rural contexts, like

Agbozume.(Boateng, 2011, p. 59)


129129

APA Style Referencing – Within Text

Several publications in the same year by the same author or group

of authors are indicated by placing a, b, c, etc. after the year.

Statistics from the International Telecommunication Union

tend to suggest that mobile phone subscribers currently

constitute 60 percent of the world population (ITU, 2008a). In

countries like Ghana, it is estimated that there are 50 mobile

phone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, and further, the ratio

of mobile cellular subscriptions to fixed telephone lines is 80

to one (ITU, 2008b).


130130

APA Style Referencing – Within Text

When using secondary sources, the writer must name the source

and give the secondary source quote.

The “nature of business activities of a micro-small enterprise

may determine differences in the type of ICTs owned or

accessed and used by the micro-small enterprise” (Boateng &

Boateng, 2008 quoted in Abor, 2012, p. 11).

The nature of business activities of a micro-small enterprise

may affects the performance of micro-small enterprises

(Boateng & Boateng, 2008 cited in Abor, 2012).


131131

APA Style Referencing – Multiple Authors

For publications with multiple authors which are referred to several

times in the text:

• 2 authors: The writer must surname both authors each time the

reference is quoted.

• Jackson & Gallis (2008) or (Jackson & Gallis, 2008)

Jackson & Gallis (2008) discussed that a reform is needed.

Some authors have argue for a reform (Jackson & Gallis, 2008).


132132


• 3, 4 or 5 authors: The writer must name all the authors the first time

he quotes them, and from then on use only the surname of the lead

author, followed by et al.

• First time

– Jackson, Gallis & Minzah (2008) or (Jackson, Gallis & Minzah, 2008)

• Second time

– Jackson et al. (2008) or (Jackson et al., 2008)


133133


The findings show that in rural contexts, women are more likely

to share their mobile phones than men. Men in rural contexts

intimated that they do not share their mobiles unless in the

case of emergencies (Jackson, Gallis & Minzah, 2008). Both

men and women in urban contexts tend to share similar

perspectives as men in rural contexts (Pallin, 2007). It suggests

that shared access among micro-small enterprises is more

likely to be prevalent in contexts or situations where physical

and economic access barriers are a concern (Jackson et al.,

2008). Future studies may test and explain why gender

differences exist in rural contexts.


134134

APA Style Referencing – No Author

If a source has no author or if the author is anonymous, the writer must give

the title’s first words and the year. The title of an article or chapter is

indicated using quotation marks, whereas the title of books, brochures or

reports is written in italics.

• For example: “Corporate Social Responsibility

reportage on bank websites in Ghana” (2010)

Where the name of the institution which published/owns the report exists

(but no authors), use the institution…

– United Nations (1948)…

– According to the World Health Organization’s 2009

Report’s on Health and Education,…


135135

APA Style Referencing – List of References

In producing a list of references in the APA style, the researcher needs to

remember to indent on the second and subsequent lines in each reference,

as well as the following:

• To arrange the list alphabetically according to the surnames

of the lead authors

• To use ‘&’ before the last author if there are 2 to 7 authors

• To use italics for the titles of journals and volumes numbers,

as well as book titles

• To use indents on the second and subsequent lines in a

reference

• To start the reference list on a new page.


136136


Books

• Surname of lead author, Initial(s). (Year). Book title in italics (Edition - if

available). Place: Publisher.

For example:

Milgrom, P., & Roberts, J. (2002). Economics,

Organization, and Management. 2nd edn. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

• To use italics for the titles of journals and volumes numbers, as well as

book titles

• To use indents on the second and subsequent lines in a reference


137137


Anthology (book with articles)

• Surname of lead author, Initial(s). (Year). Title of chapter. In Initial(s) Surname

editor (Ed.), Book title in italics (Edition, page). Place: Publisher.

For example:

Beizer, J.L., & Timiras, M.L. (1994). Pharmacology and drug

management in the elderly. In P.S. Timiras (Ed.),

Physiological basis of Aging and Geriatrics (2nd ed.,

pp.279-284). Boca Raton: CRC Press.


138138


Anthology (book with articles)

• Surname of lead author, Initial(s). (Year). Title of chapter. In Initial(s) Surname

editor (Ed.), Book title in italics (Edition, page). Place: Publisher.

For example:

Beizer, J.L., & Timiras, M.L. (1994). Pharmacology and drug

management in the elderly. In P.S. Timiras (Ed.),

Physiological basis of Aging and Geriatrics (2nd ed.,

pp.279-284). Boca Raton: CRC Press.


139139


Journal articles

• Surname of lead author, Initial(s)., & Surname (s) of other author (s), Initial(s).

(Year). Title of article. Title of journal in italics, volume in italics (issue), page.

For example:

Duncombe, R., & Boateng, R. (2009). Mobile phones and

financial services in developing countries: a review of

concepts, methods, issues, evidence and future research

directions. Third World Quarterly, 30(7), 1237-1258.


140140


Newspapers and popular magazines

• Surname, Initial(s). (Year, Date). Title of article. Title of newspaper

in italics, page.

For example:

Appiah, S. (2014, 1st February). Roast plantain business

thrives, Daily Graphic, p. 11.


141141


Web page

• Surname of author, Initial(s). (Year). Title in italics. Retrieved:

Date, Year, from URL

For example:

Ciotti, G. (2013). The Business Case for Building Real

Relationships with Customers. Retrieved: 23rd June

2013, from https://www.helpscout.net/blog/relationship/


142142


Web pages with no authors

• Title of article/page. (Year). Retrieved Date, Year, from URL

For example:

The Business Case for Building Real Relationships with

Customers. (2013). Retrieved 23rd June, 2013, from

https://www.helpscout.net/blog/relationship


143143


Appiah, S. (2014, 1st February). Roast plantain business thrives, Daily Graphic,

p. 11.

Beizer, J.L., & Timiras, M.L. (1994). Pharmacology and drug management in

the elderly. In P.S. Timiras (Ed.), Physiological basis of Aging and

Geriatrics (2nd ed., pp.279-284). Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Duncombe, R., & Boateng, R. (2009). Mobile phones and financial services in

developing countries: a review of concepts, methods, issues, evidence

and future research directions. Third World Quarterly, 30(7), 1237-1258.

Nørvåg, K. (2003). Space-efficient support for temporal text indexing in a

document archive context. In T. Koch, & I. Sølvberg (Ed.), Research and

Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, 7th European Conference,

ECDL 2003, Trondheim, Norway (pp. 511-522). Berlin: Springer.


144144

To learn More and Read More





http://tinyurl.com/harvardrefstyle



145

Chapter Five

Research Theory

Theoretical and Conceptual

Frameworks


146146

Objectives

• To explain the role of theories in the research

process

• To introduce students to different research

theories and conceptual models relevant for

business and social science research


147147

Research Framework

• Presents the way of studying variables/concepts

concerning a phenomenon in order to find/investigate the

solution for the research problem

• It outlines the relationships between the variables/concepts

in manner which explains or predicts a social phenomenon

within a specific research problem

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.


148148

Research FRAMEWORK

• It is called a research framework because it

FRAMES the Research

• Outlines relationships = how concepts or variables

relate to explain or predict a particular social

phenomena


149149

Research Framework– Forms part of the literature review

– An outcome of the literature review which provides

direction for data collection and analysis


150150


• Abstract







Research

Framework


151151

Example: Mobiles and Micro-trading

What is the impact of mobiles on micro-

trading activities of market traders?

1. How do market traders use mobiles?

2. What benefits do market traders obtain from

mobiles?

3. What is the impact of benefits of using

mobiles in micro-trading activities of market

traders?

Source: Boateng (2011)


152152

Research Framework (Conceptual)



153153

Research Framework – exists in a form… of

Research Framework

TheoryConceptual

FrameworkDeveloped from a review of

literature

Adapted or

Modified Theory

Conceptual

Framework

Modified or adapted

theory



THEORY-BASED FRAMEWORKS


155155

Theory

• “A coherent set of general propositions used as

principles of explanation, understanding and/or

prediction of the apparent relationships of certain observed

phenomena”.

• Has been empirically tested & verified

• can be shown as schematic diagram or mathematical

equation



156156

Research Framework (theoretical)

Theory of Planned

Behaviour (Azjen, 1991)H1

H2

H3 H4

H5


157157

Theory as a mathematical equation

the Theory of Reasoned Action can be expressed as the

following equation:

• where:

• BI = behavioral intention

• AB = one's attitude toward performing the behavior

• W = empirically derived weights

• SN = one's subjective norm related to performing the behavior

Hale, J.L.; Householder, B.J. & Greene, K.L. (2003). The theory of reasoned action. In J.P. Dillard & M. Pfau (Eds.), The

persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 259–286). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.


158158

Research Framework – exists in a form… of

• Theory

– Theoretical framework

• Hypotheses

• Mathematical model

• Conceptual

– Factor/Concept based-model (no specific theory)

• Literature review

• Hypotheses (may propose) or mathematical model

– Factor/Concept based-model (revised a theory to test)

• Modified from a theory or a number of theories

• Hypotheses (may propose) or mathematical model


159159

Factor-based model (Conceptual – literature review)

Unemployment

Political Instability

High Interest Rates

Lack of start-up

capital

Low wages

Factors which

contribute or cause

Unemployment

(Literature Review)

H1

H2

H3

H4


160160

Research Framework (conceptual)

Conceptual Framework on

Student’s Visit to the Mall

(Modified from Theory of

Planned Behaviour)

H1

H2

H3 H4

H5

Age

H6

Knowledge

about the

Mall

Peer

Influence

Income



TYPES OF CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORKS


162162

Conceptual Framework

• Are analytical schemes

• Simplify reality to make it easier to discuss,

analyze or research

• Simplify reality by selecting certain

phenomena/variables and suggesting certain

relationships between them;

Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential

Guide For Business Students, Pearson Education Limited, Essex.


163163

Conceptual Framework: CAUSE AND EFFECT

• Cause and effect conceptual frameworks

identify the various factors which affect a

phenomena

• They are often the basis of hypothesis type of

research. The arrows are converted into series

of hypothesis




164164

Factor-based model (Conceptual – literature review)

Unemployment

Political Instability

High Interest Rates

Lack of start-up

capital

Low wages

Factors which

contribute or cause

Unemployment

(Literature Review)

H1

H2

H3

H4


165165

Conceptual Framework: Stages in a process

• Process-based conceptual frameworks show

how concepts are related in process which

has stages/phases and lead to an outcome

• The sequence can be linear or cyclical

process




166166

Research Framework (Conceptual – no theory)


167167

Research Framework (Conceptual – no theory)



168168

Conceptual Framework: Hierarchical relationships

• Hierarchy-based conceptual frameworks show

how concepts are related in higher or lower

positions on a scale.

• The higher concept or factor has to be at the

apex and lower at the base of the hierarchy




169169

Maslow


170170

Conceptual Framework: Maps and Coordinates

• Map-based conceptual frameworks show how

concepts are related through vertical and

horizontal scales of a map. Most common are

two scale maps.

• In a two-by-two matrix, or table each scale or

axis is divided into two.




171171


172172

Conceptual Framework: Gap Analysis

• Gap-based conceptual frameworks use

concepts to expose gaps in the phenomena

which need to be addressed

• Gaps may show a discrepancy or failure in the

phenomena.




173173

For Example: SERVQUAL

• SERVQUAL is a multi-item scale developed to assess customer perceptions of

service quality (Parasuraman et. al., 1988).

• The scale decomposes the notion of service quality into five constructs as follows:

– Tangibles - physical facilities, equipment, staff appearance, etc.

– Reliability - ability to perform service dependably and accurately

– Responsiveness - willingness to help and respond to customer need

– Assurance - ability of staff to inspire confidence and trust

– Empathy - the extent to which caring individualized service is given

SERVQUAL represents service quality as the discrepancy between a customer's expectations for a service

offering and the customer's perceptions of the service received, requiring respondents to answer questions

about both their expectations and their perceptions (Parasuraman et. al., 1988).

Parasuraman,A., Berry,Leonard L. and Zeithaml,V.A., (1988) “SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale For Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality”,

Journal of Retailing, 64, 1, 12-40.


174174

Defining Theory

• A theory is an organised, coherent, and systematic

articulation of a set of issues that are communicated as a

meaningful whole.

• Theories provide complex and comprehensive conceptual

understandings of things that cannot be pinned down:

how societies work, how organizations operate, why people

interact in certain ways.

Reeves et al (2008) BMJ 2008;337:a949 doi:10.1136/bmj.a949


175175

Use of Theories

• used to help design a research question,

• guide the selection of relevant data,

• interpret the data, and

• propose explanations of causes or influences.



176176

Building Blocks of A Theory• Constructs are abstract concepts specified at a high level of

abstraction that are chosen specifically to explain the phenomenon of

interest.

• Propositions are associations postulated between constructs based

on deductive logic. The empirical formulation of propositions, stated

as relationships between variables, is called hypotheses.

• Logic acts like a “glue” that connects the theoretical constructs and

provides meaning and relevance to the relationships between these

constructs.

• All theories are constrained by Assumptions about values, time, and

space, and boundary conditions that govern where the theory can

be applied and where it cannot be applied.


Bhattacherjee, Anol (2012) Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, And Practices, Global Text Project


177177

Research Framework (theoretical)

Theory of Planned

Behaviour (Azjen, 1991)H1

H2

H3 H4

H5


178178

Where can we find theories

• Literature

• Database of Theories

– www.tinyurl.com/businesstheory

– www.tinyurl.com/financetheories

• Ask Academic supervisors/lecturers


179179

Theories in Economics & Finance

Popular: Arbitrage Pricing Theory, Rational Choice Theory, Prospect Theory,

Cumulative Prospect Theory, Monte Carlo Option Model, Binomial Options

Pricing Model, Gordon Model, International Fisher Effect, Black Model, and

Legal Origins Theory. The Arbitrage Pricing Theory, for example, addresses the

general theory of asset pricing.

The Arbitrage Pricing Theory states that the return that is expected from a

financial asset can be presented as a linear function of various theoretical

market indices and macro-economic factors. Here it is assumed that the factors

considered are sensitive to changes, and that is represented by a factor-specific

beta coefficient.

Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) proposes how rational investors should use

diversification in order to optimize their portfolios. It also discusses how a risky

asset should be priced.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Finance_theories

www.tinyurl.com/financetheories


180180

Theories in Economics & FinanceSchools of Thought

• Classical

• Marxism

• Keynesian (positive)

• Neoclassical synthesis

• Austrian School

Economic Systems

• Free market capitalism

• Market socialism

• Central planning

• Mercantilism

• Shock therapy

• Washington consensus

Economic Cycles

• Keynesian (normative)

• Monetarism

• The Phillips curve

• Permanent income hypothesis

• Rational expectations

• Time consistency

• Financial accelerator

• Financial instability hypothesis

• Lender of last resort

Growth

• Neoclassical growth

• New growth theory

• Creative destruction

• Human capital

• The rule of law

• Limits to growthwww.tinyurl.com/financetheories


181181

Theories in Economics & Finance

Global Trade

• Comparative advantage

• Heckscher-Ohlin trade model

• New trade theory

• Optimal currency area

• The impossible trinity

• Purchasing power parity

Choice

• Rational choice

• Game theory

• Public choice

• Expected utility theory

• Prospect theory

Tax & Spend Policies

• Tax incidence

• Excess burden

• Supply-side

economics

• Crowding out

Markets

• The invisible hand

• Marginalism

• The tragedy of the commons

• Property rights

• Polluter pays principle

• Adverse selection

• Moral hazard

• Efficient market hypothesis

• Rent seeking

www.tinyurl.com/financetheories


182182

Theories in Accounting theory

• New approaches to accounting theory include:

– the events approach

– the behavioural approach

– the human information processing approach

– the predictive approach

– the positive approach

• Each of these approaches has generated new

methodologies and interest, and has employed unique

ways of looking at accounting problems


183183

• In the value approach:

– the income statement is perceived as an indicator of the financial

performance of the firm for a given period

– the statement of cash flows is perceived as an expression of the

changes in cash

• In the events approach:

– the income statement is perceived as a direct communication of

the operating events that occur during a given period

– the statement of cash flows is better perceived as an expression of

financial and investment events

– in other words, an event’s relevance rather than its output on cash

flow determines the reporting of an event in the statement of cash

flow

Financial Statements Reporting



184184

• The normative events theory of accounting has been tentatively summarised as follows:

– ‘In order for interested persons … to better forecast the future of social organizations, … the most relevant attributes … of the crucial events … which affect the organization are aggregated … for periodic publication free of inferential bias’

• The objective of the normative events theory of accounting is to maximise the forecasting accuracy of accounting reports by focusing on the most relevant attributes of events crucial to the users

The normative events theory of accounting



185185

Theories in MarketingHierarchy-Of-Effects Theory :

A series of steps a consumer goes

through in which they receive and use

information in order to reach a decision

about which actions to take, for example,

whether or not to purchase a product.

A hierarchical representation of how

advertising influences a consumer's

decision to purchase or not

purchase a product or service over

time.

Read more: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hierarchy-of-effectstheory.asp#ixzz26gBdREsi

http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hierarchy-of-effects-theory.asp


186186

SERVQUAL

• SERVQUAL is a multi-item scale developed to assess customer perceptions of

service quality (Parasuraman et. al., 1988).

• The scale decomposes the notion of service quality into five constructs as follows:

– Tangibles - physical facilities, equipment, staff appearance, etc.

– Reliability - ability to perform service dependably and accurately

– Responsiveness - willingness to help and respond to customer need

– Assurance - ability of staff to inspire confidence and trust

– Empathy - the extent to which caring individualized service is given

SERVQUAL represents service quality as the discrepancy between a customer's expectations for a service

offering and the customer's perceptions of the service received, requiring respondents to answer questions

about both their expectations and their perceptions (Parasuraman et. al., 1988).

Parasuraman,A., Berry,Leonard L. and Zeithaml,V.A., (1988) “SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale For Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality”,

Journal of Retailing, 64, 1, 12-40.

Theories in Marketing


187187

Theories in Marketing (strategy)

• The structure-conduct-performance model attempts to explain "why some

industries, on average, are more profitable than others."

• The efficiency perspective provides insights into "why some firms in an

industry are more profitable than others."

• Porter Models provide insights into "how the structural characteristics of an

industry and the competitive strategy pursued by a business jointly

determine the performance of a business.”

• The resource-based view of the firm attempts to explain superior

firm/business performance in terms of firm-specific skills and resources that

are rare, valuable, non-imitable, and characterized by absence of equivalent

substitutes.

• Institutional theory suggests that the actions of firms and the outcomes of

these actions are influenced by the knowledge systems, beliefs, and rules

that characterize the context of the organization.Varadarajan, Rajan P. and Satish Jayachandran. (1999) “Marketing strategy: An assessment of the state of the field and outlook”,

Academy of Marketing Science, (Spring), 120-143


188188

Theories in Marketing• Game Theory

• Game theory is a mathematical concept that analyzes how strategic

interactions between individuals, or agents, produce outcomes based on

the agents' choices. The agents may be assumed to have conflicting

priorities.

• Collective Intelligence

• The theory of collective intelligence holds that groups are smarter and

more productive than the sum of their parts.

• Generational Theory

• Generational marketing theory holds that consumers born of the same

generation -- defined as a 20-year period -- have common attitudes and

behaviors because of shared experiences that influenced their childhoods

and shaped their views of the world.• Pew Internet reported in a 2010 study that millennials, who are 18 to 33 years old, are most likely to

access the Internet wirelessly. Generation X, on the other hand, who are ages 34 to 45, are more active

than millennials in such activities as researching financial information.

Uhlig, D.K. (n.d) Theories of Digital Marketing, Demand Media Retrieved on July 22, 2012 from

http://smallbusiness.chron.com/theories-digital-marketing-36397.html


189189

Theories in Marketing

• There are more marketing theories which are

applicable to the specific area of study

– Consumer behavior

– Relationship marketing

– Corporate social responsibility

– Service marketing

– enterpreneurship


190190

Theories in Management (motivation)

Taylor

• Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1917) put forward the idea that workers

are motivated mainly by pay. His Theory of Scientific Management

argued the following:

– Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision

and control

– Therefore managers should break down production into a series of

small tasks

– Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they

can work as efficiently as possible on one set task.

– Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce

in a set period of time- piece-rate pay.

– As a result workers are encouraged to work hard and maximise their

productivity.

http://tutor2u.net/business/gcse/people_motivation_theories.htm



191191


• Herzberg

• Frederick Herzberg (1923-) had close links with Maslow and believed in a

two-factor theory of motivation. He argued that there were certain factors

that a business could introduce that would directly motivate employees to

work harder (Motivators). However there were also factors that would de-

motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually

motivate employees to work harder (Hygienefactors)

• Motivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. For instance how

interesting the work is and how much opportunity it gives for extra responsibility,

recognition and promotion. Hygiene factors are factors which ‘surround the job’

rather than the job itself. For example a worker will only turn up to work if a

business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but

these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there.




192192


• Herzberg

• Herzberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by

adopting a democratic approach to management and by improving the

nature and content of the actual job through certain methods. Some of the

methods managers could use to achieve this are:

• Job enlargement, Job enrichment and Empowerment




193193


• Maslow

• Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) along with Frederick Herzberg (1923-)

introduced the Neo-Human Relations School in the 1950’s, which

focused on the psychological needs of employees. Maslow put forward a

theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees need to

have fulfilled at work.

• A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to

help them fulfill each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy.

Managers should also recognise that workers are not all motivated in the

same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the same pace. They

may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker

to worker.




194194

Maslow


195195

Theories in Public Administration

• New Public Administration

• New public management (NPM) denotes broadly

the government policies, since the 1980s, that aimed

to modernise and render more effective the public

sector.

• The basic hypothesis holds that market oriented

management of the public sector will lead to greater

cost-efficiency for governments, without having

negative side-effects on other objectives and

considerations.


196196

Characteristics of NPM


197197

Theories in Information Systems and Management

• http://istheory.byu.edu/

• IS theories originate from social science and other disciplines

• It draws on diversity of perspectives to create models

and frameworks

– Technology Acceptance Model

– Diffusion of Innovation

– Theory of Planned Behaviour

– Transaction Cost Theory

– Resource-based Theory


198198

Level of Theory

• Micro-level Theory

– Not abstract

– Deals with Small slices of time, space, or numbers of people

– “Physician attire affects doctor-patient interaction”

• Meso-level Theory

– Works at the meso-level

– Theories of organizations, social movements and communities

– Resource-Based Theory of the Firm

• Macro-Level Theory

– Macro-level explain larger aggregates such as social institutions and

cultural societies, whole societies…

– Modernization theory


199199


• Abstract







Research

Framework


200200

Bibliography1. Babbie, E.R. (2011) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –

Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. – ISBN – 0495812242

2. Bailey, K. D. (1978). Methods of social research (3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press.

3. Grinnell, (1988). Social work research and evaluation. Itasca: Illinois, F. E. Peacock Publishers.

4. Fisher, C. (2010) Researching and Writing a Dissertation, An Essential Guide For Business Students,

Pearson Education Limited, Essex.

5. Kumar R. (2005). Research methodology. SAGE Publications

6. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E,

Pearson Education

7. Oladunn, O.A. (2011) Course Outline: Statistics And Research Methods In Extension, National Open

University Of Nigeria, available: http://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/noun_ocl/pdf/pdf2/aem%20401.pdf

[accessed February 2012]

8. Siegle, D. (2011) Principles and Methods in Educational Research - a Web-based Course from the

University of Connecticut, Neag School of Education - University of Connecticut, available:

http://www.delsiegle.com/research/Variables/variablenotes.htm[accessed February 2012]

9. Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.


201201



202

Chapter Six

Research Methodology


203203

Objectives

This session seeks to discuss the different approaches to

qualitative and quantitative research.

• Students will learn about qualitative research methods;

the types of qualitative research methods; and

differentiate between quantitative and qualitative

methods.

• Students will also learn about the different methods for

collecting data in research. These methods include

interviews and focus group discussion.


204204

Qualitative Research

• The qualitative research method involves the use of

qualitative data, such as interviews, documents and

observation, in order to understand and explain a social

phenomenon.

• Qualitative research focuses on interpretation of

phenomena in their natural settings to make sense in terms

of the meanings people bring to these settings (Denzin and

Lincoln 1994) .


205205

Qualitative Research

• Patton considers QR as “an effort to understand situations in

their uniqueness as part of a particular context and the

interactions there” (Patton, 2002).

• This approach is useful for describing the nature of a problem,

issue, situation or phenomenon.



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE


207207

Differences

Qualitative QuantitativeGeneral framework

Seek to explore phenomena

Instruments use more flexible, iterative style of eliciting and categorizing responses to questions

Use semi-structured methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and participant observation

Seek to confirm hypotheses about phenomena

Instruments use more rigid style of eliciting and categorizing responses to questions

Use highly structured methods such as questionnaires, surveys, and structured observation


208208

Differences

Qualitative QuantitativeAnalytical

objectives

To describe variation

To describe and explain

relationships

To describe individual

experiences

To describe group norms

To quantify variation

To predict causal

relationships

To describe characteristics of

a population

Question

format

Open-ended Closed-ended


209209

Differences

Qualitative QuantitativeData format Textual (obtained from

audiotapes, videotapes,

and field notes)

Numerical (obtained by

assigning numerical values to

responses)

Researcher’s

Role

Researcher awareness of

their own orientations,

biases or experiences and

personal interaction in the

context with an emphasis

on flexibility in the

research.

“Distance” between researcher and subjects and emphasis on following the research plan


210210

Types of Qualitative Research

Phenomenology Ethnography Case Study Grounded Theory

To describe one or

more individuals’

experiences of a

phenomenon (e.g.,

the experience of

the death of a

loved one)

To describe the

cultural

characteristics

of a group of

people and to

describe

cultural scenes

To describe one

or more cases

in-depth and

address the

research

questions and

issues.

To inductively

generate a

grounded theory

describing and

explaining a

phenomenon


211211

Case Study

• Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the

investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or

multiple bounded systems (cases) over time,

• through detailed, in-depth data collection involving

multiple sources of information (e.g., observations,

interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and

reports), and reports a case description and case-based

themes.


212212

Example: Mobiles and Micro-trading

Aunty Akosua (hereafter referred to as AA) is a tomato retail trader. She has junior high

school level education and has been working as a tomato retailer since June 2008. AA

works with Jane who serves as an intermediary between her and the farmers in the

villages. Jane buys the tomatoes at wholesale prices from the farmers and AA retails them

at the market.

Prior to owning a mobile phone, communication between AA and Jane was constrained by

distance. The limited access to Jane often contributed to poor inventory management,

where AA could be out of stock of tomatoes for a week. In such scenarios, AA had to buy

from other wholesalers, and that increased her coordination costs. She was then advised

by a friend to get a mobile phone for Jane and herself, in order to enhance communication

and reduce the cost and risk of frequent long journeys. In December 2008, AA purchased

a used Samsung D500 for herself and a Nokia 3315 for Jane. The cost of Jane’s mobile

phone was deducted from her earnings from trading with AA. They are both using TiGO as

their service provider.

Boateng (2011)


213213

Case Study – when to use…

Yin (1994) outlined four applications of case study research:

1. To explain complex causal links in real-life interventions;

2. To describe the real-life context in which the intervention has

occurred;

3. To describe the intervention itself; and

4. To explore those situations in which the intervention being

evaluated has no clear set of outcomes.

Yin proposes case study, when a “how” or “why” question is being asked about a contemporary set of events over which the investigator has little or no control.


214214

Types of Case Study

Yin classifies case studies into three types:

Exploratory - explore an area where little is known or little research

has been done;

Explanatory case studies – appropriate for doing causal

investigations; and

Descriptive - requires a theory to guide data collection – the theory

should be clearly stated in advance and be reviewed to form the

basis of the design of the descriptive case study.


215215

Types of Case Study

Yin classifies case studies into three types:

Exploratory - explore an area where little is known or little research

has been done;

Explanatory case studies – appropriate for doing causal

investigations; and

Descriptive - requires a theory to guide data collection – the theory

should be clearly stated in advance and be reviewed to form the

basis of the design of the descriptive case study.


216216

Case Study – Single and Multiple

• The focus of the research is on process. The question is

focused on what can be learned from this particular case.

• Single case design is ideal for studying extreme cases, to

confirm or challenge a theory or for cases where a researcher

does not have access previously. Examples: A failure or

success in a particular event or activity: Causing Financial

Loss to a State – Lessons from the Woyome Case

• Multiple case design is appropriate when a researcher is keen

to use more than one case to gather data and draw up

conclusion based on the facts retrieved.

• Multiple case design serves to confirm evidence which

enhance the reliability and validity of a research work.


217217

Designing Case studies1. Identify research question

• The researcher has to define the “case” to be studied. The case

serves as the unit of analysis, hence should be reflected in the

research question.

2. Determine types of case study

• The researcher can select between single and multiple case studies.

3. Select participants or groups

• The researcher needs to define the boundary for data sources. Boundary refers to how the case might be constrained in terms of time, events, and processes.


218218

Designing Case studies

4. Collect data

Case studies are developed through detailed, in-depth data

collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g.,

observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and

reports).

Case study is known as a triangulated research strategy.

Triangulation is the use of more than one approach to address a

research question in order to enhance confidence, ensure accuracy

and embrace alternative explanations.

Data, Investigator, Theory, Methodological Triangulation.


219219

Designing Case studies

5. Analyze data

“And so what???” To be discussed in the next session.

6. Compose the report

The reports have to be rich (i.e., vivid and detailed) and holistic

(i.e., describes the whole and its parts) description of the case

and its context.

7. Evaluate the validity and reliability

Did your methods obtain the data as expected/required?

What is degree of error/variance/differences if data is collected

by another researcher?

To be discussed in the next session.


220220

Challenges

1. The identification of the appropriate case - Selecting the case requires that the researcher establish a rationale for his or her purposeful sampling strategy for selecting the case and for gathering information about the case .

2. In the choice of multiple case, the issue becomes, “How many cases?” typically, however, the researcher to consider a large number of cases is the idea of “generalizability,” a term that holds little meaning for most qualitative researchers. Focus should be on explanatory power

3. Deciding the “boundaries” of a case – how it might be constrained in terms of time, events, and processes – may be challenging. Some case studies may not have clean beginning and ending points, and the researcher will need to set boundaries that adequately surround the case.



TECHNIQUES FOR ACQUIRING

QUALITATIVE DATA


222222

Forms of Qualitative Data

1. Observation (non-participant – participant)

2. Interviews (close – open)

3. Documents and Text (private – public)

4. Audio-visual (audio, pictures, mobile phone text,

social media, video et cetera)

Page 145


224224

Fieldwork – Establish Context

• Fieldwork – the particular context in which data collection occurs.

• Collection occurs simultaneously with analysis and interpretation and occurs

throughout the study.

• The final product is a rich description or narrative with quotations typically used to

illustrate the voice and understandings of the participants. The focus is to use

language to paint a rich picture of the setting and its participants.

Selecting the Fieldwork

1. Justify: Determine why a particular site should be selected.

2. Access: How will permission be obtained for accessing the site?

3. Activity: What will be done at the site?

4. Interference: How will the researcher avoid disrupting the normal routine? Or How

participative will the researcher be?

5. Time: What will be the duration and frequency of observations?

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]

Context


225225

Interviews• Interviewing is used to gather information in the subjects

own words from which insights on their interpretations

can be obtained.

• Subjects are encouraged to talk about experiences, feelings,

beliefs



Types of Interviews• Unstructured - exploratory, on a topic – open, flexible, no structured format, and

impromptu questions

• Partially Structured – Topic is chosen and questions are formulated, but order is up to

the interviewer. Open-ended Questions & responses are recorded nearly verbatim,

possibly taped.

• Semi-Structured - - questions and order of presentation are determined. Questions

are open-ended, interviewer records the essence of each response.

Data Collection Method


226226

Interviews

• Qualitative Study Interview – primarily focus on open-

ended questions, flexible and purposively selected

samples

• Quantitative Study Interview – fixed choice

questions, usually on random samples



Types of Interviews• Structured - - questions and order are pre-determined, responses are coded by

interviewer as they are given.

• Totally structured - - questions, order, and coding are predetermined and the

respondent is presented with alternatives for each question so that phrasing of

responses is structured. Questions are self-coding in that each choice is pre-

assigned a code.



227227

Interviews



Guidelines1. Listen more, talk less. Be Patient, Don’t interrupt. Tolerate silence.

2. Follow up on what participants say and ask questions when you don’t

understand.

3. Don’t be judgmental about participants’ beliefs or views. You are there to

learn about their perspectives whether you agree or not.

4. Keep participants focused and ask for concrete details.

5. Avoid leading questions, ask open ended questions.

6. Don’t debate with participants over their responses. You

are a recorder, not a debater.



228228

Focus Groups

• A semi-structured group session, moderated by

a group leader, held in an informal setting, with

the purpose of collecting information on a selected

topic. A carefully planned discussion designed

to obtain perceptions on a defined area of

interest in a permissive non-threatening

environment.



Focus groups is a type of interview where multiple participants are involved

and responses can build on one another. A focus group is particularly useful in

obtaining a variety of views or opinions about a topic or issue.

Focus groups are used to obtain information of qualitative nature from a

predetermined and limited number of people.



229229

Focus Groups



Useful When -

1. Insights are needed in exploratory studies

2. There is an understanding gap between groups

3. The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex behaviors

4. The is a desire for ideas to emerge from the group

5. Need for additional information to prepare for a larger study

Not Useful When -

1. The environment is emotionally charged

2. Statistical projections are needed

3. Other methodologies can produce better quality

information

4. Confidentiality cannot be ensured



230230

Focus Groups

Procedures

• Duration 1-2 hours. General rule is to plan for less time than you tell

participants.

• Number Groups 3-6 different groups should be used.

• Size 4-12 with certain characteristics in common (IDEAL size 6-8)

• Composition participants alike in some way (not in opinions). General

rule is to keep groups homogenous in terms of prestige or status.

• Sample systematically selected (purposive sampling). In

organizations, include groups with different roles.

• Method - non-directive, nurture different points of view,

identify trends and patterns in perceptions.





231231

Focus Groups

• Introductory

– Round robin question that everyone answers

– Background - to locate people in relation to other people

• Transition

– Move the conversation into the key questions

– Experience/behavior - to elicit descriptions of behaviors, actions, activities

– Knowledge - to find out what respondents consider factual information

• Key Questions– Opinion/value - to find out what people think

– Feeling - to understand emotional response of people to an experience

• Ending - Bring closure to discussion





232232

Observation

• Participant Observer - engages fully in the

activities being studied but is known to the

participants as a researcher. Example: a

researcher gets permission from a teacher to

sit in a class and make observations over a

semester.

• Goal is to immerse researcher in the setting so

he/she can see, hear, feel, experience,

subject’s’ daily life.





233233

Observation

• Unobtrusive or Non-participant Observer - researcher watches but does

not participate in group activities. Example: researcher conducts a number of interviews

with teachers in a school.

• Naturalistic observation - observing individuals in their natural settings,

making no effort to manipulate variables or control activities, but simply to

observe and record. Example: observation of students at an athletic event.

• Covert Observer - researcher disguises identity from other participants

(ethical issues). Example: conducting the research in disguise

• Simulations - asking subjects to act out certain situations or roles. May be

individual or group role playing.






234

Quantitative Approaches to

Research


235235

Survey• Questionnaire to record answers from a

sample

• Kerlinger (1973) defined survey research as a

study on large and small populations by

selecting samples chosen from the desired

population and to discover relative incidence,

distribution and interrelations.

• The ultimate goal of survey research is to

learn about a large population by surveying

a sample of the population;


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379


of Malaysia, Ghana


236236

Survey Techniques



of Malaysia, Ghana

1. Mail and Self-Administered Questionnaire

• Cheap, slow, lowest response rate

2. Web Surveys

• Cheapest, fastest, moderate response rate

3. Telephone Interviews

• Moderate cost, fast, moderate response rate

4. Face-to-face Interviews

• Expensive, slow, highest response rate


237237

Sampling

• Sampling is a process of selecting samples

from a group or population to become the

foundation for estimating and predicting

the outcome of the population as well as to

detect the unknown piece of information.

OUM (2010) Topic 10 Sampling, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia,

Ghana


238238

• Sample is a subset of a larger population

– We make conclusions on a population by studying or

investigating a sample


• Population: Any complete group of entities within

which we want to explore, understand or predict a

social phenomena

– People

– Cars

Sampling Terminology


239239

Sampling Frame

• A list of elements from which the sample may be

drawn

– Working population

– Mailing lists - database marketers

– List of students in year 2



240240

Two Major Categories of Sampling

• Probability sampling

• Known, nonzero probability for every element

• Nonprobability sampling

• Probability of selecting any particular member is

unknown



241241

Primary Goal• Quantitative

– To obtain a representative sample from the

population

– Generalize/predict findings on a population

• Qualitative

– Not about representativeness, more focused on

samples which enhance understanding

– Collect cases, events, or actions that clarify and

deepen understanding in a specific context

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education


242242

Non-Probability Sampling

• This sampling technique is not based on random selection.

• Sample size is not determined in advance and the researcher

has limited knowledge about the population from which the

sample is being drawn.

– Haphazard/Convenience sampling

– Snowballing

– Purposive sampling

– Deviant Sampling



243243

Convenience/Haphazard Sampling

• The sampling procedure of obtaining the people or units that

are most conveniently available

• Cases are obtained in any manner which is convenient but

high possibility of being ineffective

• Can produce highly unrepresentative samples

– Person on street interviewed for TV

– Cut-out a newspaper questionnaire and mail it in



244244

Judgment/Purposive Sampling

• An experienced individual selects the sample based

on his or her judgment about some appropriate

characteristics required of the sample. Often used in

a exploratory research

• Selecting particular cases for in-depth investigation

• Selecting members difficult to reach

– Research on prostitutes

• Selecting unique cases which are informative

– Studying failed development project

– Selecting the popular trend setting women magazine for

a content analysis study



245245

Snowball Sampling

• Network, chain referral or reputational sampling

• Identifying samples in a network

– multistage – beginning with a few people and grow through

referral

• Initial respondents are selected by other methods like

purposive sampling or random sampling

• Additional respondents are obtained from information

provided by the initial respondents



246246

Deviant Sampling

• Searching cases that differ from the dominant pattern

• Use various techniques to identify cases with specific

characteristics that differ from the dominant

– School dropouts who seem not to have no record of illegal activities and

who are stable from two-parent, upper-middle income families




247247

Probability Sampling

• Random Sampling

• Systematic Sampling

• Stratified Sampling

• Cluster Sampling


248248

Questionnaire Design Process

The design of questionnaires involves a process with several

general stages:

1. Preliminary design work on the areas to be explored in the

interview.

2. Question wording and sequencing.

3. Physical design or layout.

• Pilot testing may be part of any, or all, of these stages of

design.

Read More: http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/1985qdesign.html

Page 221


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Pilot Survey

• A pilot survey is generally a small-scale run

through of the survey and can also be used to

check questionnaire coding and method of

analysis.

Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition. Cengage Brain


250250

Question Structure

Five possible objectives of a question

a) To find if the respondent is aware of the issue

– Do you know of any plans to build a school in this community?

b) To get general feelings on an issue

– Do you think a school should be built?

A rating scale can be used for this type of question

c) To get answers on specific parts of the issue

Do you think a school will affect the local environment?

d) To get reasons for a respondents views

Why are you against the motorway being built?

e) To find how strongly these views are held

How important is the tourist center that would be demolished if the

school is built?



251251

Question Coding

• Precoded questions give the respondent a series of possible

answers from which one may be chosen or an alternative

specified.

– How many children do you have?• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• Sometimes codes are developed from the answers.

– Where do you live?

• An open question will allow the respondent to say whatever

he or she wishes:

– Why do you choose to live in Kumasi?



252252

Question wording - bias

• Two or more questions presented as one

– Do you use self-service garages because they are easy to

use and clean?

– YES/NO

• Questions that contain difficult or unfamiliar words

– Where do you usually shop?

– How often is usual? Shopping also vary in terms of type of product,

day of week and time of the year



253253

Question wording bias

• Questions which start with words meant to soften hardness or

directness

– I hope you don’t mind me asking this, but are you a virgin?

– YES/NO

• Questions which contain conditional or hypothetical clauses

– How do you think your life would change if you had nine children?

– This is a situation that few people will have considered….

• Questions which contain one or more instructions to respondents– If you take your weekly income, after tax, and when you have made allowances for all of the

regular bills, how much do you have left to spend or save?



254254

Structuring the Questionnaire• Field Notes

– Record Time, Date and Description of Natural Settings

• Introduction of research

– Aimed at the interviewee

– Definition of selected key terms (appendix or beginning)

• Demographics

– Demographic data of respondent

– Demographic data of the company/household

• Main Questions

– Key sections may stem from themes/concepts/variables from the research

framework

– Key sections may stem from concepts/variables from the hypothesis

• Other Questions

– Impromptu or emerging questions

– Observations

• Conclusion

– Review of answers, Future Review of transcription and Thanks

May differ –

Qualitative and

Quantitative


255255

Design Online Survey

• Tool: www.surveymonkey.com

• Basic Learning Tutorial

• http://tinyurl.com/onlinesurveyeasy



256

Chapter Seven

Qualitative Data Analysis


257257

Recap: Forms of Qualitative Data

1. Observation (non-participant – participant)

2. Interviews (close – open)

3. Documents and Text (private – public)

4. Audio-visual (audio, pictures, mobile phone

text, social media, video et cetera)


258258

Miles and Huberman’s Data Analysis• Transcendental Realism

– Data reduction, data display and drawing and

verifying conclusion


259259

Miles and Huberman’s Data Analysis• Data Reduction

– Occurs throughout the analysis.

– Early stages: it begins with editing, segmenting and

summarizing data.

– Middle stages: it begins with coding and memoing to

find themes, clusters and patterns.

– Latter stages: conceptualizing and explaining to

develop abstract concepts.

– You need to reduce data without losing key

information which support explanation and give

evidence. Do not strip data from their context.


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Miles and Huberman’s Data Analysis• Data Display

– Organize, compress and assemble information

– “YOU KNOW WHAT YOU DISPLAY”

– HOW: Graphs, Charts, Networks, Diagrams of

Different types (Venn Diagrams, Casual Models)

– WHY: organize and summarize the data to

establish/explain themes, and also become the basis

for future analysis

– Good qualitative analysis involves repeated and

iterative displays of data.


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Miles and Huberman’s Data Analysis• Drawing and Verifying Conclusions

– Reduction and Display enables the Drawing Conclusions

– “YOU KNOW WHAT YOU DISPLAY”

– First-level/Early Conclusions may be identified

• Vague and ill-formed at this stage –More Tentative

– Conclusions come in the form of Propositions – once

they have been verified

– 13 Tactics for drawing meaning and conclusions

– 13 Tactics for testing and confirming findings


262262

Tactics for Generating Meaning1. Noting Patterns and themes

2. Seeing Plausibility

3. Seeing Clustering - what goes with what

4. Making Metaphors - integration in diverse pieces of data

5. Counting - to see what is there

6. Making contrasts/comparisons

7. Partitioning Variables

8. Subsuming Particulars into the General

9. Factoring

10. Noting relationships between Variables

11. Finding Intervening Variables

12. Building a Logical Chain of Evidence

13. Making Conceptual/theoretical coherence

Page 245 - 277


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Tactics for Generating Meaning1. Checking for representativeness

2. Checking for researcher effects

3. Triangulating Data Sources

4. Weighting the evidence

5. Checking the meaning of outliers

6. Using Extreme cases

7. Following up surprises

8. Looking Negative evidence

9. Making if-then tests

10. Ruling out spurious relations

11. Replicating a finding

12. checking out rival explanations

13. Getting feedback from informants

Page 245 - 277


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Coding to start Analysis

1. Coding the data

– Reducing the data into meaningful segments and

assigning names to the segments

2. Combining the codes into broader categories

or themes

3. Displaying and making comparison in data

graphs, tables, and charts


265265


Codes are tags, names or labels. Coding is the process of

putting tags, names or labels against pieces of data. Data can

individual words, or small or large chunks of the data.

Purpose

1. Index data, providing a basis for storage and retrieval.

2. Become the basis or new data for future analysis

3. Pulling themes together and identifying patterns

Types of Codes

Descriptive Codes/Topic Codes

– No or little inference is made in such cases

Inferential/Pattern Codes

– Pull together material into smaller and more meaningful units


266266


HOW TO CODE;

Two approaches are not an either-or decision

Framework Approach

1. Prespecified codes from literature or research framework

2. Be alert for other codes suggested by data

DATA-DRIVEN APPROACH

1. First set of codes are derived from data

2. Relies on Coding scheme after initial analysis

Punch – Introduction to Research Methods in Education


267267

‘My supervisor barely met with me; I had to do much by myself’

‘Supervisors are usually Worldbank experts and very knowledge but often away

for global assignments’

‘Two of my colleagues got internships at WorldBank during their PhD, however,

it affected their completion time’

‘I spent more time on skype for discussions with my supervisor’

Limited face-to-face interaction

Knowledgeable supervisors

Technoculture

Proactive / Individualistic

Global Orientation

Types of Codes

Descriptive Codes

– Coding and storing information about the cases being studies

Topic Codes

– Labels pieces of text according to its subject

Inferential/Pattern Codes

– Pull together material into smaller and more meaningful units


268268


Types of Codes

Analytical Coding

• Involves the interpretation of data and the conceptualizing and

theorizing of data

Example


269269



270270



271271

Types of Codes

Miles and Huberman (1994)

Descriptive Codes

Pattern Codes

Richards (2005)

Topic Codes

Analytic Codes

Grounded Theory Codes

In vivo codes – Focus on what is in the data

Open Codes – raises the conceptual level of data

Axial Codes – focus on Interconnections between open codes

Selective Codes – raises the conceptual level of data again


272272

Memoing in analysis

Starts alongside coding…

When Data finds links with theory and previous literature discussion


273273

Memoing in analysis

Starts alongside coding…

Record all Ideas when they happen and as they happen, as memos. When

it happens during coding, stop and record the idea.

E-commerce capability in Used-car retailer


274274

Abstracting and ComparingContinuum of abstraction: Leave the concrete to abstract

Specific to General


275275

Grounded Theory Analysis


276276

Grounded Theory Analysis

• Substantive codes from open coding

– Initial Conceptual categories in the data

• Theoretical Codes from axial coding

– Connecting categories

• Core coding from selective coding

– Higher-order conceptualization of the theoretical

coding to develop theory


277277

Organizing Qualitative Data for Case Study

Step Activity

Data Managing Create and organize files for data

Reading,

Memoing

Read through text, make margin notes

form initial codes

Describing Describe the case and its context

Classifying Use categorical aggregation to establish

themes or patterns

Interpreting Use direct interpretation

Develop naturalistic generalizations

Representing,

visualizing

Present in-depth picture of the case using

narrative, tables and figures


278278

Analysis within Case study

Within Case Analysis:

• Analysis consists of making a detailed

description of the case and its setting.

• In Categorical Aggregation, the researcher

seeks a collection of instances from the data,

hoping that issue-relevant meanings will

emerge.

• Also, the researcher establishes patterns and

looks for a correspondence between two or

more categories.


279279


Case study Research:

• In direct interpretation, on the other hand, the case

study researcher looks at a single instance and

draws meaning from it without looking for multiple

stances.

• It is a process of pulling the data apart and putting

them back together in more meaningful ways.


280280


Cross-case study

• Analytic technique when the researcher

studies two or more cases.

• A word table can be created to display the

data from individual cases according to

some uniform framework.


281281


Case study Research:- Cross-case

• The implication of this is that the researcher can look

for similarities and differences among the cases.

• Finally, the researcher develops naturalistic

generalizations from analyzing the data; generalizations that people can learn from the case either for

themselves or to apply to a population of cases.


282282

Other Qualitative Data Analysis

• Narratives and Meaning

• Conversational Analysis

• Discourse Analysis


283283



284

Chapter Eight (Part One)

Research Proposal


285285

Research Proposal


286286

Research Proposal Chapter One Outline

Introduction Research Background

Research Background

Research Problem

Research Problem

Research Purpose Research Purpose

Research Objectives Research Objective

Research Questions Research Question

Significance of the Research

Literature Review

Proposed Research Methodology

Research Methodology Significance of the Research

Research Limitations Research Limitations

Project Schedule Chapter Outline

Chapter Outline

Research Proposal vs Chapter One


287287

Research Background

• Usually provides an introduction to the

research issue

• It may examine current discourse, trends or

views concerning a social phenomena in

order to pose a research question

• The research question will not be explicitly

stated but implied in an argument


288288

Research Background

Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in social and business

lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes’ report on Social networking

and business, stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30

minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011). These

statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study in South Africa also

found 70 per cent of South African workers interviewed browsed facebook during

working hours (Ngu, 2011). Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of

social networking platforms in the workplace, there has been concerns about the

implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some

employers have been reported to requesting access passwords to employee

accounts (Carlifornia Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to

leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Somehow businesses have to respond this growing phenomena. However, the

questions are should employers be concerned - what is the potential risks and

benefits of social networking in the workplace and how can businesses address the

risk?

Social networking in workplace


289289

Research Problem

• A situation in need of a solution,

improvement, or alteration; or a discrepancy

between the way things are and the way they

ought to be.

Foust. C.(2004) Examples of Research Problems, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, available:

http://faculty.swosu.edu/cindy.foust/share/ [accessed 17 February, 2012]

Burns, N. and Grove, S. (1995) Understanding nursing research. W.B. Sunders, Philadelphia.


290290

Research Problem 1

The adoption of social media by the government confronts a series of barriers. Some of these

barriers relate to records management, privacy and security issues, accuracy, and

administration-specific requirements (Bertot et al., 2012; Bryer and Zavattaro,

2011;Landsbergen, 2010 and Sherman, 2011). As social media includes two-way

communications, the risk of inserting malware into governments' websites exists (Bertot et al.,

2012), so the IT people should be prepared to protect government's information technology

infrastructure. Governments that would like to implement social media need to verify if people

in charge of updating the media will have the time to update the new communication channel;

they also need to answer other questions such as what to post, how and when often they will

update (Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011 and Landsbergen, 2010). The lack of resources and

procedures could undermine the accuracy of the information posted on social media.

Although the use of social media in Mexican state government portals is recent, the

development of relationships between government and citizens is growing fast (Sandoval-

Almazán et al., 2011). However, in contrast with other countries, to our knowledge, there is

still no guideline for the use of social media in Mexico. The study of perceived risks,

benefits, and strategies will be very helpful in the development of those guidelines.

Social networking in Public Sector in Mexico


291291

Research Problem Example 2









(GSE) in the past two decades.









293293

Research Purpose as part of Research Problem

• A purpose is a concise, clear

statement of the specific goal or aim of

the study. The purpose includes the

variables, population, and setting for a

study.

The study seeks to explore the perceived risks and benefits of

social media among public servants from Mexico, and

especially the strategic elements to include social media in e-

government policy and as a communication channel with

citizens.


294294

Research Purpose = Problem Statement

• The purpose of this study is to

understand [what] of [who or

what] involving [what or who] from

[when] to [purpose].





citizens.


295295

Research Problem & Research Objective

• Research problem: typically a rather general

overview of the problem with just enough

information about the scope and purpose of the

study to provide an initial understanding of the

research [it may include the research purpose]

• Research objective: more specific, focused

statements and questions that communicate in

greater detail the nature of the study


296296

Research Problem & Research

Objectives/Statement

• Research Problem

[begin with description of the problem from literature and practice and end

with research purpose]

– The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school

students to mandated drug testing programs.

• Research Objective

– This study examines the differences between males' and females'

attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs.


297297

Research Objective

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study are:

1. To investigate the main risks of using social media in government

2. To investigate the potential benefits of using social media in government.

3. To investigate strategic guidelines to take advantage from social media in

government





citizens.


298298

Research Question

• Research questions are interrogative statements

that focus on what variables or concepts are to be

described and what relationships might exist

among them.

Foust. C.(2004) Examples of Research Problems, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, available:

http://faculty.swosu.edu/cindy.foust/share/ [accessed 17 February, 2012]

Burns, N. and Grove, S. (1995) Understanding nursing research. W.B. Sunders, Philadelphia.


299299

Research Question

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES





government.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the main risks of using social media in government?

2. What are the potential benefits of using social media in government?

3. What could be some strategic guidelines to take advantage from social

media in government?


300300

Good Research Questions

Is your research question clear?

research questions must be as clear as possible to offer

direction

Is your research question focused?

Is your research question complex?

Research questions should not be answerable with a

simple “yes” or “no” or by easily-found facts. They

should, instead, require both research and analysis on

the part of the researcher.

Retrieved online from the George Mason University Writing Centre

http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/resources-template.php?id=59



301301

Good Research Questions: CLARITY

Unclear: Why are social networking sites harmful?

Clear: How are online users experiencing or addressing

privacy issues on such social networking sites as MySpace

and Facebook?

The unclear version of this question doesn’t specify which social

networking sites or suggest what kind of harm the sites are causing. It also

assumes that this “harm” is proven and/or accepted. The clearer version

specifies sites (MySpace and Facebook), the type of harm (privacy

issues), and who the issue is harming (users). A strong research question

should never leave room for ambiguity or interpretation.





302302

Good Research Questions: FOCUS

• Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment

from global warming?

• Focused: How is glacial melting affecting penguins

in Antarctica?

• The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn’t

be adequately answered in a book. The focused version

narrows down to a specific cause (glacial melting), a specific

place (Antarctica), and a specific group that is affected

(penguins). When in doubt, make a research question as

narrow and focused as possible.





303303

Good Research Questions: COMPLEXITY

• The simple version of this question can be looked up

online and answered in a few factual sentences; it

leaves no room for analysis. The more complex

version is written in two parts; it is thought provoking

and requires both significant investigation and

evaluation.

• As a general rule of thumb, if a quick Google search can

answer a research question, it’s likely not very effective.

Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?

Appropriately Complex: What are common traits of those suffering from

diabetes in America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the

medical community in prevention of the disease?





304304

Research Objective

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES





government





citizens.


305305

Literature Review/Relevant Literature• The literature review section in a research proposal often seeks to

explain the concepts behind the research and also present a theoretical

approach to addressing the research questions. This is often difficult for

new researchers as they may not be sure of theoretical

approach/model/factors to use for the research they are yet to begin.

• As a general rule of thumb, you can use this section to introduce the

relevant literature you need to read or review for your research. Also

explain the key concepts in the research and possible factors or issues

to be explored. If a research framework has been identified you can

mention it. This is a good starting point.

• That is why it is good to categorise literature and identify the keywords

in your research.


306306

Example: Mobiles Phones and Micro-trading

This study investigates the impact of mobile phones on the micro-trading activities

of women traders in Ghana. To obtain answers to this objective, four strands of

literature will be reviewed. The first strand will explore the concept of

trading/commerce from the perspective of the transaction cost theory. Transaction

cost theory is arguably the most commonly used theory in studying issues relating

to assessment of the impact of ICTs on commerce or trade (Pare, 2003).

Transaction costs are described as “the costs of running a system” (Williamson,

1985: 19). The study will use the costs involved in micro-trading. The second and

third strands of literature will review literature on features of mobile phones and

benefits of using those mobile phones in the reducing costs of trading.

The fourth strand of literature will examine the impact of mobile phones generated

by virtue of the benefits. Mobile phones are conceptualized to have three effects

on its adopters – incremental or amplification, transformational and production

(Heeks and Jagun, 2007). These effects will be used to analyze the impact of

mobile phones on trade.


307307

Research Methodology• Identify the type of study to be carried out

– Quantitative or Qualitative or Mixed Methods study

– Unit of Analysis: Individual/households, Organizations, Industry, Country

• What research strategy will be used to conduct the study and why

were those strategies were selected?

– Case study or survey

• Where data will be collected and what methods will be used? -

Why

– Study Population

– Primary Data: Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation

– Secondary Data: Industry reports, company documents

PROPOSED


308308

Example: Gender Differences in E-banking Adoption

• The study will use a quantitative approach to study the gender

differences in the adoption of e-banking services among university

students. The study population are students in the University of

Ghana Business School. A study by Turkson (2009) found that

students enrolled in finance and accounting programmes are more

likely to adopt e-banking services. A survey will be carried out on a

sample selected from students in the third and fourth year enrolled

in finance or accounting programmes.

• A questionnaire concerning the adoption and use of e-banking

services will be administered to 150 students. The study will also

examine statistics on student banking activities from campus

banks.


309309

Significance of the Research

– Implications to research: how does it

inform research area?

– Implications to Practice (managers,

practitioners, employees, organizations

etc)

– Implications to Policy (if applicable)—

what do your findings tell government,

international community, development

agencies etc.


This section discusses the potential benefits or implications of this research study

on Future Research, Practice and Policy


310310

Example: E-banking in Rural Banks• The significance of the study can be viewed along three strands: research, practice and

policy. Concerning the research significance, this study goes beyond current research on

e-banking in rural banks by examining the strategies for implementing and integrating e-

banking technologies. Literature on strategic perspective on e-banking in rural banks is

arguably non-existent on Ghana and perhaps this spreads to the West-Africa region.

• Concerning significance to practice, the study will provide guidelines to other rural banks

on the factors which influence e-banking adoption and strategic options to address

challenges in managing and sustaining e-banking applications. This will be very helpful to

ARB Apex Bank and to rural banks in its network.

• Concerning significance to policy, the study will provide feedback on policies driving the

computerization of rural banks which is critical to the operations of financier, the

Millennium Challenge Corporation, the government of Ghana and other donors who have

interest in supporting ICT integration in rural banks. These contributions to practice and

policy will become necessary to the development of more advanced or complex

functionalities for rural banks including internet banking and mobile banking.


311311

Research Limitations

• Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot

control. They are the shortcomings, conditions or influences that

cannot be controlled by the researcher that place restrictions on

your methodology and conclusions. Any limitations that might

influence the results should be mentioned.

– your analysis

– the nature of self-reporting

– the instruments you utilized

– the sample

– time constraints

http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/develop_writing_methodology_limitations.html


312312

Research Delimitations

• Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be

mentioned. They describe the boundaries that you have set for the

study. This is the place to explain:

– the things that you are not doing (and why you have chosen not

to do them).

– the literature you will not review (and why not).

– the population you are not studying (and why not).

– the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you

will not use them).

Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might

reasonably expect you to do but that you, for clearly

explained reasons, have decided not to do.


313313

Research Limitations and Delimitations

• Points out the limitations in the research

issues which may influence the research

• Definitional concepts

– what is included and what is not

• Scope and Constraints

– which respondents will not be involved and, perhaps why

• Variables

- Which data will not be collected/studied


314314

Example: E-banking in Rural Banks• A sample size of 50 computerized RCBs will be selected out of the

97 based on proximity for ease of data collection and time

constraint for the study. The study will not cover the use of

electronic channels such as ATM, POS, mobile phone and internet

since these channels have not yet been deployed to the banks. It

will only focus on the computerization project under the mandate of

the ARB Apex Bank.

• Also there is a possibility that some of the respondents may not

return their questionnaires since it will touch on their financial and

operational performance before and after computerization.

• The study will focus more on the banks than their customers in

assessing the challenges and prospects of the project.


Research Limitations and Delimitations


315315

Project Schedule

• Activities to done

• Time required

• Time it will be finished


316316

Project Schedule


317317

Project Schedule


318318

Project Schedule

• Activities to done – Use the Chapter Outline

• Assess how much time you have

• Be Realistic

• Consider “No Show of Data”

– Time required

– Time it will be finished


319319

Chapter Outline

• Present an outline for the long essay

detailing the objective of each chapter

• Gives an indication on the number of

chapters in the dissertation


320320

Example: Use of Technology by Health Care Professionals

• The first chapter comprises; research background, research problem,

research purpose, objectives of the study, research questions, research

significance, scope and limitation of research and the chapter

synopsis/organization of research.

• Chapter two focuses on a review of relevant literature on the overview of HIS

and research framework. The third chapter entails the context of the study,

which covers the brief overview of the health care system in Ghana and the

profile of the case setting.

• Chapter four deals with the methodological approaches which highlights on

study area, source and study population, sampling techniques and sample

size, data collection instrument and method, data processing and mode of

analysis, variables and ethical considerations. Chapter five entails data

presentation, analysis, and discussion of findings. Finally, chapter six

comprises the summary, conclusions and recommendations. The references

and appendices follow this chapter.


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References1. Babbie, E.R. (2011) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –

Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA. – ISBN – 0495812242

2. Babbie, E.R. (2005) The Basics of Social Research [With CDROM and Infotrac], Wadsworth –

Thomson Publishing, Belmont, CA.

3. Burns, N. and Grove, S. (1995) Understanding nursing research. W.B. Sunders, Philadelphia.

4. Burns, N. and Grove, S. (2007) Understanding nursing research. 4th ed. New Delhi: Elsevier.

5. Foust. C.(2004) Examples of Research Problems, Southwestern Oklahoma State University,

available:http://faculty.swosu.edu/cindy.foust/share/ [accessed 17 February, 2012]

6. McMIllan (2010) Educational Research: Fundamental for the Consumer, Pearson Education, Inc.-

Companion Website for Educational Research, Available:

http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_mcmillan_edresearch_4/16/4150/1062447.cw/index.html [accessed

February, 2012]

7. Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E,

Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

8. The Writing Center (2009) How to write a research question, The Writing Center, George Mason

University, Available: http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/resources-template.php?id=59[accessed February,

2012]


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Chapter Eight (Part 2)

Conclusion and Abstract


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Objectives

• This session examines the components of

concluding chapter of a long essay or

concluding section of a journal article.

• The conclusion covers three key sub- sections:

summary of the paper and revisiting the research

model, implications (research, practice and policy)

and future research directions. Some authors prefer

to addresses these sub-sections as main sections..


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Examine the Structure of Long Essay

• Abstract








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Recap: Discussion and Analysis

In this section the author analyzes the findings or results from the

study. The analysis may require the triangulation of data from

various research methods to create, explain or predict social

phenomena. The author is required to:

1. What do the findings tell you about your research?

2. How do the findings compare with previous studies highlighted in

your literature review?

3. Are there any contradictions with previous research?

4. Why do these contradictions exist?

5. What are the key and new lessons?

6. How do the new lessons relate to the theoretical framework?


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Conclusion

The conclusion covers three key sub- sections:

1. Summary of the paper and revisiting the

research model/framework,

2. Implications to research, practice and policy and

3. Future research directions.

Some authors prefer to addresses these sub-sections

as main sections.


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Conclusion Part A – Summary

• What is the ‘takeaway’

– Summarize in few words what the study did and

what has achieved

– Revisit the research model (this can be done in

the discussion and analysis for a journal article but

for a long essay or dissertation, it can be done in

the conclusion).


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Writing the summary

1. The study set out to …

achieve/investigate/explore….

2. Using the framework

3. Findings tend to suggest that….

4. Now what is the way forward

Fair outline very good for dissertations but for

journal articles the style varies…


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Sample - Summary

• We began this dissertation with the quest of determining how

organisations can learn and transfer knowledge in and between

technology projects. To this quest we drew on theory of

meaning structures in organisations, which was extended into a

theoretical framework, the organizational learning cycle, as a

means of facilitating a transformational learning process within

technology projects and generating knowledge definable into

actions which maximise success in technology projects.

Evaluating this framework within a case study, we gained

empirical evidence to strengthen its internal validity. At this

stage we then ask ourselves, what is the way forward?


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Revisiting the research framework

• In our literature review we proposed a research

framework which suggests or proposes ……

• However, the discussion and analysis of our findings,

then to bring the following new insights and

confirmations to the earlier propositions or

hypothesis.

• First – new insight/confirmation

• Second – new insight/confirmation

• …. Last – new insight/confirmation


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Conceptual Model before Data Collection


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Revisiting the research framework


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Implications to Research, Practice and Policy

• Discuss the each of the following in a paragraph/sub-

section:

– Implications to research: how does it inform research

area? This is an extension of the discussion on the

research model.

– Implications to Practice (managers, practitioners,

employees, organizations etc)

– Implications to Policy (if applicable)—what do your findings

tell the organization, government, international community,

development agencies etc.


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Future Research Directions

• In relation to your findings, what should future

research do?

– Acknowledge the limitations of your research

– Highlight what new or future research should do

– Suggestions could be using new methods or new

unit of analysis

– Suggestions should be relevant to your topic


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References

• Reference citations should follow the style

recommended by the journal or institution (for

a dissertation or long essay)





http://tinyurl.com/harvardrefstyle


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Abstract – Writing An Abstract

• How do we write a good abstract? Emerald, the

academic journal database

(www.emeraldinsight.com), offers a set of guidelines

for authors on how to write a good abstract.

• The guidelines advise that an abstract should

summarize these key elements of the research

paper or study.


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Abstract – Writing An Abstract

What

Why

How

Whom

1. Purpose

2. Methodology

3. Findings

4. Implications – Practice,

Policy and Research

5. Originality


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Abstract – 150-250 words

PurposeWhat are the reason(s) for writing the paper or the aims of the research?

Design/methodology/approachHow are the objectives achieved? Include the main method(s) used for the research and include the paradigm. What is the approach to the topic and what is the theoretical or subject scope of the paper?

FindingsWhat was found in the course of the work? This will refer to analysis, discussion, or results.

Research implications (if applicable) What are the contributions to research? Which aspect of your work changes current research? What can researcher do with your research? What is new and how will that shape future research?

Practice and Policy implications What outcomes and implications for practice, policy, applications and consequences are identified? How will the research impact upon the business or enterprise? How is it influence policy? What changes to practice/policy should be made as a result of this research? What is the commercial or economic impact?

Originality/value What is new in the paper? State the value of the paper and to whom.


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Read through the work

1. Structure and Presentation Counts

2. Check references

3. Each paragraph presenting a key argument or statement

should have reference.

4. Don’t begin sentences with brackets –– (Danielson, 2003) argues that inflation is not affected by price of goods.

5. Know where to position your full stops– The price of goods does not affect inflation. (Danielson, 2003). In Nigeria

and Ghana inflation is now a single digit.

6. Don't put initials into your in line reference.– The price of cocoa was affected by smuggling into other countries (Mensah, J.,

2004).


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Check your paragraphs


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Marking for MBA


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Your work is going to be challenged….

Conclusion -

Does it

Matter?